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Scientific Discipline: S160 Criminology
Green criminology, ecofeminism, Criminal law, green crime, victimology
Green criminology is a special criminology branch, whose subject matter is
environmental crime and phenomena alike (green crime), whereas
ecofeminism is a socio-political movement/ideology with the fundamental
premise about the conceptual links between the oppression of nature and the
oppression of woman, but as well about the links among many other
oppressive systems. This work takes ecofeminist theory as a perspective of
green criminology, and, exploring the phenomenon of green crime within
global aspect, its etiology, as well as vicitimological data, answers the most
relevant criminological questions: Who? What? Where? When? How? and
Why?. Ecofeminist theory, as is proven in this work, represents the most
adequate perspective of green criminology, for it provides the most accurate
insights into the issues of phenomenology, etiology, and victimology of green
crime, particularly regarding the factors of this type of crime, and recognition
of, and help to, its victims. One of the primary matters herein is providing the
answer to the question of why many ecologically harmful activities are not
recognized as criminal, and what would the legislative reform be like with the
aim of recognizing, criminalizing, and preventing these activities. The
dissertation sets, too, a new scientific approach/orientation, i.e. points to the
reforms within criminological research with the objective of suppressing and
preventing of, and consciousness raising about, the phenomenon in question.
The dissertation as well provides certain pragmatical solutions and proposals,
in relation to suppression and prevention of green crime. Green crime
develops as one of the most serious transnational types of crime, so that the
study, suppression, and prevention thereof requires exactly this kind of
reformative approach.
LL.D Miomira Kosti, professor, University of Niš, Faculty of Law

, .

, .
, ,
, . .
,
. .
, ,
(Prof. Dr Jeremy Sarkin)
.

Jeremy Sarkin.
, . . .
, , , ,
, .
:
2.1.2. .......................................................... 28
2.1.2.1. ............................................................ 28
2.1.2.2. ......................................................... 34
2.1.2.2.1. ........................................................ 35
2.1.2.2.2. ..................................................... 57
2.1.2.2.3. ...................................................... 63
2.1.3. ................................................................... 70
2.1.3.1. ........................ 71
2.1.3.2. ............. 85
2.1.3.3. „“ ................................................................................ 87
................................................................................................................... 106
3.1. ........................................................................................................ 107
3.1.2. - ... 108
3.1.3. ............................................................. 116
................................................................................................................... 143
4.1.3.1. ......... 151
4.1.3.2. .................................................... 154
4.1.4. ............ 159
4.1.5. .................... 178
4.1.6. :

................................................................................................... 187
4.1.6.4. :
.................................................................................................................................. 254
........................................................................................................................ 263
4.1.7.4. ........................................... 277
4.1.8.
........................................................................................................... 286
................................................................................... 374
.“
De Beauvoir, 1953: 674
, :
, ;
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!“
Nietzsche, 2002: 153
1

„... ...
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the Greenpeace International1, Bao Jingyan,
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, , Mike Lynch, The Greening of
Criminology: A Perspective on the 1990s The Critical Criminologist 1990.
(South & White, 2013: 6, 8). ,
, Garry Potter, Mary Clifford, Nigel South, Angus Nurse, Vincenzo Ruggiero
( ), Avi Brisman, Paul Stretesky (), Rob White (),
(Cao Ngoc & Wyatt, 2013: 3; Lynch & Stretesky, 2014: 3). ,
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White, 2013: 9),
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2014: 2).
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& Stretesky, 2014: 71).

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Schnaiberg) – ,
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2013: 233). , ,
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, .
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(theriocid) – (Wyatt et
16
al, 2014: 3).
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,
„ “ (nonspeciesist criminology) (Fitzgerald et al, 2009: 162).
.

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– „ “ (White & South, 2013: 4)
„ “ (Natali, 2016: 1) (South, 2014: 8).
, „ “ (White, 2008:
14).
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, „-“ (Nurse, 2014: 5; Ruggiero & South,
2013a: 360) , , ,
(environmental justice) (
3, 4 - 5),
(ecological justice/species justice) (Nurse, 2014: 5;
White, 2013: 20). Lynch Stretesky
– ,
- - ,
„“ (green) (Lynch & Stretesky, 2003: 222, 223).
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(White, 2013: 20; White, 2008: 15). White, ,
„ ,
3 ,
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,
(Lynch & Stretesky, 2003: 223). 5 - (Red-green movement/s)
(Lynch & Stretesky, 2003: 224).
17
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2013: 20). , „
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(Sollund, 2013: 85).
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(environmental justice) -

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(animal justice/species justice),
(Hall, 2011: 376).
, (Rob White)
(White, 2008: 15), Sollund
.
(Sollund, 2013: 85). ,
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.
White,
6 - (White, 2008: 14).
18
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(non-human animals) (White, 2008b: 2).
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: , ,
. (White & Heckenberg, 2014: 17).
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, : ,
(Bisschop, 2010: 352; Halsey, 2004: 835, 837, 840).

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(Bisschop, 2010: 352).
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(Bisschop, 2010: 352, 353).
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(Bisschop, 2010: 353).
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(White & Heckenberg, 2014: 18-20).
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,
, Lynch Stretsky (White & Heckenberg, 2014:
18).
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, White (White &
Heckenberg, 2014: 18; South, 2014: 8).

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Gibbs (White & Heckenberg, 2014: 18, 19; South, 2014: 8).
,
19
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(Gibbs
et al, 2009: 8).
: ) ( )
; ) ; )
(Gibbs et al, 2009: 11).

,
,
, Welsmith (White & Heckenberg, 2014: 19).

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,
, Brisman,
„ “, „“ „“ (White
& Heckenberg, 2014: 19).
criminoogy) ,
,
,
, (lifestyle)
, Beirne (White & Heckenberg, 2014: 19-20; South,
2014: 9; Fitzgerald et al, 2009: 162).
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(Lynch et al, 2015a: 137). -

(Lynch et al, 2015a: 137).
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20
Brisman
, :
1) ,
;
2) ,
„“ ;
3) , ,
(Brisman et al, 2014: 480).
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(Voulvouli, 2013: 36).
, ,
(Voulvouli,
2013: 36).
(Voulvouli, 2013: 36, 38).
Natali, , (A Visual
Approach for Green Criminology),
– , (Natali, 2016:
17). ,
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(Natali, 2016: 17). ,
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“ (Natali, 2016: 17). ,
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(Natali, 2016: 17).
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22

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(Eman et al, 2009: 588).
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al, 2009: 11, 14, 15).

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1)
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23
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criminology) (White, 2013: 29).
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(White, 2013: 29).
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. (White, 2013: 23).

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Zahn (South &
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, ,
(Lynch et al, 2013: 998).
24

,
(
) (
). ,

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, ,
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2013a: 361). , „ “
(Ruggiero & South, 2013a: 361), -

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25
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(Hall, 2014: 96).
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„ “ ,

(Lynch & Stretesky, 2014: 67, 79).8


(Lynch & Stretesky, 2014: 79; Eman et al, 2009: 577; Gibbs et al, 2009, 2). ,
,
, ,
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.
Eman ( –
)
(Eman et al, 2009: 576,
577).9
“ (Ignjatovi, 2015: 217);
,
(South & White, 2013: 9).
White „“
,

8 (green chemistry), ,
(Lynch & Stretesky, 2014: 66, 67). - , ,
(Lynch & Stretesky, 2014: 60). 9 , ,

, - Ray Jeffery –
(Eman
et al, 2009: 577).
26
(White, 2013: 17).
, ,
(White, 2008: 8).
, Natali

(Natali, 2016: 1).
Ruggiero South „
,
, ,
(, (non-human) ) “
(Ruggiero & South, 2013a: 360).
South
, „“:
1) (
, );
2) - (
, );
3) (
; ;
, );
4) (
, horizon-scanning, ) (South,
2014: 12).
:
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27
,


.“ (Potter, n. d.)10
, ,
. ,
,
.
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)
(
), , ,
, , e, ,
.
, ,
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.
10 Dr Gary R. Potter, London South Bank University, UK, What is Green Criminology?,
: http://greencriminology.org/about-green-criminology/.
,
,
.
, –
? ?
, , ?.
,
,
,

, .
,
,
,
.
2.1.2.1.

,
, ,
, -
.
, ?
,
.
, (Pemberton, 2014:
67). , ,
; , ;
, ; .
29
(White & Heckenberg, 2014: 22).
. ,
,
, .
,
(Brisman & South, 2013b: 57). ,

. , Lynch Stretesky
- – (World
Resources Institute), Audubon (National Audubon Society),
(Conservation International),
(World Wildlife Fund) (National
Wildlife Federation) - ,
– Waste Management, Cargill, Chevron, Dow, DuPont, Motorola,
Ford Scott Paper (Lynch & Stretesky, 2003: 220). ,
,
(Kramer, 2014: 32).
„“, ,
(
),
, , ,
„“ (Lynch & Stretesky, 2003: 220).
„greenwashing“ (Lynch & Stretesky, 2003: 221).
Greenwashing, , - eco-friendly
, , , o
(Bowen, 2014: 3). Greenwashing,

, ,
(White & Heckenberg, 2014:
22; Kramer, 2014: 33).
,
30
, (Pemberton, 2014:
88). , .
, ,
, . .
, , , ,
, ,
(Wyatt et al, 2014: 3). , ,
, ,

(Wyatt et al, 2014: 3).



(Wyatt et al, 2014: 3).
, ,
White South, – ,
(White & South, 2013: 24).
, , ,
(White & Heckenberg, 2014: 22).
.
.
,
. ,
,
(White & South, 2013: 30). , ,
, , „
,
“ (White & Heckenberg, 2014: 11).
,
(White & South, 2013:
30).
, ,
,
31
(White & South, 2013: 30).
, , -
(state-corporate crime), „
“ (Kramer, 2014: 25).
, ,
,
(Bisschop, 2010: 351).

,
,
(White & South, 2013: 25, 29). , ,
, ,
- ,
(Potter,
2014: 10).
,
,
„ “:
1) ( );
2) ( ,
, „“);
3) ( );
4) ( );
5) „“ () (White & South, 2013: 29).

, „ ,
, “ (White & South, 2013:
29). ,
,
–
(White & South, 2013: 29). Kramer , ,

„ “
(Kramer, 2014: 23). ,
32
„ , ,
“, ,
(state-corporate
crimes) (Kramer, 2014: 23).
,
(ecocide) ( p
) (White & South, 2013: 30; White & Heckenberg, 2014: 12). , ,
„ , ,
,
„“ (inhabitants) “ (Higgins et al, 2013).11
,
, ,
(Pemberton, 2014: 88). ,


(Pemberton, 2014: 88).
, .
. ,

12 . 40% 60
/
(Nellemann et al, 2016: 67).
UNEP – (United Nations Environment
Programme)
1999. , , , ,
, ,
, ,
(Bruch et al, 2009: 4).

11 Higgins – –
(Higgins et al, 2013). . 12 1949.
55
, (Protocol I, 1977: article
55; . 28).
33
,
, , ,
(Dinstein, 2001: 523, 524).
, Brisman South
, ,
,
(Brisman & South, 2013b:
61).13
.
„ “ (White, 2013: 18). ,

, ,
, ,
(Banks et al, 2008: 2). ,

(Mégret, 2010: 4).
,

, „“
(Banks et al, 2008: 2).
(wildlife trafficking),
, , (Wilson-Wilde, 2014:
221). ,
, (Wilson-Wilde, 2014: 221).

- , 98%
, ,
,
(Nellemann et al, 2016: 68).
,
,
.
13 , . 193-194.
34
, (White, 2008b:
1; Voulvouli, 2013: 36).
, , , ,
.
, , ,
, ,
.
„“ , ,
, (
), (Garry Potter)
, ,
, , ,
( –
) (Potter, 2014: 11).
,
(Potter, 2014: 11),
,
.
,
,
.
, ,
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( ) ,
,
.
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.
,
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35
,
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.
,
,
, , ,
,
„“ „“ .
, ,
:
, (
„“ „“ ); „“
( ); -
.
, ()

,
(Hayman & Brack, 2002: 5).
, , ,
, ,
(White, 2008a: 133).
, ,
(United Nations Environmental
Programme – UNEP),
(UN Interregional Crime and Justice Research Institute), G8 (The Group of 8)14,
, :
14 , , , , , , , ,
(
) : http://www.g8.co.uk/members-of-the-g8/.
(1973) –
;15
depleting supstances – ODP),
(1987);16
3) ,
(1989);17
4) , ,

(regional fisheries management organizations (RFMOs));
5) , ,
, (
,
) (Hayman & Brack,
2002: 5; Banks et al, 2008).


,

, (Haenlein & Smith, 2016: 1).
18
,
(Haenlein & Smith, 2016: 1).
15 UN Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) (1973);
https://www.cites.org/eng/disc/text.php. 16 Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer (1987);
https://treaties.un.org/doc/Publication/UNTS/Volume%201522/volume-1522-I-26369-English.pdf. 17 Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movement of Hazardous Wastes and Other Wastes and
their Disposal (1989); http://www.basel.int/Portals/4/Basel%20Convention/docs/text/BaselConventionText-
e.pdf. 18 , ,
- poaching, (Hill, 2015: 191).
, poaching , ,
, . ,
, –
( ) (Hill, 2015: 191). ,
(Hill, 2015: 191).
, ,

, (Haenlein & Smith, 2016: 1;
UNODC, 2016: 13).
164.000 120 (UNODC, 2016: 13).
, , ,
, ,
(UNODC, 2016: 10).19

, , (Cao Ngoc & Wyatt,
2013: 2).20
,

,
(Haenlein & Smith, 2016: 5). ,
35.000 ,
(UNODC, 2016: 13).

, (Wilson-
Wilde, 2014: 221; Hayman & Brack, 2002: 6; UNODC, 2016: 14; Banks et al, 2008: 10;
Sollund, 2013: 72). , ,
, (UNODC, 2016:
14). ,
(Wilson-Wilde, 2014: 221).
( ),
,21
, (Banks et
al, 2008: 10, 11).22 , ,
19 1., . 306. 20 6., . 311. 21 5., . 310. 22 , ,

(Banks et al, 2008: 11).
38
, , ,
,24 2005. 2013.
,
(UNODC, 2016: 16, 20). , , ,
,
(Wilson-
Wilde, 2014: 221). , –

– (Wilson-Wilde, 2014:
221). 90%
(Wilson-Wilde, 2014: 221).

,
, ,
(Banks et al, 2008: 10).
, ,
, ,
, ,
,
(Hayman & Brack, 2002: 7).25
, , (Wilson-Wilde, 2014:
221). , – - (Hayman &
Brack, 2002: 8).
Nurse, ,
(wildlife crime), :
, , , (
), , ,
23 7., . 312. 24 2., . 306-307. 25 ,
, , ;
,
(Haenlein & Smith, 2016: 7, 8).
39
, ,
, ,
,
(Nurse, 2011: 39). Nurse
:
1) : ,
;
2) :
, , ,
, ;
3) :
, ,
, - ;
4) : ,
,
(Nurse, 2013: 130, 131).
Nurse ,
. , ,

(Nurse, 2013: 140).

6 20
, ,
5 160
(Sollund, 2013: 73). 900.000
, ,
, (UNODC, 2016: 10).
,
,
,
,
„“ (UNODC, 2016: 10). , ,
, : ,
, ,
40

, , ,

, (UNODC, 2016: 19).
, ,
, „“
(UNODC, 2016: 10). ,

(UNODC, 2016: 10). ,

: , 10
10.000
(UNODC, 2016: 20).
, Sollund

(Sollund, 2013: 73). ,

(Sollund, 2013: 73). ,
, ,
, ,
.

(ozone-depleting
supstances – ODP) .26 ,
(chlorofluorocarbons - CFCs)
(HCFCs) , ,
, ,
(Banks et al, 2008: 1, 14).

,
,
26 Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer (1987);
( ,
) (Banks et al, 2008: 15).
1995. ,

(Banks et al, 2008: 15).

, .


,
,
, ,
, ,
(Westerhuis, 2013: 198, 199). ,
,
(Westerhuis, 2013: 199).

, , ,

, (White, 2008b: 5).
, :
;
, , ,
;
„“ ; -

;
;
(White & Heckenberg, 2014: 14, 15).

,
42
,
.
, ,
,
(regional
fisheries management organizations (RFMOs)) (Hayman & Brack, 2002: 5; Banks et al,
2008).


, ( )
, a :
(International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas – ICCAT);
(Western and Central Pacific Fisheries
Commission – WCPFC); (General Fisheries
Commission for the Mediterranean – GFCM);
(North Atlantic Salmon Conservation Organization – NASCO);
(Convention on Conservation of Antrarctic
Marine Living Resources – CCAMLR), .27

, ,
(2008).28 ,
, ,

,
,
, (UNODC, 2016: 85).
, White ,
– , ,
27 : European Commision, Fisheries, Regional Fisheries Management Organizations:
https://ec.europa.eu/fisheries/cfp/international/rfmo_en. 28 Council Regulation establishing a Community system to prevent, deter and eliminate illegal, unreported or
unregulated fishing (2008): http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-
content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:32008R1005&from=EN.
„“ ,
(White, 2008b: 3).29 White ,
, :
1) , , .
, ;
2) , ,
;
3) , ,
, ;
4) (large-scale) ,
, ;
5) ,
(White, 2008b: 3).
,
– ,
, ,
,
,
. (White, 2008b: 3).
White
, , :
?:
) (, ,

) (, ,
).
, ,
(, , )
(, , , , ),
( ,
29 1., . 307., 3. 4., . 309.
, 2., . 308.
44
2008a: 25).
(, ,
), ,
,
,
(Hayman & Brack, 2002: 5; Banks et al, 2008). ,

(Green et al, 2007:
94).30
,
, ,
,
(greenhouse gas)
(Banks et al, 2008: 1; Higgins et al, 2013; Green et al, 2007: 95).31
,
(Stewart,
2014: 239). ( ) - ,
, (Solinge, 2010: 266; Green et al, 2007: 95).
, 6% ,
50% (Solinge, 2008: 31).
, 15-30%
(Stewart, 2014: 237). ,

(victimless
crime) (Stewart, 2014: 238).

30
(Akuntsu) ,
, ,
(Westerhuis, 2013: 199; Solinge, 2010: 264). Jo
(Awá),
(Higgins et al, 2013).
, . 209, 210. 31 8. 9., . 313.
45
– ,
(Banks et al, 2008: 2, 6; Solinge,
2010: 265).
,
15 ,
, ,
, (Banks et al, 2008: 2, 6, 7; Stewart, 2014: 237). ,
,

(Banks et al, 2008: 6; Stewart, 2014: 237). ,
, , ,
, ,
(Banks et al, 2008: 6; Stewart, 2014: 239).32

, – 5. 2012. –
,
(Interpol’s Environmental Crime Programme)
(United Nations Environment Programme – UNEP), LEAF
(Law Enforcement Assistance for Forests), „“
(Stewart, 2014: 237).

(Stewart, 2014: 237).
, ,
,
,
.
32 ( -) ,
, ,
(Hayman & Brack, 2002: 8; Green et al, 2007: 96, 98). –
(Hayman & Brack, 2002: 33; Green et al, 2007: 96).
(White, 2008a: 172; Green et al, 2007: 96).

Adelin Lis, 2007.
, (White, 2008a: 270).
, . 201-202.
46
,
, ,
-
.

,

,
. Higgins , South,
:
1) ; 2) ; 3) ; 4)
(non-human species) (Higgins et al, 2013; South,
2008: 190-193). ,
.33
,
(Higgins et al, 2013).
1992. 2016. 26.1% (Ripple et al, 2017: 1027).
2010.
BP Deepwater Horizon, ,
,
(Higgins et al, 2013).34
,
(Higgins et al, 2013).
, ,

(Higgins et al, 2013).
,
( ) ,
(Banks et al, 2008: 3; Higgins et al, 2013).
,
33 11. 12., . 315. 316. 34 . 220, 221.
47
,

.
, ,
,
, , ,
;

, , ,
,
(Brisman et al, 2014: 489).
,
, - , .
,
( ),
2,
(Wellesley et al,
2015). , 15% ,
, ,
(Wellesley et al, 2015).

:
20 20
, ,
;

(Ranganathan & Waite, 2016). ,
, , ,
– (global water footprint)
(Ranganathan & Waite, 2016).
, ,
„“ ,
. (Ranganathan & Waite, 2016),
, , , ,
48
.
,

.
,
, 80% 2006. 2050. (
95%) (Ranganathan & Waite, 2016).

,
(Ranganathan & Waite, 2016).
, ,
(Ranganathan &
Waite, 2016).
, , ,
(greenhouse gas),
-
(Davies, 2014: 7).35
(ODSs),

,
, : , , , ,
,36
,
, (Banks et al, 2014: 3, 5; Lynch & Stretesky, 2014:
15, 25).
, 1988.
, .
27 11. 2017. (Mersmann & Stein,
2017). , ,

35 -, - 13-22., . 317-
322. 23-26, . 322-324. 36 28. 29., . 326.
49
(Mersmann & Stein, 2017). 2017.
136 (
0.01 32
, . 0 ,
) (Mersmann & Stein, 2017).
, , ,
250 350
(Mersmann & Stein, 2017).
, 2017.

(Mersmann & Stein, 2017).37 ,
(
)
(Mersmann & Stein, 2017).

(Mersmann & Stein, 2017). ,
,
(Mersmann & Stein, 2017).
, ,
, , .
,
. , ,

, ,

,
(Doerr & Santin, 2016: 7).38

, ,
,
, , ,
37 27., . 325. 38 10., . 314.
50
- „“ –
„ :
“ (UNDP, 2007: 2).

, , ,
(state-corporate crime) (Kramer,
2014: 23, 27). ,
, ,

.

,
-
,
-
.
, , – -
(White & South, 2013: 16, 17).
Berat, – -
,
(Berat, 1993, Solinge, 2008: 26). ,
(Janez
Pear), 1981.
, , ,
(Eman et al, 2009: 578).
„ ,
, ,
„“ (inhabitants) “
(Higgins et al, 2013).
2010.
51
(Polly Higgins)39
(United Nations Law Commission),
(Higgins et al, 2013; Kramer, 2014: 24). , Brisman South
,
,
„“ (inhabitants) (humans),
„ “,
, (Brisman & South, 2013: 38).
, Higgins –
( , )
(Higgins et al, 2013),
, ,
. ,
.
1995. Gray ,
, ,
-
, ,
(Gray, 1995: 216, 218). ,
, ,
(Gray, 1995: 217,
218).
, ,
,
(Hall, 2013: 235). , 2010.
(International Academy of
Environmental Sciences) ,
(Committee on the Environment, Public Health and Food
Safety) (IAES, 2010), ,
.
, ,
( ,
39 http://pollyhiggins.com/.
)
, (White & South, 2013:
15). , ,
(White & South, 2013: 20, 28).
, „ “,
,
(White & South, 2013: 16, 30; White & Heckenberg, 2014: 12).
,
–
– (White & South,
2013: 25). Gray ,
,
,
(Gray, 1995: 219).
, (Ruggiero &
South, 2013b: 17; Gray, 1995: 221), ,
,
,
(Gray,
1995: 221).
( ,
) (Higgins et al, 2013), , ,
.40
„“ –
„“

(White, 2008a: 98). ,
, .

40 ,
: , , , , ,
, , (Higgins et al,
2013).
53
–
(Wilson-Wilde, 2014: 221). ,
, ,
() ,
(Wilson-Wilde, 2014: 221; Carrabine et al, 2009: 192, 390).
, ,
(White, 2008a: 157).41
, ,
(New Zeland’s Royal Commission on
Genetic Modification)
:
;
3)
;
(White, 2008a: 159).
,
, (White, 2008a: 159,
160).
, (Gray
& Hinch, 2015: 108).
,
,
,
(White, 2008a: 159, 160; Gray & Hinch,
2015: 98; White & South, 2013: 2; Hilbeck et al, 2015: 2, 6).
41 South 1986. ,
Ayahuasca,
(South, 2007: 239, White, 2008a: 157).
. 216.
54
,
, ,
. , ,
,
,
.
, ,
,
,
, ,
(White, 2013: 21), , , ,
, .
, ,
,
,
,
.

(speciesist criminology), (species
justice),
,
,
,
(Wyatt et al, 2013:
4; White, 2013: 25). ,
, , ,

(Sollund, 2008a: 4).
, ,
; ,

55
, (Wyatt et al, 2013: 6, 7;
White, 2013: 20; Goyes, 2015: 180). ,
, ,
, ,
(White, 2013: 26).

, , , ,

(Pemberton, 2014: 69), ,
(Sollund, 2008a: 4).
Goyes, ,
„ , ,
,
“ (Goyes, 2015: 170). „ “
,
, , –
(Goyes, 2015: 170; Cohen, 2001: 1).
,
, ,
, ,
,
; , , :
, , , , ,
, Beirne –
(theriocide) (Beirne, 2014: 55).

: , , , ...,
„
, (non-human)
,
(non-human)“ (Svärd, 2008: 168).
,
(Lynch & Stretesky, 2014:
94).
56
(University of
Tromsø, The Arctic University of Norway) Sollund:
„... .
.
.
. ,
. ,
, ,
.
.“ (Sollund, 2008b: 114).

.
, ,

( 240
4000 ,
) (Sollund, 2008b: 115). ,

, ,
-
(Sollund, 2008b: 115).
,
,
(the Sinclair hypothesis)

(Fitzgerald, 2009: 159).42

, . animal freeze killing (Green, 2002: 5, 6).43
42 Upton Sinclair The Jungle 1905. (Fitzgerald,
2009: 158). 43 Green freeze killing - , ,
, (freeze – . )
– ,
57
, , ,44
, (
),
,
(Green, 2002: 8, 9).
2.1.2.2.2.
, ,
,
(Carrabine et al, 2009: 394), .
, , , ,
(Higgins
et al, 2013).
,
,
.

, Potter ,
:
1)
(
, , „“
);
2) ;
3) ( ,

);
4) (
,
, ,
(Green, 2002: 9). ,
, , (Green, 2002: 10). 44 ,
,
(Walton, 2001: 19, Green, 2002: 8, 9).
58
, ,
) (Potter, 2014: 10, 11).


, , ,
,
,
: - . ,
,
; ; .
-

, . ,
( )
,
(Ruggiero,
2015: 82).

.
(White & South, 2013: 25). White South
,
, : , ,
„“ („dirty“) ;
; ;
(open-cut mining),
-
(White & South, 2013: 27). , ,
1998. ,
, -, .45
,
45 Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, 1998, p. 2;

, ,
, (Walters & Martin, 2014: 123, 124).
Global Carbon Atlas 2016. ,
- (MtCO2 –
) , , , , , , , ,
, 216 64.
45 MtCO2 (Global Carbon Atlas, 2017a).
, ,
, ,
,
, , ,
(White & South, 2013: 31).
,
(paradoxical harm),

(
; ,
; -,
.) (White & South, 2013: 25).

, :
1) ( );
2) () ( –
);
);
4) (
);
5) () (White & South, 2013: 29).

, ,
,
,
60
(Long et al, 2014: 266). ,
, ,
(Long et al, 2014: 266).
,
, , .
, ,
,
, (Ruggiero,
2015: 91). Brisman South ,
„ “
„ “ „ “
(Brisman & South, 2015: 31).
, ,
(Ruggiero, 2015:
82).
, , Ruggiero
, (Ruggiero, 2015:
82).
, ,
,
,
, ,
(Potter, 2014: 10).
,
– .

ketlling ,
,
, (Potter,
2014: 10).

1985. ,
61
Greenpeace
, (Carrabine et al,
2009: 394).46 , ,
,
,
(Carrabine et al, 2009: 395).
Poulos Haddad
: 175
, 37%
; 56%
;
J -
(Poulos Haddad, 2016: 1).
Global Witness, 2010. 2015.
109 ,

, (Global Witness Annual
Review 2015, 2016: 27).
(Berta Cáceres), ,

(COPINH - Civic Council of Popular Indigenous Organisations
of Honduras) (Global Witness Annual Review 2015, 2016: 27). Berta Cáceres
Agua Zarca 2. 2016. ,
, , (Global Witness
Annual Review 2015, 2016: 27).47
(Bajo Aguan Valley), 2010. 2011. , 23
(Euroactiv, 2011,
Walters & Martin, 2014: 101).

, ,
(International Federation of Human Rights, 2011,
Walters & Martin, 2014: 101).
46 . 252-254. 47 . 211-212.
62
,
2016. ,
Amnesty International „“ (no-go zone)
(Amnesty International, 2016).
, Amnesty International

(Amnesty International, 2016b).
a
. , 1998.
,
(Barlow, 2008: 102-106, McClanahan, 2014: 403, 404).48

, ,
,
,
.
49
, , ,
,
, (Potter, 2014: 11).
,
,

– , , ,
48 . 213-214. 49 , ,

, , .
, ,
.
– –
, .
,

. , , , .
63
(Potter, 2014: 11).

(Potter, 2014: 11).

(Puerto Maldonado) 2012. ,
( , ,
, ,
) (Potter, 2014: 11).
, ,
(Potter, 2014: 11).
, 2011. ,

– ,
50%
, 20%,
, (The
San Diego Union Tribune, 2011).
2.1.2.2.3.

, , ,
(Potter, 2014: 11). Potter, ,
:
1) (
, );
2) (
, , );
3) ( ,
, ,
);
( ,
.) (Potter, 2014: 12-16).
,
64
/ .

(
),
. , ,
,
.
? ,
,

(Hall, 2013: 229).
, ,
,
, ,
,
(Hall, 2013: 229).
, ,
, , , ,
(Hall, 2013: 229).

,
(Hall, 2013: 229). ,

(, , ),

,
( ),
.
, , , ,
Potter – ( )
(Potter, 2014: 12).
65
, ,
, ,

(Potter, 2014: 12).
, ,
, : ,
; ,
; ,
,
, , , ,
(Potter, 2014: 12).
.
Rio Tinto,
Bougainville ,
,
, ,
(Williams, 1996, Potter, 2014: 12).
, (Ogoniland),
Shell
(Williams, 1996, Potter, 2014: 12).50
, , ,
,
, ,
, , . .
,
,
.


Riverside 1985. Animal Liberation Front,
Britches, ,
50 Ogoni . 196-197;
. 204-206.
66
(Best & Nocella II, 2004: 22).51
,

,
(Thomas Gennarelli),
,
(Singer, 1985, 10).52


, -
( , eco-tage) - (Potter, 2014: 13).
(Allana Beltran) 2007. ,
,
(White, 2008a: 205). ,
(Worley 2007: 7,
White, 2008a: 205).53
,
, , () (
),
(Potter, 2014: 13; White, 2008a: 252). , ,
„ “ (White, 2008a:
252).

, ,
, ,
a (Potter, 2014: 13).
, , (Potter, 2014: 13).

, ,
51 . 222. 52 . 223-224. 53 . 250.
67
(Potter, 2014: 13).
,
, , ,
, (South, 2008: 190).
.
, ,
,
, , (Potter, 2014:
13).
; , , ,
, 2050. :
, ; 200
„“ „“ ,
; ;

(South, 2008: 190).

, ,

,
, :
,
Yacyretá (Kane, 2012,
Potter, 2014: 13); „ “ ,

(Brook, 1998, Potter, 2014: 13);
1994. ,
,
(Potter, 2014: 13).
,
,
,
,
.
68

. .

,
, ,
(Potter, 2014: 14).
,
, ,
(Potter, 2014: 14).
(South, 2008: 190).

,
, ,

4%, 14% (Hsiang et
al. 2013, Potter, 2014: 14). ,
2 4 2050. ,
,
(Hsiang et al. 2013, Potter, 2014: 14).
,
,
a

, ,
(Potter, 2014: 14). ,
,
, (Potter, 2014:
14).
.
,

(Lynch & Stretesky, 2014: 103).
69
,
,
(Lynch & Stretesky, 2014: 104).
,
–
( ) , , ,
; –
(Lynch &
Stretesky, 2014: 55).




/ , (Potter, 2014: 14).
, ,
, : , ,
, ,
, ,
, (Potter,
2014: 14).

, ,
, , ,
,
(, ),
( ,
; ;
, .).
2.1.3.
? , ,
? ,
,
, , .

, .


. ,
.

, .
,
, .
.
.
, ,
,
, ,
,
, .
.

: , ,
; , - ,
; ,
, ,
, .;
,
.
71
.
()
1830. ,
,
(Sutherland & Cressey, 1978: 57). ,
,


(Sutherland & Cressey,
1978: 57).
, ? ,
, ,
,
,
,
,
,
( , )
.
,
, ,
, , .

( ,
, -, )
, (
,
- ,
),
72
(Brown at
el, 2010: 236; Sutherland & Cressey, 1978: 57, 60-61).
,
,
, , ,
, , ,
; , -
,
, , ,
(Sutherland & Cressey, 1978: 61).
. Brown,
Esbensen Geis
: ,
(Brown et al, 2010: 235),
, .
,
. - Durkheim
, ,
Merton - ,
(Brown et al, 2010: 235).
Durkheim : „
, ,
; ,
.“ (Durkheim, 1897/2005: 206, 207).
, Durkheim . ,

, ,
, , ,
,
(Durkheim, 1897/2005: 166).
, , „
, “ (
,
) (Durkheim, 1984: 38, 39). ,
73
,
– „ ,
“ (Durkheim, 1984: 40).
,

, – , .
? – .
Merton,
, a
(Carrabine et al, 2009: 79). Merton
: , (

) ( );
(
, ,
, )
(Merton, 1968: 217). O ,
„ “,
(Merton, 1968: 164).
, Merton :
1) , (
);
2) ( ,
,
, );
3) ( ,
, );
4) , (
);
5) ( ,
) (Merton, 1968: 196, 232-233, 204-205, 208,
210).
, ,
?
74
,


. ,
, (
)
,
.
:
(Messner Rosenfeld) –
( ) ,
,
; (the
general strain theory) (Agnew) – ,
(Siegel,
2011: 207, 208).
Cloward Ohlin, ,
, ( ),
,

,
(Brown et al, 2010: 244; Siegel, 2011: 217). Cloward Ohlin
, (
,
) (Siegel, 2011: 217),

. , ,
, ,
(Brown et al,
2010: 245). , ,
, . ,
,
,
75
,
.
WorldWildlife – WWL,
:
– „“ (WWL, n.d.a).
,
( , ,

, ) (WWF, n.d.a). ,
, , ,

, (WWF,
n.d.a). ,
, (WWF, n.d.a).
, , -
, , Brown –
( - )
, . /
(Brown et al, 2010: 273, 274).
,
Gabriel Tarde,
(Tarde, 1903: 14).
,

(Akers et al, 189, 1995: 190).
, -
, Sutherland,
,
, (Sutherland & Cressey, 1978: 79, 80). ,

:
1) ;
2)
;
76
3)
;
4) , ,
, ;
5)
;
6)
, ,
; -
;
;
8)
(
, );
9) ,
, ,
-
e (Sutherland & Cressey, 1978: 80-82).
, ,
(
),

– „ ,
,
“ (Sutherland & Cressey, 1978: 82, 83).
, , ,
?
,
. ,
, ,
, .
, ,
,
77
, ,
. ,

, , ,
,
,
.
,
,

-

.
, , ,
(the differential reinforcement theory),
Asker, (
): , ( ,
),
( ( )
), (Brown et al, 2010: 282;
Siegel, 2011: 240).

,
, ,
, a Sellin,
, ,
(Brown et
al, 2010: 284, 286, 287). ,
:
,
, , ,
,
– - .
78
, -
(Brown et al, 2010: 293), a
, ,

:
1) ( ,
, ,
– );
2) / (
mala in se mala prohibita,

, ,
);
3) ( , ,
, ; ;

);
4) (
,
,
);
5) (
,
( ),
) (Matza Sykes, 1957: 667-669).

,
, ,
,
:
1) ( );
2) () ( –
);
79
);
4) (
);
5) () (White & South, 2013: 29).
(
,
),
, , Hirschi
(Siegel, 2011: 246; Brown et al, 2010: 293). Hirschi
, -
, , , ,

(Siegel, 2011: 246, 247; Brown et al, 2010: 300-302).
pe (Gottfredson), , Hirschi
,
,
,
(Brown et al, 2010: 304).
, ,

,
. ,
,
,
.
,
, ,
Lemert, ,
(Tannenbaum) .
Tannenbaum, , ,
(Brown et al,
2010: 322). , ,
. ,
,
80
,
, ,
. ,
.
Lemert, , ,
,
/ ,
(Brown et al, 2010: 323).
: „
,

, “ (Lemert, 1951; : Brown et al, 2010: 323).
,
,
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