NATURAL RESOURCE USE AND LIVELIHOOD STRATEGIES IN

DENGKE TOWNSHIP

AN AGRICULTURE, FORESTRY AND NATURAL RESOURCE BASELINE STUDY

CONDUCTED BY

ROBIN EVANS, PIA STEENDAM DE VRIES

& JOHN STUDLEY

IN

AUGUST/SEPTEMBER 1995

The Care & Share

Foundation

Registered Charity No.

1006644

47 Tynedale Rd. Loughborough

LE11 3TA UK

NATURAL RESOURCE USE AND LIVELIHOOD STRATEGIES IN DENGKE

TOWNSHIP

AN AGRICULTURE, FORESTRY AND NATURAL RESOURCE BASEL INE SURVEY

CONDUCTED BY

ROBIN EVANS1, PIA STEENDAM DE VRIES 2 & JOHN STUDLEY 3

IN

AUGUST/SEPTEMBER 1995

1 Robin Evans, 144 Herrick Road, Loughborough, Leicestershire LE11 3RW UK 2 Pia Steendam de Vries, 21 Shakespeare Court, Hoddesdon, Hertfordshire EN11 9QS UK 3 John Studley, PO Box 281, Southwest Institute for Nationalities, 4th Section, Yihuan Road, Chengdu, Sichuan P.R.China 610041

Dedicated to the

People of Dengke

Front Cover Photo : Harvesting below the Village of LongCheeke

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The editor would like to thank the following for their assistance in compiling this report :- FOC for releasing him to take part in this study. The staff of the Chinese Academy of Science, Mountain Disaster and Environment Institute, GIS centre for digitisation and mapping services. Peter Burgess-Alan of the National Remote Sensing Centre (UK) for his work on producing satellite images of the Dengke area. The World Conservation Monitoring Centre, Cambridge for supplying digital map data on the forests of Sichuan Province. The mayor and vice-magistrate of Dengke ,and their staff, for their time and patience in answering our questions. The Librarian of the Royal Geographical Society, London for articles on Kham. Peter Gunner for the loan of a GPS. Our interpreters :- Dara Jee, Dai Lily, Ang Luo & M r Lou The people of Dengke for their hospitality, kindness, and patience. Dr Mel Richardson, for making it all possible.

CHINESE UNITS

Usually in the report that follows Chinese units have been converted into metric units however in some places chinese units remain. Prices are quoted in RMB. Currency Area 13.5 RMB = 1GBP 1 mu = 0.0666 ha 15 mu = 1 ha Length Weight 1 li = 0.5 km 1 qian = 5 g 2 li = 1 km 1 liang = 50 g 1 jin = 0.5 kg 2 jin or 1 gongjin = 1 kg

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER PAGE NO.

1. INTRODUCTION 1

2. THE STUDY AREA 4

2.1 Geography 2.2 Social Structure 2.3 Culture 2.4 History

4 12 13 18

3. POLICY , PLANS & PLAYERS 26

3.1 International Conventions 3.2 The Rio "Earth" Summit 3.3 Chinese Government Policy and Plans 3.4 References to minority rights from the Chinese constitution 3.5 Luoxu (Dengke) Extensive Agricultural Project 7 year plan 3.6 Players

26 26 29 31 31 32

4. ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT 33

1 Introduction 2 Acculturation 3 Natural Resources 4 Sedentarisation 5 The market economy 6 Services 7 The subsistence economy 8 Gender roles and relations

33

34

35

5. SURVEY METHODOLOGY 36

5.1 Introduction 5.2 The survey team 5.3 The terms of reference 5.4 Survey methods 5.5 The survey schedule 5.6 The survey timetable 5.7 Analysis & Report writing 5.8 Limitations and lessons

36

37 39 40 42

6. TECHNICAL REPORTS 47

6.1 General 6.2 Agriculture 6.3 Forestry 6.4 Other

47 53 60 75

7. FUTURE INVOLVEMENT 78

7.1 Needs expressed by Luoxu (Dengke) officials 7.2 Comment and analysis 7.3 Needs expressed by village leaders and householders 7.4 Comment & analysis 7.5 Options for Future involvement

78 79 83 83 86

8. RECOMMENDATIONS 90

8.1 Core recommendations 8.2 Operational mode recommendations 8.3 Recommendations for implementors and donors

90 93 94

9. REFERENCES 96

10. APPENDICES 104

MAPS

Map 1 Sichuan Province Map 2 Ganzi Prefecture Map 3 Topographic map of Luoxu Map 4 Relief map of Luoxu Map 5 Street Plan of Dengke Town Map 6 The Forests of Sichuan Province Map 7 Land use map of Luoxu

5 6 7 8 23 62 66

TABLES

2.1 Meterological Records 2.2 Historical Development 6.1 Genderization 6.2 Gender Timeline 6.3 Division of Labour 6.4 Plantation economics 6.5 Forest areas 6.6 Estimated current volume and yield 6.7 Estimated volume & yield in 2021 6.8 Demand for forest products 6.9 Sustainable net supply of forest products.

9 19 48 49 50 69 73 73 73 73 74

PHOTOS

1-3 Dengke 4-6 Hats 7-9 Harvest 10-12 Nomads 13-15 Forestry

10 15 43 46 68

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Preamble 1.2 The Care and Share Foundation 1.3 "Project Dengke" 1.4 Executive Summary" 1.1. Preamble This base-line survey was initiated by the Care and Share Foundation (CSF) in August 1994 stemming from a meeting with Luoxu township officials in Kangding (Dartsendo). Agriculture, forestry and natural resources were identified in 1994 as areas of possible cooperation. Given the many unknowns a baseline study predicated on Rural Rapid Appraisal was suggested as the most apposite means of legitimate needs assessment. The team, of three, who complied this study represent only a small part of a larger team invited to the town of Dengke in August/September 1995 to participate in "Project Dengke 95". 1.2. The Care and Share Foundation The Care and Share Foundation was established in 1991 by Dr. Mel Richardson and colleagues Mr. John Milton Whatmore and Captain Robert Watson following their key involvement in the highly successful, humanitarian, world record breaking Hovercraft Expedition to Tibet/China in 1990. Turning their eyes to the specific needs of deprived peoples worldwide, ways and means were established to support and encourage selected projects in developing countries such as India, Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan, Tibet/China, Papua New Guinea, South America, Africa etc. The role of the CSF was fundamental in the formulating and financing of Project Dengke 95 and therefore of this Baseline study. 1.3. "Project Dengke" It was during the Hovercraft expedition of 1990 (as detailed above 1.2) that the people of Dengke first came to the attention of many in the West. During the river trials prior to the attempt to reach the navigable source of the Yangtse one of the Hovercraft sustained damage which forced the team to spend a longer period of time in Dengke than originally planned. Friendships were made with the people of Dengke and when the time came for the Hovercraft expedition to leave they left with an invitation to return in the future and to help as necessary, the team promised to return. In 1992 it became possible for a team to return to Dengke. A group of Doctors, engineers and students carried out many useful tasks and carried out field trials of innovative and appropriate technology for Loughborough University of Technology and Chengdu University of Science and Technology (Project Dengke 92). With the view to further assisting the people of Dengke a small team of key personnel visited China in July and early August 94 (Recci 94) to define, plan, and prepare for Project Dengke 95. In meetings with local officials both in Chengdu (Provincial capital) and Kangding (Prefecture capital) the following areas were identified by the local officials: medicine, healthcare, physiotherapy and optometry; science and engineering; communications; education; agriculture, forestry; tourism and geography. The "needs and aspirations of the local people" matched very closely what the proposed volunteer team had to offer. It was with these aims in mind that

1

the Project Dengke 95 was launched, this baseline survey forms just one part of a much more comprehensive aid package which during the course of 6 weeks in August/September 1995 was implemented in Dengke village. Other aspects of the Project included: health care, a health needs survey (see appendix), physiotherapy and rehabilitation of leprosy patients, optometry and cataract eye surgery; engineering, bridge construction, water supply improvements; education, teaching English and basic computer skills. 1.4 Executive Summary Dengke is situated in Northwest Sichuan, in Shiqu (Dzabchuka) County in Ganzi Tibetan Prefecture. Today in the mindset of many it represents a peripheral cul-de-sac that "modernisation" and "civilization" has by-passed. This ,in fact, belies, its historic past, its strategic importance and its valid culture and appropriate livelihood strategies. Princess Wen Chang passed through Dengke in 641 AD on her way to marry Tibetan King Song tSen. Just to the north of Dengke town, next to the Long Chee river she passed a large stone. Today this carved stone is revered by the people of Dengke as the "gateway" of Buddhism intoTibet. Dengke not only sits astride the old northern road from Sichuan to Tibet, but next to the Yangtze River, a much contested border between China and Tibet. During the Sino-tibetan war of 1950 its strategic importance was recognised by both sides. R. Ford, the British wireless operator, placed one of his radios in Dengke and the first military contact between the PLA and Tibetan forces took place in Dengke in July 1950. The battle of Dengke was technically a victory for the Tibetans, in that they forced the PLA to retreat, but it did not alter the basic military situation of the Tibetans. Much of its strategic importance is now lost due to the building of the bridge at Derge and the incorporation of Tibet into China. For hundreds of years its traditional indigenous people, of Khamba Tibetan origin, learned to live sustainably with their world. They developed appropriate pastoral and agro-pastoral strategies in concert with their subsistence needs and their environment. The 1950's brought an influx of Han chinese with very different natural resource demands, a different ideology, a different culture, and a different approach to natural resource management. The people of Dengke were gradually incorporated into the market economy and their natural resources became of market importance. Current development theory and conventions are predicated on; marrying the traditional with the modern, of recognition and respect for indigenous peoples, of locating development "ownership" with the beneficiaries, and on (environmental/socio-cultural) impact assessment. Any intervention must interface well with traditional intellectual property (bo th oral and written), with traditional resource management, and traditional environmental/socio-cultural

2

practice. Although this survey is very limited in its scope, and the numbers interviewed were insufficient to be of statistical importance, it does represent the only survey of its kind in Northwest Sichuan. It does give us some indicators for further investigation and there is some common ground between official and community needs assessment. Dengke is the lowest area of Shiqu County and in agricultural terms the most productive. At present, food shortages are reported in Dengke and much food has to be imported from Chengdu to Shiqu. It is hoped that agricultural production in Dengke can be improved to supply local and county needs. The most pressing need is for more irrigation. Dengke has fairly low rainfall but its three main rivers run all year round. A investigation of water resources and irrigation potential is required. New plantstock, bloodstock, fertilizers and pesticides should only be introduced after very careful investigation. It is important that any agricultural introduction should be sustainable, appropriate and should not cause dependency Although large scale deforestation has occurred in Ganzi Prefecture, since the 1950's, it has not occurred, recently in Dengke. There has, however been felling restrictions for "many years". Currently there is a need to both address market needs and subsistence needs. Although the forest area might be increasing the standing volume appears to be decreasing. It would appear that currently domestic demand for forest products is exceeding supply. Even with the poplar planting program, the areas involved are inadequate to address future market and domestic needs. A thorough investigation of the forest resource is required. It is very questionable given the present infrastructure and distance to major markets if perishable fruit production , or processed fruit will be economically viable. There is a need for market research. Medicinal plants play an important role for cash sale, for home consumption, for traditional tibetan doctors , and for pharmaceutical companies. The supply in not inexhaustible and a thorough investigation of the resource base should be a priority. Water resources are important for irrigation, drink ing water (not a perceived need), and for hydro-electric potential. All those interviewed recognized its importance and of the development of a supply. A thorough investigation is required. This survey has raised a large number of unknowns, major areas requiring investigation or market research . A para-government action research project is suggested as the best means of addressing these areas. Donor aid and foreign expert assistance would need to be secured to facilitate this. John Studley (Editor) Chengdu. 08-12-95 @ 13:34.

3

CHAPTER 2 THE STUDY AREA

2.1 Geography 1)Location 2)Communications 3)Geology & Soils 4)Climate 5)Natural Disasters 6)Natural Resources 7)Economy & Livelihood strategies 2.2 Social Structure 1)Population 2)Ethnic origins 3)Migration 4)Social organisation 5)Gender aspects 6)Social cohesion 2.3 Culture 1)Jewelry & Dress 2)Marriage 3)Religion 4)Burial 2.4 History 1)History of Kham 2)History of Dengke 2 THE STUDY AREA 2.1 GEOGRAPHY 1)Location Louxu Township is located in Shiqu County , in Ganzi Prefecture in Northwest Sichuan. It covers an area of about 5149.7 km2 extending 18.7 km from east to west and 27.5 km from north to south. It extends in the south to the Yangtze (Jinsha) River and in the north to the Yalong watershed that exceed 6000m in places. The township comprises three agro-ecological areas , a high-cold pastoral plateau at about 5000m, a plateau bisected by river gorges at about 4300m and a flood plane at about 3500m. The area is drained by two rivers that flow into the Yangtse, the Long Chee and Na Rong Long (or Bon Chu), these ascend far up into the hills to the north of Dengke through steep sided valleys. Forest is found along the Long Chee and Bon Chu Rivers, Pasture is located on the plateau and the crop land adjacent to the Yangtze River. 2)Communications Dengke is reached by road ,from Chengdu, in about 5 days, and has no regular bus service. The main road that links Dengke with the outside world runs parallel to the river to the east until having to climb over the foothills that descend almost vertically into the Yangtze. To the west the road leads on up the Yangtze valley and historically this was the old northern route from Sichuan to Tibet. Today most communications are conducted east down the valley. A road leads north up the

4

Map 1 - Sichuan Province Place names in Ganzi Prefecture are in Tibetan

5

Map 2 - Ganzi Prefecture Place names in Ganzi Prefecture are in Tibetan

6

Map 3 - Luoxu Township Topographic map

7

Map 4 - Relief Map of Luoxu Township (in black shading) Looking north (view angle 30o) up the Bon Chu and Long Chee Rivers

8

Long Chee river and eventually links to Shiqu (Dzabchuka) town (76km), this road passes over 5000m and is in very poor condition and is frequently impassable, the alternative route ,to the east, is 257km. An important link is also the bridge across the Yangtse near Dengke village which has strategic and trading significance. Telephone communications are also routed via Shiqu and are also unreliable, only local calls are possible. The Yangtze river to the east of Dengke is not navigable due to severe rapids between Dengke and Dege. 3)Geology & Soils Geologically the area surrounding Dengke is comprised of quartz sand, slate, limestone, basalt, and arenite and has been subject to glaciation (SPGB 1978). Generally the land rises from the river Yangtse (3500m) in the south to high mountains (5000m+) in the north. The main river valley is subjected to regular flooding and the soil is alluvial and fine sandy silt. The main crop growing area is on this flood plain and on the slightly raised flat land that forms the rest of the valley floor above the level of flooding. There were few stones in this soil. Adjacent to the valley floor there is a series of stepped terraced areas which consist of glacial and river deposits up to 200m deep. 4)Climate Dengke has, an average annual temperature of 5.6 oC, 529mm of rainfall and 2,414 hrs of sunshine a year. Details of the climate are given in Table 2.1. TABLE 2.1 DENGKE 20 year Meteorological Records (1960-80)

Temperature

Average annual temp. Average July " Average January " Mean higherst " Mean lowest " (6/3-1/11 ) 0 oC+ (11/4-16/10)5 oC (3/5-19/9) 10 oC

5.6 oC 14.5 oC -5.2 oC 14.4 oC -15 oC

250.9 days 189.3 days 109.9 days

2437.9

2228.9 oC 1493.5 oC

Sunshine

Sunshine hours July to October Yearly average % Solar radiation

2,414 hrs/yr 821.8hrs

50% 142-145 Kc/cm2

6.61 hrs per day 6.68 hrs per day

Precipitation

Annual average rainfall July average rainfall Dec --------"---------- Rainy season Pot. evapotranspiration Relative humidity Hail (average)

529mm 116mm 1.7mm

June to October 1699mm

55% 7.1 days/year

87.5% 3.2 times the rainfall

9

Photo 1 Looking south east over Dengke Town from the old drove road. The white walled compound on the left is the Chinese cemetery and memorial (See Dengke town plan)

Photo 2 Looking north up Dengke town main street

Photo 3 Tibetan architecture: ornamented wooden front with rammed earth walls

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The Weather Station in Dengke used to be located by the river at 3242m at 97o 59.12'E 32o 26.89' N until the seat of government moved to Shiqu. 5) Natural disasters. Since 1985 three earthquakes were reported (the latest one in August 1995) but they had not caused any serious damage. Flooding often occurs in the valley, close to the Yangtse river. In 1991 a bridge was damaged, in 1994 4 bridges were destroyed and the main road badly affected. Hailstorms cause damage to barley, wheat and vegetable crops every year (on average 7.1 days a year have hail), in June 1994 (28th) severe hail destroyed 1778 Mu of crops and damaged 10 homes. (Survey information) 6)Natural Resources Dengke covers 51,497 ha comprising 4,593 ha of crop land, 6,233 ha of forest and 40,671 ha of grassland, scrub and bare land. 866 ha of forest is protected. Its two main rivers the Bon Chu and the Long Chee descend over 1750m and have much potential for hydro-electric generation. There are rich solar energy resources, with an annual sunshine duration of 2,414 hours and average solar radiation of 143.5 kc/cm2. Luoxu Township is relatively rich in mineral resources. Among the proven deposits worth mining there are tin, manganese and gold. The fauna of Luoxu include six that have been listed by the State for special protection. The most important include :- the wild yak, the white-lipped deer, the argali, the black necked crane and the golden vulture. Luoxu is rich in flora ,especially medicinal herbs including :- Worm grass ( Cordyceps sinensis), Fritillary (Fritillaria thunbergii), Chinese Wolfberry (Lycium chinense), Hongjintian, Chinese rhubarb & Bezoar. Traditionally the pilose antler of a young stag, musk, leopard bone, bear gall bladder etc all had medicinal and economic importance but recently their collection has been banned. (Ang Luo 1995) 7)Economy and Livelihood Strategies The Khambas of Dengke live in a generally harsh and remote environment from which they satisfy most of their needs. Traditionally their mode of subsistence included hunting, gathering, pastoral nomadism and cultivation. Since 1950 their subsistence economy has been steadily eroded and some have been forced into the national economy as the only way of keeping their culture alive. For over 2,000 yrs the Khamba peoples have learned to live sustainably with their environment (Bjork 1992) and the nomads have developed very complex schedules to optimize use of water and grazing (Goldstein & Beall Ekvall ). Their economy was comparatively undifferentiated with the principle divisions of labour established on lines of gender and age (See Community survey). The minimum production unit was essentially a self sufficient group of families. Within their economy there was often little opportunity for individual accumulation of wealth as generosity (and hospitality) was encouraged to maintain social cohesion.

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Economic activities were a part of traditional life and were controlled through social institutions such as marriage (monogamous, polygamous and polyandrous) , kinship, clans and public rituals. 2.2 SOCIAL STRUCTURE 1)Population The Population of Luoxu Township is 10,600 and the average household size is 6.4 (Feng pers. comm. 9/95). In the light of the historical background (see 2.4) of Dengke there is a "peculiar" mix of social , ethnic and religious backgrounds. This is no single monocultural society but one that has long been the subject of the interaction of different cultures :- The Tibetan and Han Chinese most recently. About 90% of Dengke residents would claim to be Tibetan, and dress like Tibetans but there is without doubt more Chinese influence in their lives than they would perhaps like to admit. Generalizations must abound because each individual has adapted their own method and means of coping with the recent (over the last 50 years) influx of Han Chinese. The influence of the Chinese must not be restricted to those years but the Khamba people of Dengke area (with its juxtaposition to Chinese culture) have a long history of interactive relationships that have not always been one sided. 2)Ethnic origins: The people of the Dengke area are in the most part Khamba Tibetan, one of the largest groups of Tibetan people. Charles Bell (1928) describes them as "particularly fine specimens of humanity; hardy, too, and courageous" but he comments also that they do come in for some criticism from fellow Tibetans as being "fickle". They are renowned for their warrior like qualities and allegedly some trained under the supervision of the American CIA to oppose the Chinese invasion of Tibet. For a long time this Kham region (western Sichuan and Eastern Tibet, astride the Yangtse valley) has been a "disputed" area, swinging between Chinese and Tibetan domination. It is not possible to state how pure this Tibetan blood is and interbreeding between the two races has long been practiced, although most would state that they are Khamba Tibetan. Over the last 50 years there has again been increasing Chinese influence, and the distinction between the two even less clear. 3)Migration There was a major influx of Han Chinese during the Cultural revolution, and while the county offices were located in Dengke this presence remained. With the reorganizing of the counties in 1979 and the downgrading of the status of Dengke, many Chinese left. There are some in the locality who are Han Chinese, who have been brought to the area for work purposes, and others who have married into a Tibetan family and decided to remain in the area. 4)Social Organisation After 50 years of Han Chinese domination the status quo as far as society is concerned is definitely Chinese. Away from the main centres of population this influence is less noticeable and the social organization is more Tibetan. Neither Chinese or Tibetan society have the same attitude towards the family as in the

12

West. Tibetan society is focussed around the family that often includes many relatives, although usually directly related. It was previously accepted practice for one man to have at least one wife and vice versa for one woman to have at least one husband (polygamy and polyandry). It was not the experience of the survey team to encounter this directly although some of the family relationships were not clearly defined and our Western sensitivities did not allow us to ask the necessary questions that may have shed light on the situation. The number of children in a family is unrestricted apart from climate that is responsible for the majority of infant deaths. Survival in the Tibetan climate was only for the strongest. It is normal practice for at least one son to be sent to the Lamasery/Monastery so there is not always the true number of males in the family (see 2.3.3)). It is normal practice for these sons to continue to be supported by the family. Traditionally education was only provided through the monasteries and then only for the monks and selected offspring usually of high officials. 5)Gender Aspects Historically the Tibetan people have shared the responsibilities of the household with clearly demarcated roles. Generally the men would be the traders, off for long periods of time, and the women at home would be as astute in business, as any man, selling handicrafts and surplus produce. The ownership of livestock lay with the family. Normally the oldest male made most of the decisions concerning herd management, disposal of annual yield, seasonal movement and representing the family in the community. Decision making did not, however give him preferential ownership, for all members of the family had rights within their ownership (Ekvall 1968). 6)Social cohesion Cohesion and strength was maintained among the Khambas by a web of kinship groups. Family groupings enjoyed considerable local autonomy in the exercise of authority and only a shared threat brought them together with other kinship groups. Lamas and kinship leaders , however are not without influence and are still referred to today. (pers comm 5/95) A common language, culture and system of religious beliefs reinforced the identification of the individual within the group. Khamba society gained great strength and identity from the integration of economic, social, religious and political affairs. In this subsistence society of agro-pastoralists there is generally a good community spirit and at crucial times in the agricultural year the families would help one another, it is so essential to harvest at the optimum time otherwise there was likely to be a shortage of food in the lean months of March/April before it was possible to gather new growth. 2.3 CULTURE In every continent there are human groups whose ethnic characteristics, dress, cultural traditions and methods of using resources and technology distinguish them from the majority of people in the nation state. Their separateness in ethnic terms and their uncertain relations with the national society may put them at risk. The indigenous Khamba peoples of Western Sichuan share many similarities with the

13

200 million indigenous people in the world. 1)Jewelry and Dress Some Khambas ,living in towns, are adopting Western or Chinese clothing but elsewhere traditional dress is still the norm and varies considerably from place to place. Men and women often wear the chuba, a heavy cloak made from sheepskin or woolen cloth, tied at the waist with a broad cloth belt. Colorful boots are also worn. Women often ware beautiful silver hair-bands studded with turquoise, coral and amber. They can have up to 108 strands of hair plaited with colored cord. (See Migot 1955 p. 172) Plaits are either loose or wound around their heads. Brocade "sunshades" are often tucked under the plaited hair. Khamba men often ware their hair in two strands, plaited with red cord, wound around their heads. Head gear varies from Lama "lamp shades", through stetsons to fox fur hats. Khambas favour ornaments and wear pendants, necklaces, earrings, girdles, bracelets, charms, amulets, and rings made from a variety of materials such as silver, gold, coral ,amber and turquoise. A popular talisman is the gau or portable shrine which houses the image of a deity, or a mantra. These portable shrines can be found in nomad tents, monasteries ,homes or around the neck of travellers. 2)Marriage Traditionally the compatibility of a couple was assessed by an astrologer and a lama. After the marriage contract was signed, there was an official ceremony at the bridegroom's home. The bride's family would then raise prayer flags on the roof of the bridegroom's house. Among nomads parents will start looking for a bride for their son when he is about 18. An astrologer fixes the day and after a long series of visits ,and the bride has accepted a gift of a pail of milk from her mother-in-law, the marriage is concluded with a feast. Marriage may be monogamous, polygamous or polyandrous although by far the great majority of marriages are monogamous. (See Ekvall 1968 & Crook & Osmaston 1994) 3)Religion The Khambas are among the most devoutly religious of all TIbetans. The largest monasteries in Kham were established as early as the 12th century. These centres of Buddhist learning, which came to resemble fortress cities, amassing enormous wealth through trade and the gifts of the faithful. Becoming rich in land and pastoral herds, the largest monasteries in Chamdo, Batang, Ganzi & Litang rivaled in size and influence the great institutions of Lhasa. The peaceful tenets of Buddhism reach only so far into the soul of the Khambas. The reincarnate lamas or abbots of a monastery often enjoyed the patronage of the wealthiest and most ruthless of brigand chiefs (Lane 1994) The first religious practices that are associated with this area are known as "Bon". Bon was the old pre-Buddhist animistic & shamanistic religion which originated in the Shang Shung kingdom of Western Tibet. During the first centuries AD Buddhism had made various in-roads into Tibet.

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Photo 4 A Sarcha monk in the village of Lhadza. He has come home for the harvest. Note the unusual “lamp shade” hat

Photo 5 A “Stetson” and a “Mao cap”. The compound behind them used to be a school (up until 1979) and now is used as a leather factory. The river to their left is the Long Chee

Photo 6 A woman with child in the village of Ora. Note the brocade sunshade is tucked under her plaited hair

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During the reign of Songsten Gampo (7th century AD) this was reinforced by the king taking two wives ( a daughter of the Emperor of China and a Nepali princess). The daughter of the emperor came through Dengke passing a large religious stone in the Longchi river valley to the north of Dengke, now revered by the local people as the gateway of Buddhism into Tibet. Largely through their influence the King adopted Buddhism as his religion and formally established it in Tibet. The influence of Bon remained in the land. Religion was very much subjected to royal patronage and the predominant religious emphasis was determined by the King. One of the foundations of Buddhism (as with Hinduism) is the law of Karma, whereby the actions of a person in the current life will affect his future destiny, as his current situation is caused by his actions in his previous life. Thus many situations were explained away by this philosophy. To ensure that a person achieved enough merit in this life to ensure a return to a better life in the next incarnation there were many ways invented by which merit can be earned. There are many more ways in which a person can lose merit and return as a lower form of life in the next reincarnation. It is this fear that keeps the Tibetan in bondage to the spirits and gods that control their lives. Merit can be earned by sending sons to the monastery (see 2.2.4) above), supporting monasteries, paying lamas to read scriptures, the reciting of prayers (mantras), etc. A further development that makes Tibetan Buddhism different from other forms of Buddhism is the influence of Tantra, secret rites and formulas that are only available to those who "become sufficiently enlightened". There are many different tantric rituals that an initiate has to perform before he reaches such an enlightened state. For centuries the Khambas have followed their form of Buddhism which is a mixture of Bon and Indian Buddhism. The main sects of Tibetan Buddhism include :-Nyingmapa, Kagyupa, Sakyapa & Gelukpa. These sects although essentially religious, attained increasing political power. Intense rivalries often led to struggles for domination of the political field. In the 17th century, the Gelukpa sect, backed by the Mongols, assumed a dominant role in politics and effectively ruled Tibet through their leader, the Dalai Lama from 1642 until the 1950's (Strauss 1986). No other religion has made any significant impression on Tibetan life. Following the Cultural revolution large parts of the Tibetan cultural and religious heritage was destroyed and as was normal in any atheistic state religious practices were forbidden. Tibetan Buddhism continues and there is now more freedom of religion in the country and monasteries are being rebuilt. 4)Burial Burial is performed, if possible according to the advise of an astrologer who will assess which of the elements the body will return to - earth, air, fire, water or wood. Sky burial is the most common form. The body is blessed, tied up in a cloth in a sitting position, taken to a site out in the open on a mountainside and systematically cut up as food for the birds. The bones are pounded together with tsampa and this mixture is also fed to the birds. Whatever the vultures leave uneaten is buried or burned. Burial in the earth is rare and is used only if the birds will not eat a body - a very inauspicious sign. Cremation is also a rare form of burial since wood is scarce and expensive. Lamas may be cremated and their ashes placed in a chorten in their monastery. Water burial is preserved for small

16

children and paupers. A wood burial requires the corpse to be placed in a hollow tree trunk. Embalming is reserved for high lamas (See Strauss 1986 Loseries in Ramble & Brauen 1993). The very characteristics that have equipped the Khambas to survive in a harsh environment and develop viable and satisfying social and economic systems have made them vulnerable to the national society. Ecologically sound subsistence systems may not be regarded as a benefit to the national society, but rather a waste. Livelihoods based on mobility , and lacking a taxable surplus may be viewed by government as a pretext for dispossession, modernization and sedentarisation. Kinship and reciprocity may easily break down when monetary relations are established.

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2.4 HISTORY

2.4.1 The History of Kham 1 Introduction 2 The Younghusband expedition 3 The Batang Uprising 4 The foundation of Xikang 5 The Simla agreement 6 Kham-Lhasa antagonism 7 Kuomintang consolidate Xikang 8 The Beri dispute 9 Communist troops occupy Kham 10 Preparations for war 11 The Chinese invasion of Kham 12 Xikang abolished 2.4.2 The History of Dengke 2.4.1 THE HISTORY OF KHAM 1 1)Introduction The great 13th-century Mongol ruler, Kublai Khan, was not the first to realize that the conquest of central and east Asia hinged on the ability to unite the highland tribes and lead their warrior horsemen into battle. Trisong Detson (741-798 AD), the 37th ruler in a 1,000-year lineage of Tibetan kings, forged a vast empire on the Khamba broadsword. In the east he captured Xian, China's capital at that time, while to the west he pushed as far as the Pamir Range and Samarkand. When the Tibetan monarch converted to Buddhism his ambitious rule ended and his empire disintegrated. In the 1,200 years that followed, the history of Kham was marked by endless feuds between warrior chiefs in deadly competition for supremacy over Kham's remote hinterlands (Lane 1994). The feuds continued into this century with both old and new players. 2)The Youghusband Expedition British India's attempts to open relations with Tibet precipitated the British invasion of 1903-1904 and set in motion a host of conflicting and uncontrolled forces that have dominated Tibetan history up to the present day. In 1904 there seemed a real danger that Tibet could become a British protectorate as had Bhutan and Sikkim, so for the first time China made a concerted effort to bring Kham under their control. 3)The Batang Uprising In Batang in 1905 the Chinese promulgated a decree that reduced the number of monks in monasteries, they forbade the recruitment of monks for the next twenty years and presented a grant of land to the French Catholic priests. This led to a monk-led uprising 1 Although the Chinese no longer recognise the geographical area of Kham ,traditionally it spread 1,600 km west from the Sichuan Plain (Lane 1994) and the Kham-ba peoples are still found in their traditional land, irrespective of administrative boundaries.

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TABLE 2.2 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT ADJACENT TO NW NEPAL

Ganges Plains North India

Kumaon/ Indian Himalaya

Karnali NW Nepal

Kathmandu valley

Tibet

1950 1900

Indian Independence 1947Return of the Shah dynasty to power in Nepal

Tibetan annexed by PRC in 1950

1800

1700

British Raj Annexed by British (1816)

Rana family oligarchy (1846-1950)Shah dynasty controls Nepal until 1846

1600

1500

Moghal administration (1526-1859)

Conquered by Gorkha (1790)

Conquered by Gorkha in 1768

Manchu protectorate 1720-92 Rule of Dalai Lamas (1642-1950)

1400

1300

1200

1100

Delhi sultanate Muslim invasions

Rise of the Chands (Rajputs)

Petty states

Annexed by Gorkha in 1788 Jumla princedom a Baisi state (15th - 18th centuries) Immigration of Indian Rajputs Khasa malla kingdom (12th-14th centuries)

Malla period (ca 13th-18th centuries)

Religious kings (630-1642)

1000

900

800

700

600

500

Region states (7-13th centuries) Pala & Sena dynasties

Tribal periphery of Katyuri domain Immigration of Bon po Bhotias from Tibet

Licchavi Period(ca 3d-13th centuries)

Tibetan military expansion (7th-9th centuries)

400

300

200

100 AD

Classic Gupta period 4th-9th centuries Political fragmentation 2nd century BC - 3d century AD

Katyuri princedoms Katyuri kingdom under Gupta suzerainty Immigration of Khasa from northwest

Immigration of Khasa from northwest

Kirati period ca 7th century BC- 3rd century AD

Tibeto-Burman nomadic tribes e.g. Chiang

BC

1000

Mautyan Empire Buddha 563-483 Aryan expansion and civilization

Tibeto-Burmese tribal immigrations from southeast

2200 Aryan invasions from northwest

Sources Bishop 1990, Tucci 1956 ,Adhikary 1988 ,Pandey 1970 ,Campbell 1978

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during which the Chinese architect of this programme, Feng Ch'uan was murdered. In swift retaliation Sichuan (then Szechuan) provincial officials sent an army, which retook Batang and destroyed the monastery. They appointed Zhou Erh-feng to continue the work of consolidation, and he was so ruthless he earned himself the nickname of "The Butcher of Monks". Two thousand of his troops marched on Lhasa, although when the advance guard reached the city they found that the Dalai Lama had fled to India (Goldstein 1989 Holdsworth 1993). 4)The formation of Xikang Having subjugated E. Kham in 1908, Zhou unveiled a plan that was to consolidate E. Kham and central Tibet under direct Chinese administration. All the Tibetan region of Kham as far west as Giamda (150km from Lhasa) was to be consolidated into a separate province called Xikang. Before the plan could be fully implemented, however the Manchu Dynasty fell in a revolution that plunged China into chaos for the next 15 years. Britain was starting to become concerned about Chinese expansionism and threats to British interests. (See Holdsworth 1993 Lamb 1966 p. 188-89 & Teichman 1922b p.20) 5)The Simla agreement In late 1913 under considerable British pressure China agreed to join Britain and Tibet in tripartite talks in Simla (India) to settle the question of the Sino-Tibetan frontier and Tibet's political status. As a result all Chinese were expelled from Kham (1913-1919), the frontier was moved to east of Kangding and Lhasa officials were allowed to administered Kham (Goldstein 1989). 6)Kham-Lhasa antagonism In 1913 the Lhasa officials were initially welcomed to Kham as liberators. However, sizeable cultural and linguistic differences existed between the Khambas and Central Tibetans. The Lhasa officials considered the Khambas stupid and uncouth and saw their stay in Kham as an opportunity to get rich at the expense of the local population. Particularly abusive to local Khambas were the virtually unlimited use by Lhasa officials of free "corvee" (oula) transport for their personal trading ventures. This was exacerbated by the lack of access Khambas had to positions of authority and power in government. With only a few exceptions all major provincial officials were brought in from Lhasa. 7)Kuomintang consolidate Xikang The new province of Xikang was consolidated in 1928 and incorporated all the territory on Zhao's blueprint, or so Chinese cartographers would have us believe. In reality Chinese influence was very thinly distributed among a few garrison towns and protracted disputes continued to sour Sino-tibetan relations (see Holdsworth 1993). 8)The Beri dispute (1931) The dispute began when the chief of Beri seized1 the estates of the Lama of Nyarong monastery. who fled to stay in Targye monastery. The Lama and the Targye monks re-possessed Nyarong monastery. The chief of Beri ,subsequently, sought the assistance of General Liu Wen-hui ,a powerful Sichuan warlord, whose troops took control of the area. The Targye monks responded by asking Lhasa to deploy the Tibetan troops 1 This may have been orchestrated by the Chinese and possibly the Panchen Lama (Goldstein 1989)

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stationed in Kham. The government sent a force from Derge that engaged the Chinese and drove them out of Beri and most of Ganzi. These successes were short-lived. Liu Wen-hui regrouped his forces and counterattacked, and by the end of 1931 the tide had turned. By May 1932 the Tibetan forces had been driven out of Ganzi and Nyarong, and by July they had lost important areas such as Derge, which Tibet had held since 1919. Soon afterwards they were forced to pull back to the Yangtse River itself. Liu Wenhui was making ready to press further westwards when he found himself threatened from the rear. His nephew, Liu Xiang, also a warlord, was marching on Kangding in a bid for supremacy while his uncle was engaged elsewhere. Liu Wenhui had no alternative but to withdraw his troops and return to Kangding. In the aftermath of this confusing series of events an agreement was reached. On 10 October 1932, Liu and the Tibetan leaders in Kham signed a truce in which it was agreed that the Tibetan forces would remain west of the Yangtse River and the Chinese would remain east of it. The river remained the de facto border between Tibet and China until October 1950. 9)Communist troops occupy Kham In May 1936 communist troops, who had been driven out of Hunan, entered E. Kham and took most of it including Litang and Derge. This alarmed the Tibetan government who sent troops to occupy Derge. Chiang Kai-shek requested an explanation of this violation of the 1932 agreement and in December the tibetan forces withdrew to the previous boundary. 10)Preparations for War (1950) On 1 January 1950 Radio Beijing announced as part of its New Years broadcast that the PLA's tasks for 1950 included the liberation of Tibet, Taiwan and Hainan. At the time there were about 3,500 regular soldiers stationed in Kham under the leadership of Lhalu. Facing these forces in Kham were a battle-hardened and well-led unit of the PLA comprising 20,000 troops. The Khambas were ambivalent in their support for the Lhasa government. In fact an Indian intelligence report of 19431 stated that "in any clash on the Sino-Tibetan border the local Khambas will merely sit on the fence and come down on the winning side". Although Lhalu realized this and tried to improve relations he and the other Lhasa officials gradually slid back into their old ways. Realizing the fragility of Lhasa-Kham relations the Chinese communists devised an effective propaganda campaign aimed at alienating the Khambas further from the Lhasa government. Seeing this situation Lhalu informed Lhasa in 1949 that he needed new troops and automatic weapons to defend Kham against a Chinese communist attack. Lhasa responded by sending a shipment of Bren and Sten guns ,a noncommissioned officer , and Mr R.Ford, an english wireless operator. R.Ford brought three sets of wireless equipment and four operators. In February 1950 Lhalu requested Ford to send the operators to the outlying posts and two were sent to Dengo (Dengke). Situated on the main route running from Kangding to Jyekundo, Dengo was strategically important; it would be able to warn Chamdo if the Chinese tried to attack by the Jyekundo-Riwoche route (Ford 1958 37-38). Lhalu increased his military strength by conscripting a Khamba militia (from a number of places including Dengo). The Chinese communists were planning a

1 Foreign Office document 371/41587 of 23/11/1943 (Goldstein 1989)

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Blitzkrieg- like series of lightening thrusts based on the military ideas of Sun Tzu1. Six months of intensive training begun in April 1950. The soldiers were not only taught about high altitude warfare but local religion, custom and language. Thus the Chinese made an elaborate show of support for the status quo in Kham with the aim of alleviating the fears of the Khambas. The Chinese communists promised that the only change would be the elimination of heavy taxes and that the government would help to develop the area. In July 1950 the first military contact between the two forces occurred in Dengo . The Chinese objective was to remove the radio and in this they succeeded, although the battle for Dengo was technically a victory for the Tibetans (see 2.2 The History of Dengke for more details). A frontier command headquarters was established and the road between Kangding and Ganzi was completed by the end of August 1950 11)The Chinese Invasion of W. Kham (October 1950) The Chinese military force was divided into four major prongs. Speed, surprise and night attacks were employed in order to trap the Tibetan army in a pincer movement. In the north the 154th Regiment crossed the Yangtse above Dengo, bypassed the Tibetan forces at Khyungpo and were able to attack Riwoche on 15th/16th October. At Dengo Commander Mucha was initially able to block the Chinese attempts to cross the Yangtse for several days. Chinese forces were able to cross the Yangtse north of Dengo and attack Mucha's northern flank. Mucha was forced to retreat to Chamdo with his force intact. In the central zone, 200 tibetan troops were well dug-in at the Gamto Druga Yangtse river crossing. The Tibetans were able to inflict heavy casualties at the beginning, but eventually increasing numbers of Chinese crossed the river the Tibetans were forced to flee. The Chinese 157th Regiment attacked in the south on 7/8th October. After crossing the Yangtse River in force near Markham and overpowering the Tibetan outposts there they pushed towards Markham where Derge Sey surrendered his entire force of over 400 troops. Lhasa was first informed about the invasion on the morning of Thursday 12 October but this was not publicized. The first public report of the invasion of Kham was an unconfirmed broadcast from Delhi on 15 October. 12)Xikang abolished Xikang province was abolished in 1955 and the frontier lines were re-drawn, but it survives on maps of China published in Taiwan and is still represented as a province in Taiwan's National Assembly (Holdsworth 1993) 2.4.2 THE HISTORY OF DENGKE2 According to historical records there were tribes living in Dengke as early as the Western Han Dynasty (B.C. 206-24). At the end of the Sui Dynasty (58-618), the influence of the ancient Chinese regime of Tubo extended towards the Yangtze River, and Dengke was governed by them until the end of the Tang Dynasty (618--907) when the Regime collapsed and the original Tribes regained influence. 1 A contemporary of Confucias that Mao considered to be his teacher. 2 also called Dengko, Dengo (Goldstein 1989) Dainkog (Nelles Guides & Operational Navigation Chart G-8 1988), Teng-k'o (Operational Navigation Chart G-8 1973), Droma Hlakang (Teichman 1922a)and Luoxu.

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Map 5 - Town Plan of Dengke By Andrew Sneller

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It is rumored that Chinese Princess Wen chang passed through Dengke in 641 on her way to marry Tibetan King Song tsen. During the Song Dynasty (960-1279) Dengke was under the control of King Gesaer (Kesar) of Lingguo . The name "Dengke" was said to be formed during that period. King Gesaer let his Senior General Deng Ma run the Dengke area (then twice the area of present day Dengke), and it was called Dengke or Dengma County. During the first year of the Xuan Tong (1909) in the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911), the Prefecture of Dengke was established. In the third year of the Xuan Tong (1911) the Province of Xikang was set up, and Dengke County was founded. Eric Teichman (1922a), a British consular official, passed through Dengko in the early 1920's when it was on the main northern highway from Sichuan to Tibet (The southern route being via Batang). At the time a king (Jyelbo) resided in Goze (Lintsung), where there was a large Sajya monastery. Opposite Dengke was Chunkor Gomba and a ferry at Drenda was being used to get to Jyekundo. He did not use the ferry, to get to Jyekundo, but chose to go north over the Dzi La and via Shiqu. This route was favoured, by the trading caravans, in the summer, because it afforded better pasture than the Yangtze valley route. In June 1947 Andre Migot (Migot 1955 p 174-177) passed through Dengke County. He noted that the oula (corvee) system of requisitioning transport did not apply, the rate for pack animals was higher than in Ganzi and that corracles were being used to ferry people over the Yangtze at Dengke town. During the formation period of the People's Republic of China, Dengke still had County status and came under the Government of the Province of Xikang. After the establishment of the People's Republic of China, Dengke belonged to Xikang Zang (Tibetan) Nationality Autonomous Region (Ang Luo 1995). On May 22 1950 Radio Beijing called on the Tibetan government to accept the peaceful liberation of Tibet and it was in Dengke in July 1950 that the first military contact between the two forces occurred. Lhalu had placed one of his two wireless sets there since it was on the main route from Ganzi to Jyekundo. The Chinese attacked Dengke first to destroy the wireless. R.Ford the British wireless operator received the news in Chamdo "The Chinese are here". The line ,then went dead, as both the wireless and operator had been captured. Ford informed Lhalu who sent Commander Mucha with 500 troops to Dengke to asses the situation and to prevent any further Chinese penetration. Lhalu wanted to coordinate a large strike force and then attack the Chinese in Jyekundo to free the operator, retrieve the wireless set, and strike a blow at Chinese attempts to prepare for war. Lhalu's plan apparently had some substance, for several East Bank Khamba leaders such as the Queen of Derge and the Abbot of Darkye Gomba had proposed a joint attack by Tibetan and East Bank Khamba forces on the newly arrived PLA forces. Support was also anticipated from the King of Nangchen and from 500 Nationalist troops in the Jyekundo area. Events. however, did not go as planned. Local Dengke Khambas, including the monastic officials of Chokhorgon Monastery deceived Mucha about the position of the Chinese, and he fell prey to a Chinese ambush in which a number of his troops and horses were killed or wounded.

24

Mucha and Rupon Bokhangwa regrouped and attacked the Chinese from two sides. After a fierce battle at Yilung in which Bokhangwa and his son were killed, the two armies pulled back, establishing positions one day's march apart. The battle of Dengke was technically a victory for the Tibetans, in that they had pushed the Chinese back and demonstrated that they could contend with the PLA. The battle boosted Tibetan morale in Kham, but it did not alter the basic military situation of the Tibetans. On October 6th the PLA began their attack on Tibetan defensive positions in Kham. Commander Mucha managed to block Chinese attempts to cross the Yangtze at Dengke for several days. Some Chinese units managed to cross the Yangtze to the north of Dengke and attack Mucha's flank. Mucha was forced to retreat, but he managed to keep his entire fighting force intact (Goldstein 1989). In 1955 Xikang became part of Sichuan Province, and Dengke came under the authority of Ganzi Zang (Tibetan Nationality) Autonomous Prefecture. On 1 January 1979, Dengke "County" was down-graded and separated into two districts. One part joined Derge County and the other, where the Dengke County Capital was located, joined Shiqu County and became Luoxu District. In March 1993, Luoxu District changed into Luoxu township. Because of custom many people still call Luoxu town Dengke. The two are synonymous (Ang Luo 1995). In the summer of 1990 a British Hovercraft expedition used Dengke as its forward base in its successful attempt to reach the source of the Yangtze. Carrying vaccines to remote settlements ,the team was part of a UNICEF campaign to eradicate disease (see Holdsworth 1993 & Bell 1991)

25

CHAPTER 3 POLICY, PLANS & PLAYERS

3.1 International Conventions 3.2 The Rio "Earth" Summit 1 The declaration on environment and development 2 Agenda 21 3 The Forest Principles 4 The convention on climate control 5 The convention on biological diversity 3.3 Chinese government policy and plans 1 Modernization Policy 2 Land 3 Minority Policy 4 Population policy 5 Migration policy 6 Rural reform 3.4 References from the Chinese constitution on minority people 3.5 Luoxu Extensive Agricultural Project: 7 year plan 3.6 Players 1 International players 2 Local players 3.1 INTERNATIONAL CONVENTIONS Since the early 70's there have been a number1 of international conventions that address development, including the Rio "Earth" Summit. The "Earth" summit ,which China signed, challenges conventional development models that only apply science, technology and growth economics in a top-down fashion to the exclusion or detriment of social, environmental, cultural , community, gender ,subsistence sector and traditional considerations. Efforts have been made to identify clauses relevant to the disciplines that are represented in the Project Dengke 95 team and clauses pertinent to current development philosophy. 3.2 THE RIO "EARTH" SUMMIT In Rio de Janeiro, Brazil in June of 1992, at the largest-ever meeting of world leaders, 179 countries agreed on a blueprint on how to make the future development of our world economically, socially and environmentally sustainable. The agreement comprised five different documents (Keating M 1993 & Grubb M 1993 ):- a)The declaration on Environment and Development b)Agenda 21 c)The Principles on Forests d)Convention on Climate Change e)Convention on Biological Diversity 1 The 1972 Stockholm Conference, 1982 Law of the Sea, The London Dumping Convention, The Basel Convention on Wastes, Vienna Convention and the Montreal Protocol on Ozone

26

1)The Declaration on Environment and Development This comprised 27 principles that define the rights and responsibilities of nations as they pursue human development and well-being. In terms of the study there are 7 important principles that emphasize:- a) the relationship of man with the natural world (P1), b)the need to meet the equitable needs of present and future generations(P3) c)the necessity for environmental impact assessment of development activities (P17) d)The vital role of women and indigenous peoples and their full participation in the development process (P20&22) e)The recognition of and support for the identity, culture and interests of indigenous peoples (P22) f)The need to protect the environment and natural resources of peoples under occupation (P23) 2)Agenda 21 A blueprint on how to make development socially, economically and environmentally sustainable. In terms of the study the areas of most interest include :- a)The peoples participation in poverty alleviation (Chap. 3) b)The protection and promotion of human health -through clean water, sanitation, child spacing and the incorporation of indigenous health knowledge and practice.(Chap. 6) c)The sustainable management of land -through the incorporation of indigenous land-use knowledge and practice (including pastoralism) and with the full participation of women, youth and indigenous people. (Chap. 10) d)Combatting deforestation -through protection and planting. Forests need to be preserved for their social and spiritual values; including that of traditional habitats of indigenous peoples.(Chap. 11) e)Combatting desertification and drought -through sustainable land-use and water-use, tree planting and alternative energy use. (Chap. 12) f)Sustainable Mountain Development -through erosion control, protection and appropriate cottage industries. (Chap. 13) g)Sustainable Agriculture and Rural Development -through resource ownership, access to resources ,financing, markets and a mixture of modern and tradition conservation techniques(Chap.14) h)Conservation of Biological Diversity -through the incorporation of traditional methods of agriculture, agro-forestry, range and wildlife management and with the full participation of local communities. -by ensuring the indigenous people receive a fair and equitable benefit from the use of biological and genetic resources. (Chap. 15) i)Management of Biotechnology -through the development of vaccines, disease resistant plants, soil fertility measures, renewable energy technologies, fast growing tree strains, and environmentally friendly mineral extraction. (Chap. 16)

27

j)Protecting and Managing Fresh Water - improving safe water supplies and sanitation. (Chap. 18) k)Managing Solid Wastes and Sewage (Chap. 21) l)Stengthening the role of women in sustainable development -through reducing their workload, and giving them access to decision-making, education, credit and property rights. (Chap. 24) m)Strengthening the role of indigenous people -by consulting with them and ensuring their active participation in resource development and management and development strategies. -by recognizing their values, traditional knowledge and resource management practices -by adopting laws and policies to preserve their customary practices and to protect their indigenous intellectual property (ideas and knowledge) rights. (Chap. 26) n)Strengthening the role of Farmers -to ensure sound farming practice, conservation, low-input methods, optimal use of labour/animal power, and through training in ecology. (Chap. 32) o)Science for Sustainable Development -by training scientists; to link science with Indigenous knowledge, in natural systems, ecology and resource management and by enabling them to conduct quality-of-life audits. (Chap. 35) p)Education , training and public awareness - by training environmental technicians -incorporating indigenous knowledge and experience of sustainable development into education and training. (Chap. 36) 3)The Forest Principles A statement of 15 principles to guide the management, conservation and sustainable development of all types of forest, which are essential to economic development and the maintenance of all forms of life. There are three principles of interest to us :- -management of forests to meet social, economic, ecological, cultural and spiritual needs of present and future generations -forestry plans should count both the economic and non-economic values of forests, and the environmental costs and benefits of harvesting or protecting forests. -support the identity, culture and rights of indigenous people and forest dwellers. Their knowledge of conservation and sustainable forest use should be respected and used in developing forestry programmes. 4)Convention on Climate Change Countries should seek to stabilize greenhouse gasses in the atmosphere at levels that will not dangerously upset the global climate system. In terms of the study the clause of most interest is:- -the sound management and conservation of such greenhouse gas sinks as plants, forests (and peat - which may account for 30% of the worlds total soil carbon store (Dr Maltby 1992) 5)Convention on Biological Diversity Countries should adopt ways and means to conserve the variety of living species,

28

and ensure that the benefits from using biological diversity are equitably shared. In terms of the study the clause of most interest is :- - many indigenous and local communities have a close dependence on biological resources, and nations should make use of this traditional knowledge. Countries are to preserve and maintain such indigenous and local knowledge and promote its wider use, with the approval of the knowledge holders. 3.3 CHINESE GOVERNMENT POLICY & PLANS (1977-1995) 1)Modernization Policy In the middle of 1977 Deng Xiaoping returned to power and became part of a new 6-man party leadership. The China they took over was racked with problems, a backward country in desperate need of modernization. New measures were needed:- In 1978 China introduced the "Four modernizations" (agriculture, industry, national defence, and science and technology (China Lonely Planet 1994) and this policy still applies across a broad spectrum of activities including rural development. For example the application of science to the livestock industry is still being rigorously pursued in Hongyuan County today (Bjork 1993). In 1991 a "reform and opening" policy "for 100 yrs" was endorsed by 14th congress (inspite of rampant inflation)(China Lonely Planet 1994) and subsequently preferential policies were introduced to encourage investment in disadvantaged areas. Both Aba and Ganzi Prefectures have preferential investment policies. 2)Land In 1949 all land (Including forest land ) was nationalized with the exception of temple land which was not nationalized until 1951 (Richardson 1990). Land tenure has remained with the State ever since ,although under the responsibility system, which was introduced in the 80's allotment of land was allowed to pass into the management of an individual or grouping. Between 1979 and 1981 267,000ha of forest legally passed into the management of individuals and production teams in Western Sichuan (Chen Guojie 1992). An Aba Land management Policy was formulated in 1991 (Sichuan Nationalities Policy 1991). 3)Minority Policy Traditionally the national society has regarded the indigenous minority peoples as barbarians. It was only in the early days of the Republic the Minorities name (chinese character) was changed from "dog" to "man" but a policy of assimilation was rigorously pursued (China Lonely Planet 1994). Education was used by government as a tool of assimilation to displace indigenous languages and cultures and promote the national culture. Children were taken forcibly from their parents in the name of education. Since 1976 government has tried to diffuse discontent by relaxing some of its grasp on the day to day life of minority people by allowing temples and mosques to open (China Lonely Planet 1994). In the 80's Mao's policy of assimilation ,class distinction and class struggle was rejected. In its place a policy was introduced that theoretically "accepts the validity of traditional minority peoples and culture within the communist state" (Goldstein 1991). Education is no

29

longer a tool of assimilation but one of acculturation and civilization. Today minority nationality regions are still regarded as "culturally and economically backward" and role of education is to "develop the local culture and absorb modern science and culture" (Sidhi 1994) and to "civilize them" (pers comm 9/94) In the 80's Western Sichuan introduced a policy of minority support to enable them to better participate in the market economy (Chen Guojie 1992) Aba & Ganzi Prefectures introduced policies of compulsory education and inheritance, for minority peoples in 1991 (Sichuan Province Nationalities Policy 1991) 4)Population Policy Birth control was instituted in the 50's with some success but was abandoned during the Cultural Revolution. Mao believed it was part of a capitalist plot to make China weak. In 1973 population growth targets were again included in China's economic planning and in 1979 the one child policy for Han Chinese was introduced (China Lonely Planet 1994). China's minority peoples initially had no child limit, but gradually a limit of 2,3 or 4 children was introduced. In Aba the marriage policy of 1991 puts some restrictions on the age of marriage and limits minority couples to 2 children.(Sichuan Nationalities Policy 1991) 5)Migration Policy Chinese migration to minority areas has been encouraged as a means of control by sheer numbers.(China Lonely Planet 1994) As late as 1993 this was still being encouraged in Sichuan at a meeting with the code number 512 (46th session of the UN Sub-Committee on Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities -Geneva 1994) A policy to sedentarize China's nomads began in the late 50's. It offered comfort, protection and for the development of the individual and society. The proposals answered real needs but the real objective was to control the nomad (Ekvall 1968). The process continues today (pers comm Wu Xing Fu 9/95 & Cui Ning 1995) and the agenda is still ,among other things, control and incorporation into the market economy. With the introduction of economic reform in the early 80's greater disparities emerged between the rural and urban sectors , this resulted in out-migration from some rural areas. To halt this flow government introduced a policy separating City from village (Chen Guojie 1992) W.Sichuan offers inducements to university, college and technical school graduates who want to work there. They are exempted from probation, get an additional allowance and enjoy a salary grade one step higher than in other parts of China. 6)Rural Reform In 1981 Deng introduced the Responsibility System to replace the ridigidly collectivized agricultural system . This included a)liberalizing China's economy b)ending the communes and c)returning to a household based system of

30

production in rural areas for agriculture and industry. It allowed agricultural households and factories to sell their quota surpluses on the open market (China Lonely Planet 1994 & Goldstein 1991) Under the responsibility system all the nomad "commune" animals were divided equally among the nomads by the government authorities while the grassland was kept by the state to control and regulate its use. The nomads were allowed to retain the private animals they had held during the commune period. In 1984 the quota system was abolished apart from grain and cotton (China Lonely Planet 1994) and a policy to encourage rural enterprise was introduced. In W.Sichuan :- a)where the focus had been on maximizing grain production instead efforts were made to increase cash crops, horticulture, livestock, forestry and specialized local products (Chen Guojie 1992) b) The contract term for orchards and forest was extended to 30 yrs and timber products given tax-free status. In 1985 following 35 years of rigid price controls on agricultural products legislation was introduced to "decontrol" prices (China Lonely Planet 1994 ). Some difficulties are apparent in the move from a command to a market economy. In Western Sichuan preferential investment (native & foreign) policies ,as part of "reform and opening" have been introduced at county and township levels (Chen Guojie 1992 & Ganzi Investment Guide 1994) and "Special Development Areas" identified. (Aba and Ganzi Prefectures) 3.4 CHINESE CONSTITUTION WITH REFERENCE TO MINORITY PEOPLES Every area inhabited by minority nationalities will form an autonomous region. Minority Nationality Autonomous regions are not separated parts of China. Article 4 Section 3 (new constitution) In the P.R.China all nationalities are equal. Government will ensure the legal rights of all minority nationalities and prohibit any form of racial discrimination or oppression. (new constitution) Government will help all minority nationality regio ns to develop their economy and culture. (new constitution) Government will try to ensure the prosperity of each nationality minority region Government will assist all minority nationality regions to develop their economy and culture by facilitating finance, goods, materials and technology. Government will assist minority nationality regions to educate different ranks of cadres, professionals, technicians and workers who are minority nationals. Government will ensure minority nationality rights and respect their traditional culture. 3.5 LEAP (Luoshi Extensive Agriculture Plan) 7 YEAR PLAN In 1990 the Party Committee and the government of Ganzi Zang (Tibetan)

31

Nationality Autonomous Prefecture met to discuss the construction of Luoshi. On the spot investigations into the natural resources and climatic conditions in Luoshi were carried out and in the light of these it was agreed that comprehensive agricultural development be carried out and Luoshi designated as a 'special region' within Shiqu county. During the Project Dengke recci in July/Aug 94 LEAP was cited as a major area of future cooperation, and forms the basis for this survey. 3.6 PLAYERS In addition to the development efforts of government and the Care & Share Foundation there are other "players" both at the International and local levels. Every effort needs to be made to work in concert with them 1)International Players Other foundations, bodies or individuals working/planning to work in Western Sichuan/Ganzi Prefecture include :- a)Ford Foundation (Social Forestry) b)GTZ (Derge County) c)Asia (-----"----- - school & hospital) d)Rokpa (Derge & Shiqu counties - tibetan medical school - Buddhist school - health clinics ) e)Tibet Development Fund (in collaboration with Rokpa) f)FOC (Hongyuan County - forestry ,agriculture, engineerimg , water, medicine) g)Swiss Red Cross (Derge county -traditional tibetan medical school) 2)Local Players Every effort should be made to secure the support of traditional leadership otherwize success cannot be guaranteed (pers comm 5/95). Traditional leadership includes lamas, clan leaders and the descendants of nobility or royalty.

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CHAPTER 4 ENVIRONMENTAL & SOCIAL IMPACT

1 Introduction 2 Acculturation 3 Natural Resources 4 Sedentarisation 5 The market economy 6 Services 7 The subsistence economy 8 Gender roles & relations 4 THE ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIAL IMPACT OF DEVELOPMEN T AMONG INDIGENOUS MINORITY PEOPLE 1)Introduction The "development" of Western Sichuan began in the early 50's and an understanding of its impact is necessary if an assessment of future interventions is to be made. The development model adopted can be characterized by :- acculturation, exploitation of natural resources, sedentarisation, introduction of the market economy, and questionable services. This has had not only a major environmental impact but a socio-economic one as well. The culture, subsistence livelihood, and gender roles and relations of the indigenous people have been eroded. China has not adopted a completely unique model of developing its indigenous minority peoples and there are similarities with other countries with national societies. Due to a lack of time to explore these areas and a lack of material on Western Sichuan it has proved necessary to draw heavily on global literature (supported by observation , anecdotal evidence & the community survey) ,in order that the same mistakes are not repeated. Very little research has been conducted on the effect of modernisation on Tibetan culture and society and one of the most interesting accounts is the study by Helena Norberg-Hodge (1992) among the Tibetans of Ladakh. 2)Acculturation. From the early days of the Republic a policy of assimilating the minority peoples into the dominant society and economy was seen as essential for progress. This was replaced more recently by a policy of acculturation. In practice, different people cannot be acculturated without prejudice to the politically and economically weaker. This exchange has not represented development for the indigenous minority population but a deterioration in their conditions and quality of life. 3)Natural Resources Among the most damaging strategies are those designed to increase the productivity of an area inhabited by indigenous minority peoples. National governments and international funding agencies see the answer to socio-economic problems in national economic growth founded on greater exploitation of natural resources. Under China's policy of collectivization , modernization & the socialist market economy vast areas of western Sichuan have been drained, mined of trees and peat and overgrazed. This has resulted in loss of; hydrological buffering

33

capacity, biotype, carbon storage & greenhouse gas capacity, grazing capacity, soil & water, agricultural production, and biodiversity (Bjork 1993). The only beneficiaries of these measures are a small elite and not the indigenous people whose land has been "development". 4)Sedentarisation Sedentarisation of nomadic peoples is presented as being in their interests. The real concern of the state is usually control. For many low-income countries, sedentarisation of nomads is official policy; they are perceived as a threat to national security and national culture (Beauclark et al 1988). China needs to consider very carefully its policy of nomad sedentarisation. It needs to consider the social costs and not the very negligible economic benefits. The social costs of sedentarisation are very high and there is very little cost saving. The north american Indians and the Hadza people of Tanzania were devastated by disease. In Botswana it proved no cheaper to provide services to new nucleated villages than to scattered communities. The consequences among the Ik (Uganda, Kenya, and Sudan) were even more dire; they relied increasingly on relief, poaching, prostitution and thieving; their family ties ceased to exist; there was no love affection or self-sacrifice; their young and active monopolized the famine relief to the exclusion of the old and young; grief, mourning and formal burial disappeared; and callousness to physical and mental suffering reached a point where the misfortune of others became a pleasure.(Beauclerk et al 1988) 5)The Market economy Interventions concentrating on the market economy of indigenous societies can be destructive. All too often planners assume that the problems of small-scale, subsistence societies are primarily economic and result from inadequate technologies. By concentrating on the market economy to the exclusion of everything else these interventions tend to destabilize traditional societies and undermine their subsistence & cohesion. Programmes designed solely for the economy may not only be socially destructive but may also diminish local control and promote dependence on the market. The ultimate aim of intervention (as is the case in Western Sichuan) is often to encourage a change to sedentary, market orientated practices more typical of peasants. The creation of agricultural surpluses for the national or regional market conflicts with the traditional indigenous preoccupation with minimizing risk. Risks will nevertheless increase rather than diminish as relations with the national society increases. 6)Services States with limited resources for rural services such as health, education and agricultural support rarely extend these to members of indigenous societies. Even when services are provided they may be a mixed blessing. Services may be imposed in authoritarian and unsympathetic ways, may be culturally unacceptable, may alienate the people from their traditions, may undermine existing practices and may create unnecessary dependence. Services designed to change societies to fit the ideological requirements of the state are unlikely to be beneficial. State education usually arrives in a marginal area first and is used as a tool of acculturation.

34

Education policy at national level may be progressive, incorporating minority languages and allowing for the training of indigenous teachers. But, unless there is recognition also of the need for modification to the curriculum and teaching methodology this system amounts to little more than a sophisticated means of control. Salaried teachers for instance tend to form an elite within collective societies and their ultimate allegiance may lie outside the group. Bilingual systems may be just another form of acculturation when literacy training in the mother tongue is merely a route to the national culture. 7)The Subsistence economy Fragile ecosystems have been disturbed and their inhabitants eventually impoverished by the assumption that systems of production directed towards local needs are inefficient and must be intensified or transformed. Market-orientated agriculture, promoted at the expense of subsistence production often does not guarantee sufficient income to purchase food, so nutrition may be severely reduced. As more land is dedicated to cash crops, consumer crops become scarce and their prices are inflated. Once-plentiful sources of protein in forest and rivers disappear. Wage labour may similarly take essential time from subsistence production without enabling people to buy the goods foregone. The viability of subsistence economies may be undermined by governments that only grant land leases on the condition of increased production. 8)Gender roles & relations Gender analysis begins with the recognition that while sex is a biological category, gender is a social and cultural construction. Many indigenous groups have a marked sexual division of labour (see community survey). It is usually women who cultivate subsistence crops, gather wild fruits and insects, carry heavy loads and are responsible for domestic duties and often it is men and boys who hunt or herd large animals, or clear land for cultivation. In most societies women do more work than men, but the complementarity of their roles make them both dependent. Gender roles are culturally prescribed and often remain unquestioned by either sex until external circumstances upset the balance. Gender relations take account of the central issues of power and hierarchy within the family and society. Most national societies are highly patriarchal and whatever the gender roles and relations of indigenous peoples they must relate to a wider society where women lack power and their work is unrecognized. (Beauclerk 1988 Govind Kelkar 1995) The penetration of the market economy has led to a marked and devastating erosion of ; the productivity of land ; indigenous gender roles and relations ; womens control over food systems ; and land availability for food crops. (Muntemba 1985). Disruption of the subsistence base can bear heavily on women. In hunting, herding and horticultural societies men may contribute a significant part of the animal protein. This may be lost by loss of land or by the diversion of men into migrant labour, casual employment or cash cropping. As more land is diverted into cash crops and is impoverished through the ecological impact of green revolution technologies women have decreased space but increased burdens in food production and in maintaining nutritional status. With the market as the measure of all productivity, the "value" of women's work and status falls,, while their work in producing food for survival inc reases (Shiva 1989)

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CHAPTER 5 SURVEY METHODOLOGY

5.1 Introduction 5.2 Survey Team 5.3 Terms of reference 1 Aims 2 Objectives 3 Survey beneficiaries 5.4 Survey Methods 1 Rural Rapid Appraisal (RRA) 2 Rationale for using RRA 3 Selection of stake-holders 4 Triangulation 5.5 Survey Schedule 5.6 Survey Timetable 5.7 Analysis of Findings & Report Writing 5.8 Limitations and Lessons 5.1 INTRODUCTION A forestry, agriculture & natural resource base-line survey was initiated by the Care & Share Foundation (CSF) in August 1994 stemming from a meeting with Luoxu township officials in Kangding. CSF have been involved in limited short-term development activities with Luoxu since 1990 (1992 & 1994). Forestry , agriculture & natural resources were identified in 1994 as areas of possible cooperation and given the many unknowns a baseline study predicated on Rural Rapid Appraisal was suggested as the most apposite means of legitimate needs assessment. CSF were invited to visit Dengke during August & September 1995 and three team members were asked to conduct the survey. One of the team has lived in China for two years, two of the team have visited Ganzi Prefecture, and two of the team have worked in Asia. One of the team has done surveys in China before, but none of the team had done community surveys in China or been to Dengke. 5.2 SURVEY TEAM The Survey team was represented in the following areas by :- a)Agriculturist (Robin Evans) b)Community Development specialist (Pia Steendam de Vries) c)Community Forestry specialist (John Studley - Team Leader) The survey team were also joined by members of the medical & publicity team. 5.3 TERMS OF REFERENCE 1)Aims The aim of the survey was to provide base-line information on the Luoxu Township area to ensure the sustainable management of its agricultural systems, its forest resources, its natural resources and the enhanced livelihoods (on an equitable basis) of its peoples.

36

2)Objectives The Objectives of the survey were to :- a)Resource Supply To identify past, present, and future resource supply, seasonality and quality (e.g.Crops, Pasture, Forest, Water, Soil, Medicinal Plants) b)Resource Demand To identify past, present and future resource demand by interest group & gender. (e.g. farmers, government, merchants, traditional healers) c)Income generation potential To identify appropriate areas of income generation that will not "seriously deplete" the natural resource base or harm traditional "social patterns" d)Environmental and Social Impact Assessment To assess the past, present and future (environmental & social) impact of past development and any potential new initiative (e.g. tourism, high technology, hydro-electric generation, agricultural/medicinal product processing) e)Institutional mechanisms for cooperation To examine current institutional mechanisms for cooperation between interest groups. f)Indigenous resource knowledge and management systems To identify indigenous resource knowledge, perception, accounting and management patterns as a basis for future management. g)Ethnic & Livelihood strategies To identify major differences and similarities in resource use and management between different livelihood and ethnic groups. h)Zoning To assess the potential for interest group Zones. 3)Survey beneficiaries The team was asked to write a report in such a way that it could be used by the following :- a)Local government b)Local departments (e.g. forestry, agriculture) c)Local people - village leaders and the general public d)Extension and development agents e)Native & Expatriate project managers f)Evaluators & Donors g)Ministries & Policy makers The core material would remain essentially the same with three sets of recommendation. (local - project management - donors) 5.4 SURVEY METHODS 1)Rural Rapid Appraisal Essential to the process of planning for Agriculture, Forestry & Natural Resources is the need for reliable and relevant information about the socio-economic and cultural context. By context we mean the particular physical and social environment, the ways in which people, trees, farming systems, natural resources and land are linked, related and independent.

37

Traditionally this type of baseline information has been collected by large surveys and has consisted of mostly quantified data. Recently however, donors, planners and implementors have recognized the limitations of both such data and survey methods and have begun to explore other methods. (adapted from Freudenthal & Narrowe 1991) Two new methods include Rural Rapid Appraisal (RRA) and Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA). RRA emerged in the late 1970's as an approach and method of enquiry about rural life and conditions which tried to offset the anti-poverty biases of "rural development tourism" (a brief rural visit by an urban-based professional) ,to avoid the many defects of large questionnaire surveys, and to better capture indigenous knowledge. PRA is a continuing outgrowth from RRA. Whereas RRA is extractive, with outsiders appropriating and processing the information, PRA is participatory, with ownership and analysis more by rural people themselves. With PRA it is less outsiders, and more local people themselves, who map, model, diagram, rank, score, observe, interview, analyze and plan. (Chambers 1993 Moris & Copestake 1993) Because of resource and time constraints it was necessary to adopt mostly RRA techniques and very limited use of PRA. 2)Rationale for using RRA RRA allows and requires a high degree of flexibility and therefore is well suited for exploring many unknowns. It is an iterative process approach which allows for adjustment and change in the light of problems or opportunities. It offers a range of inquiry tools and methods (semi-structured interviewing, observation, sketch mapping, transects , walk-abouts and diagramming). It allows a multi-disciplinary team to take full advantage of all the respective backgrounds by sharing, exchanging and reflecting on ideas. It encourages different players to participate in the process to various degrees (government, officials, leaders, community members.) 3)Selection of stake-holders In order to address the needs of all the stakeholders and cross-check the data it was necessary to interview a range of people representing officialdom and the community. The stake-holders that were included in the survey were :- Official : Township leaders, Agriculture & Forestry Department officials. Community : Village leaders, farmers (agro-pastoralists), nomads, artisans, men, women, children, rich, poor & key informants. With over 50 villages in Luoxu Township and with only 6 days to complete the community survey time was very limited. It was not possible to ascertain the township population breakdown by livelihood strategy so it was almost impossible to determine a statistically sound sampling technique. Two villages (Oru and Lhadza) were selected that were close to the Yangtse and two days were spent visiting nomad encampments. Both villages were visited informally during "walk-abouts" making it p ossible to befriend some of the villagers prior to the community survey.

38

Although it would have been ideal to visit a range of homes (i.e. rich, average, poor) our best efforts were thawted. In Lhadza for example , a visit to an average house had been requested and the survey team ended up in the wealthiest house in the village. The survey team were only able to :- a)Interview two village leaders b)Conduct three semi-structured household interview c)Conduct one " key informant interview d)Conduct one and a half transects e)Two informal group interviews (Oru & LongCheeke) f)One informal household survey (Lhadza) g)Two semi-structured nomad surveys We were limited in our selection of nomadic encampment by time and transport. 4)Triangulation By interviewing a wide range of people representing different interest groups we were able to cross-check or triangulate our findings better. Methodological pluralism raises the question of what happens when two separate lines of enquiry throw up discrepancies. These discrepancies highlight the need for cross-checking data and often provide useful hints that lead to synthesis and to deeper insights. The term sociologists use for cross-checking is triangulation (see Denzin 1970). The term refers to the practice, used originally by land surveyors, of combining methods to cross-check data. Triangulation permits us to find out whether farmers and officials , men and women, rich and poor are saying the same things. Triangulation is an important weapon in exposing bias. Obtaining a second expert opinion is an obvious example; but identifying all key stakeholders with an interest in a given matter and interviewing several with widely differing positions is even better. For example an official from the Forest exploration and design office told us that one of the advantages of growing Poplar (in a commercial plantation) was that "it was accepted by the local people". No villager in any interview mentioned Poplar even as a minor species! 5.5 SURVEY SCHEDULE 1)Preparation - Pre Project Dengke 1995 Satellite maps & Land Use maps of Dengke were prepared in the UK. GIS maps of Dengke were prepared in Chengdu. The Survey team gathered data and familiarized themselves with RRA/PRA 2)Fieldwork - During Dengke 1995 WEEK 1 a)Township & Department Officials b)Visits to:- plantations an orchard a tree nursery an agricultural research station an agricultural seed store

39

WEEK 2 a)Social Survey - Village Walk-abouts Transects Semistructured interviews Key informant interviews Informal group interviews Household interviews (male and female) Village leader interviews Genderization - time based activities Genderization - household activities b)GIS ground truthing WEEK 3 a)Report writing b)Soil testing c)Semi-structured interview with Sichuan Forest Exploration and Design officials d)Semi-structured interviews & feedback with :- Township officials ,& Ag.& Forestry Department officials 3)Post Dengke 95 - Report Writing 5.6 SURVEY TIMETABLE 1)Dates The Survey was conducted between Monday 28/8/95 and Saturday 16/9/95 and the Programme was as follows :- 2)Programme Wed 23/8/95 - Sun 27/8/95 travelled from Chengdu to Dengke Monday 28/8/95 AM met Vice Magistrate & Forestry Officials PM Visited a Poplar & Wolfberry plantation in Lhadza and a tree nursery in Luoxu Tuesday 29/8/95 AM Visited an orchard in Guasa PM Went on a "walk-about" in Oru village Wednesday 30/8/95 -Luoxu Town AM Visited Forestry Office & Agricultural Research Station PM Visited Forestry Office Thursday 31/8/95 -Luoxu Town Evaluated results to date and planned future Friday 1/9/95 -Luoxu Town AM Report writing PM Visited Forestry Office Saturday 2/9/95 Went on a "walk-about" in Lhadza (LongCheeka & Danda) Informal household interview. Sunday 3/9/95 Free Day

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Monday 4/9/95 -Oru Village AM Interviewed village leader (lived in Onetwo) PM Transect and group interview Tuesday 5/9/95 -Oru Village AM Household (Key informant) interview I PM Household interview II Wednesday 6/9/95 -Luoxu Helped unload trucks and carry bridge parts Thursday 7/9/95 -Lhadza AM Interviewed village leader PM Transect (abandoned due to very heavy rain) Household interview I Friday 8/9/95 -Lhadza AM Report writing (Luoxu) PM Household interview II -woman* (incomplete - harvest) Genderization -time based & household tasks interview-women* Genderization -time based tasks -girl* * all three were from different households Saturday 9/9/95 Visited Obala by truck saw naturally regenerated spruce forest (young) Nomad Interview I Sunday 10/9/95 Free Day Monday 11/9/95 AM Waited for horses PM Visited high pasture between BonChu & LongChee Rivers saw scrub spruce and shrubs on N. facing slopes Nomad Interview II Tuesday 12/9/95 -Luoxu AM Report writing PM Interviewed the Vice Magistrate Wednesday 13/9/95 -Luoxu AM Report writing PM Helped moved the bridge into position Thursday 14/9/95 -Luoxu AM Report Writing & Soil testing PM Interviewed officials from the Forest Exploration and Design Institute. Friday 15/9/95 -Luoxu AM Report Writing & Soil testing PM Reported findings and suggestions to Vice Magistrate Saturday 16/9/95 AM Report feed-back from Vice Magistrate PM Report printing Sunday 17/9/95 - Thursday 21/9/95 travelled from Dengke to Chengdu

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5.7 ANALYSIS OF FINDINGS AND REPORT WRITING Discussion of the findings, analysis of the information, and developing options are an integral part of any survey. It gives the team a chance of cross-checking and of correcting each other and achieving balance. Feed-back & report writing in the field are integral parts of RRA and CSF had requested a draft mini-report before leaving Dengke and so week 3 of the survey were spent on report writing. Because of time limitations the team was only able to address :- expressed needs analysis, options, risk analysis, possible modes of operation, possible opportunities and recommendations. The background material and more detailed analysis was subdivided between the three team members and was compiled and edited by the team leader in November 1995. 5.8 LIMITATIONS AND LESSONS 1)Limitations The survey quality and objectives were hampered by the following a)Limited human resources and time - it had been hoped that the survey team would have included an ethnobotonist a hydrologist (and possibly a geologist) - The small number in the team while being an advantage for collaboration and cooperation was restricted in the amount of work that it was physically able to do, the narrowness of the fields of experience, lack of experience in conducting similar surveys, lack of up to date and relevant hands-on experience in some areas particularly in analysis were also restricting factors. - Time was also a limiting factor, we had three weeks in which to complete the work, and although we drew up a fairly strict timetable it was always fairly ambitious. We did succeed in accomplishing the majority of work that we intended, although may be not as thoroughly as we would have liked. b)Commitments to the larger team - Being part of a larger team with different agendas also had its disadvantages and two days were given up to help other teams at crucial times in their programmes, as these were expected we had allowed sufficient time in our timetable. c)The survey coincided with harvest time - We visited the area for three weeks at the beginning of September which is in the middle of the harvesting period and not a good time to catch people at their homes or when they are likely to have time to talk and discuss various issues or answer survey questions. This applied not only to the farming community but to the community at large where all hands are required at crucial times as this. d)Suboptimal transport availability - Dengke lies at the end of the road, the road conditions were not to be relied on and out of the main Yangtse valley were liable to be washed away or subject to frequent landslides. Access in to the more remoter areas was difficult, means of transport were not always available and could not be relied on to turn up at the appointed time or in sufficient quantity. The most reliable form of transport was

42

Photo 7 Harvesting below the village of Long Chee ke. The men cut the harvest and the women bind it.

Photo 8 A little Tibetan girl takes a break from the harvest

Photo 9 Using Yak to bring home the harvest (Near the village of Dandar)

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on foot, but this was restrictive. Had suitable transportation been available it would have been possible to achieve much more and over a wider area. We were restricted to conducting surveys in villages within one hours walk of Dengke, apart from one day when a truck was hired (at our own expense) to visit a nomad area, due to the inaccessibility of the area it was only possible to visit one nomad family in that time. e)Suboptimal translator availability and training - Language was also a factor that had not been given enough consideration, the main language spoken by the local people is Khamba Tibetan, the official language is Mandarin Chinese. For consultations with local officials it was possible to use Chinese, but for the purpose of the Household surveys it was necessary to have a Khamba speaker, these were in short supply and also in great demand by other teams in the Project. It was not always possible to have the translator of ones choice. It was necessary to allow for the fact that the questions asked and the responses given may not be exactly what was expressed in the original language, or that through the translation a particular bias be it cultural or political may have been (subconsciously) inserted. The translators were unfamiliar with the methods used and often failed to appreciate the significance of some of the questions asked and indeed frustrated through our persistence in asking what were to them irrelevant or insignificant questions until we got the appropriate answers, this was particularly noticeable when we sought verification from more than one source. f)Inadequate demographic information - making the selection of a statistically sound sampling technique impossible. g)The non availability of detailed maps - During the course of the survey various maps were produced but they were unable to be retained by the survey team, and the accuracy both of the mapping and data could not be verified. h)Lack of forest survey and inventory information i)Suboptimal use of satellite images - Satellite images of the area were available to the team prior to the Project but these were not ground truthed and during the course of the survey there was not the time to accurately do this. - The lack of time and a notebook computer with a CD-ROM ,in Chengdu, limited use of satellite maps j)Inadequate preparation time - There was inadequate preparation carried out beforehand, both from a team point of view and from the local officials who had prepared no data, maps or other useful information. k)Suboptimal participation - observation It had been hoped to stay overnight with some nomads but we were unable to

44

obtain permission. l)Climate & Altitude - The climate presented no major problems. Altitude was not a restricting factor, providing reasonable precautions were taken. m)Inadequate time to field test our questions - Two examples :- - We discovered about half way through the community survey that no one "collected" wild fruits/nuts from the forest, which surprised us. When we replaced the word "collected" for "snacked on" (while in the forest) many people did. Fruits/nuts play a more important food item than the survey reveals. - The survey revealed that a number of people experienced some sort of food shortages during the year. We forgot to ask how they coped with the shortages. n)Official reaction to the survey - It was difficult to assess the official reaction to the survey, and while there was a good working relationship with many of the officials and cooperation it was not always possible to have interviews as requested, and also it was difficult to get clarification on some points, despite persistent questioning, some of which may have suffered in the translation. o)The truth or the politically correct answer - At all times we had to be aware of the political implications to some of the questions and the past and current political situation should be born in mind when considering the survey, the questions asked, the answers received and the conclusions that we draw and the recommendations that we make. Any significant changes in the political situation will of course affect the interpretation of the survey results. 2)Lessons In Lhadza village an interviewee was unable to express units of quantity (as % or jin ) of crops kept for seed, consumed or given/sold to government. This was resolved by giving her a small pile of grains (representing all her crops) and asking her to divide them by category. She was able to do this without any difficulty.

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Photo 10 A nomadic herdsman and his daughter near Obala

Photo 11 A nomadic encampment overlooking the Yangtze River (32o29.50’N 98o00.87’E)

Photo 12 Discussing natural resource use and livelihood strategies with nomads near Obala (32o38.71’N 98o03.85’E)

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CHAPTER 6. TECHNICAL REPORTS

6.1 General 6.2 Agriculture 6.3 Forestry 6.4 Other 6.1 General 1)Local administration & organisation 2)Subsistence & Livelihood Strategies 3)Gender issues 4)Population 5)Amenities a)Water b)Electricity c)Housing d)Education e)Credit f)Health & health services 6)Cooperation 7)Nomad sedentarisation 8)Cultural situation 9)LEAP 6.1 GENERAL There are 8 villages in Luoxu Township ( Luoxu, Wonto, Lhadtza, Long Chee, Phlagan, Dandar, Gwayso, and Gowa (nomad settlement)) and 54 hamlets. Louxu township is administered from Dengke Town. 1)Local administration and organization Every village has a magistrate and secretary who relate directly to the township. They are both Tibetan, no Chinese officials live in the villages. The magistrate is chosen by the village, with elections being held every 3 years. Village meetings are held every month, one representative from each family attends. Smaller meetings can be held every week. Conflicts are dealt with by the magistrate and or the secretary. More complex and difficult problems are referred to the township. It is the leaders responsibility to decide when harvest or sowing should start. When we first asked about local organizations we were told there were none, but further investigations revealed there to be a local militia, women's groups, political organizations, religious groups and community organizations in some of the villages. The exact function of these groups was not discovered (ie. women's groups tended to discuss "women's things"). Savings/Credit groups did not exist in the villages, only in Dengke Town. 2)Subsistence and Livelihood strategies At least 95% of all villagers are agro-pastoralists. A few farmers were part-time carpenters, artisans, traders, monks, government officials or traditional Tibetan medicine doctors. Trade takes place with the Tibetan Autonomous Region. There were no teachers in the villages, 10 years ago one teacher lived in one of the

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villages. The economy is purely subsistence, with very limited market trading or exporting of any surplus. Food supplies (mainly of Rice) are imported from Chengdu. 3)Gender Issues: Typically men and women have different tasks in Luoxu Township. About 25% of all Tibetan men are monks, only a very few women enter monasteries. Both men and women work on the fields but domestic chores (cooking and child care) are principally the preserve of women. Tibetan parents are allowed to have two children, if they are not employed by the government. Nomads can have three children. TABLE 6.1 Genderization:

Task Male & Female Male Female

Tree planting Tree cutting Land leasing Ploughing Sowing Planting Weeding Reaping Binding Carting Threshing Roasting barley Grinding Cooking Manuring Livestock care Selling livestock Vegetable garden

+

+

+ + +

+ +

+

+ +

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

Collecting

Water Timber Firewood Foliage/branches Mushrooms Medicinal herbs Fruits Dung

+

+ +

+

+ +

+ +

Decisions

Crop planting Credit Market

+

+ +

48

Task Male & Female Male Female

Nomads

Making butter Exchanging gds. Spinning Weaving Putting up tent Yak care Milking Yak

+

+

+ +

+

+

+

Men and women were asked how they spent their day. Their replies are detailed in Table 6.2 TABLE 6.2 Gender Timelines

Hour Farmers Nomads

Women Men Women Men

5 am 5:30 6 6:30 7 7:30 11 pm

Gets up lights fire Sweeps floor Fetches water Sends Yak to pasture Goes harvesting Makes Lunch Lunch Works in vegetable garden/fields Collects & milks Yak Prepares dinner Dinner Goes to bed

Gets up Breakfast Goes to work harvesting/Yak - returns home for Lunch returns to fields/pasture - returns home for Dinner Goes to bed

Gets up Lights Fire Collects dung Milks yak Prepares Breakfast Makes butter & cheese Feeds dogs Makes lunch Lunch Makes Cheese Milks Yak Tethers Yak Lights fire Prepares dinner Dinner Goes to bed

Gets up Takes Yak to pasture Breakfast returns to pasture- returns home for Lunch to pasture Brings Yak home Tethers horses Dinner Goes to bed

The division of labour tends to vary from household to household. In general there are specific male and female jobs: See Table 6. 3

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TABLE 6. 3 Division of Labour

Typical Female Jobs Typical Male Jobs

Cleaning the house Cooking Caring for children Collecting foliage/branches Collecting and drying dung Milking the Yak Making cheese and butter Spinning

Tree felling Ploughing Selling of livestock Collecting timber Obtaining credit Yak care Exchanging goods Putting up tent

4)Population According to Feng (pers comm 9/95) the population of Luoxu Tpwnship is 10,600 and the Hosehold average is 6.4. On the basis of the villages we visited the average size of a household was less than 6 (5.18 - 5.83), in one village of 323 residents 60 children were of school age or younger (18.6%), another village of 140 people (80men/60 women) there were 40 children under the age of 15 (28.6%), of which 13 were 0-5 (9.3%), 11 were 5-10 (7.8%) and 16 were 10-15 (11.4%). Most households included one person over the age of 75 (one household had 3, whereas others had none). None of the nomadic peoples visited had anyone over the age of 55. Over the last 10 years one village had grown by 30%. 5)Amenities: a)Water: There is no piped running water in the villages, most villagers collect water from a nearby river. Usually the women collect the water, at least twice a day (sometimes as much as five times a day), the time taken varies between 2 and 30 minutes per trip. The collected water is used for preparing food, making tea, washing and for livestock. There is usually enough water for household use and for the animals although it may not be always easy to get. The water is considered to be reasonably clean, the water being boiled only for making tea. Occasionally the water is boiled prior to drinking. Most of the children drink unboiled water. The water is not considered (by the local people) to be a primary cause of illness. One villager remarked that when strangers drank the water for the first time they 'felt bloated'. One of the villages visited made use of some water reservoirs. These were filled in October and used as a winter water supply. The reservoir did not seem to function satisfactorily. The main problem the villagers faced was the lack of water for irrigation and the accessibility of water for the domestic needs. b)Electricity There is no electricity in the villages. The supply of electricity had been promised to one village after harvest time. There is a great potential for the development of hydro-electricity.

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c)Housing Most of the Tibetans live in houses made mainly out of wood, the houses are surrounded by mud walls (over 2m high) and have a courtyard. Dogs are kept for security reasons. A considerable part of the housing area is used for animals, storage of harvest and farm tools. Some houses have two storeys, the ground floor being used for farm storage and the second floor being used partly as living accommodation, there was usually an open area on the top floor where some of the harvest was stored. We were usually invited into a living room with a plank or mud floor. The room typically contained one or two wood chests, some beds or seating, a low table, pictures of the Dalai Lama and/or other deities, an oil lamp, and sometimes a portable radio or radio/cassette player. It was quite common for this room to double as a kitchen and would also contain an earth or tin stove in the middle of the room. Copper cooking pots, saucepans and ladles would be hanging on the wall, or wooden dresser. Some houses would have a separate 'god room'. Many houses had their own kitchen garden. The nomads typically live in dark brown tents made out of yak hair of varying sizes. They all were of the same basic design with an adjustable hole in the roof to allow the smoke from the stoves to escape. The stove is made of earth and is usually in the middle of the tent, and left behind when the nomads move on. A tin stove is sometimes used as well. Beds were made of sticks with a skin covering and usually placed around the outside walls of the tent. A godshelf is placed in one of the corners of the tent with pictures of various Buddhist deities, butter lamps and food offerings. They usually move to a new site every 3-4 months, and will move 4 times a year. During the winter they often stay in a house, somewhere in the valley. d)Education There are no schools in the villages and very few children make the journey in to Dengke to attend the school there. There was no parental encouragement for children to attend school. The villages we visited were up to one hours walk away from Dengke. From a village close to Dengke 3 out of 60 children went to school. The main reasons given (by parents) for the children not attending school was the distance they had to walk , others said they could not afford to send their children as they needed the children to help look after the animals and help on the land. Most of the nomad children did not go to school, they went only when they had relatives living near to the school. The parents are not generally educated but some could read and write, village leaders could usually sign their names. Most families know some one who is able to read and write, this is usually a relative monk who has learnt the skills in the monastery. One in three families send at least one son to the monastery. 25% of the male population is in the monastery. e)Credit It is possible for the farmers to borrow money, but it is not easy. Interest charged is about 20%. f)Health & health services Common complaints were head and stomach aches but there was no identified cause. Most serious illnesses were referred to the hospital in Dengke, although the

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local traditional Tibetan doctor was well respected and used often. There was no local midwife and home delivery was the normal practice assisted by close relatives. Leprosy was also common in the area and this was not treatable by Tibetan medicine. There was no understanding of care, treatment and rehabilitation of leprosy patients. TB and associated chest and throat infections were also common. Liver complaints and diarrhoea were also reported. Most accidents seem to occur around harvest time. A doctor from the local hospital visited the villages once a year and some vaccinations took place, these were usually free although a charge was made for other medical services. There was no special areas for defecating and this usually happened in the fields close to the village. For a full and more comprehensive report on the medical situation see the separate Medical Report. Chinese Wolfberries were grown for their medicinal value. Other herbs and medicinal plants were collected from the woods and surrounding countryside. 6)Co-operation Villagers help each other harvesting. The same people usually help each other every year. There seems to be some formal exchange of labour as well. 7)Nomad sedentarisation There is also a government plan to settle the nomads, although the exact details of this plan were not known nor its possible time of implementation. 8)Current culture situation The local people are ethnically Tibetan, although there has been considerable interbreeding for many years. Generally the control of the area remains in the hands of Tibetan people while overall policy must be approved by the Chinese authorities. Culturally there is a serious erosion of the Tibetan culture and evidence of increasing Sinicisation. 9)LEAP The LEAP proposals are in 6 sections and cover 36 projects. Out of the 36 projects 11 have commenced, although some have since halted because of various problems (mainly financial). The Total investment for the LEAP proposals was given as 41,370,000RMB which was to be raised from National and county sources. The estimated gross profit 68,140,000RMB, estimated net profit 4,430,000RMB. Further investment from foreign sources was sought to encourage the remaining projects and stimulate the existing projects. The target of LEAP was to raise the standard of living from current levels. Present per capita income is 300RMB/year. After 7 years of LEAP it is anticipated that levels will be raised to 1,040RMB/yr. 8 areas of cooperation were outlined. (see section 4) For more details of the LEAP proposals see separate detailed plan as provided by the local authorities.

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CHAPTER 6.2 - AGRICULTURE

6.2.1 Animal Husbandry 1)Yak 2)Sheep & Goats 3)Horses 4)Pigs 6.2.2 Arable 1)Commodity grassland 2)Winter wheat 3)Barley 4)Beans 5)Potatoes 6)Oil seed 7)Vegetables 6.2.3 Agricultural land tenure & management systems 6.2.4 Current trends 6.2.5 Resource development 6.2.6 The economics of agricultural development 6.2.7 Agricultural development & cultural impact. 6.2 AGRICULTURE this includes animal husbandry, arable and horticulture (ie. vegetables) but not fruit trees (see 6.3) According to our survey there are in Luoxu township: 1733.33ha of crops, 99,000 animals. 6.2.1 ANIMAL HUSBANDRY. The principle livestock are: Yak 57,000 Sheep and Goats 39,000 Horses 4,500 Pigs 1,300 other livestock include chickens, donkeys and ducks. 1)Yak (for statistical purposes we include Dzo & Dzomo (Yak crossed with ordinary cattle) under the general heading of Yak) Yak are used to produce milk and meat, their skin is used for tents and their hair/wool used for weaving and knitting into tents and rugs, their dung is used for burning and as fertilizer on the fields. Yak are used to work in the fields and for general transportation, including riding, carrying harvest and firewood. A village may have several hundred Yak (one claimed to have 2,000). The number of Yak belonging to any one household varied between 7 and 60 (60 being recognized as above average); nomads had typically between 30 and 50. There were health problems in Yak that caused mouth problems; intestinal upsets (some associated

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among the nomads by changing pastures) and calf scour diseases; adult Yak also suffered from two diseases one that was recognized as being contagious (called Geh (?) and the second while not being contagious was fatal (called tsah) the onset of death was quite sudden; TB/lungworm (?) and one instance of a disease that affected the brain of young Yak. There are better medicines available for the treating of diseases, which are heavily subsidized. There was no recognized problem with fertility. The female yak produce one calf every two years, usually in April/May. The Yak are milked between June and October for all of their life. Cross breeding with Friesian and Shorthorn had taken place some time ago in an attempt to improve milk production. One herd that we visited was milked twice a day and produced 5 jin/yak/day (.5kg). One herd of 15 milking yak was milked in one hour. The milk was used in tea and made into butter, yogurt and dried cheese. Some families drank very little milk. One nomadic family that also had some fields (belonging to the husband) collected the dung from the Yak and transported it from the pastureland to the fields by Yak, 2000kg per year was carried to the husbands fields (5 trips using 8 yak, each yak carrying 50kg in two sacks). The main products that were sold were skin and surplus stock. One household sold butter to the government for which they received 6RMB/kg and sold between 3 and 5 kg per yak. The majority of other products were for self consumption. Yak meat was cooked by immersing in water and boiling until the water had evaporated. Yak graze mainly on the grassland areas out of the river valley which may be up to 6 hours away from the village, there are generally three different areas of grazing depending on the time of year (one for spring, one for summer and one for winter); during the winter months when there is a shortage of grass they may graze in the forest areas, or be fed forage that has been cut from the forest. Non-nomadic Yak are usually kept at home and taken to the grazing areas every day usually by the children. The nomads also kept Yak tethered at their tents during the night and they were taken to grazing areas during the day. The nomads have to pay the government for the rights to graze their animals, the rate for grazing around Shiqu was 1.8RMB/yak/year (the Luoxu rate was not known). According to one nomadic informant the grazing was better in his grandfathers day than at present; this was attributed to 1) less people, 2) less animals, 3) better quality grass. The market value of a Yak was quoted as 1000RMB, a Dzo (first cross) at 1500RMB, a second cross at 450RMB, a calf from 30RMB. Typical life expectancy is 20years. 2)Sheep and Goats are used for milk, butter, cheese, meat and skin; wool is gathered from the sheep and used for knitting and weaving. The goats are of a local breed and they have kids between March and June and produce milk May - Sep. for all of their lives. The life expectancy of a goat is 3 - 5years. The market value of a goat was placed at 150RMB. The breed of sheep is also local and they lamb April to July, with a life expectancy of 5 years. Market value was placed at 350RMB (there are very few sheep in the area). One village claimed to have 500 sheep and 1000 goats, households varied between 0 and 60, while none of the nomads we questioned owned any sheep or goats yet they were seen to be grazing in the grassland areas along side Yak, sheep tended to have the same grazing pattern as Yak. Goats from

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one village are usually herded together and placed in the charge of one or two young goatherds (usually girls aged 8 -11). They are allowed to graze on any of the spare land, field boundaries and headlands, fallow fields and forests. During the months of June to August the goats usually go to the mountains to graze. Wild plants that the goats ate were called "Argu largu" and " Chelly boater", another called "Adurigu" was not eaten even by the goats (it smelt). A goat will produce 500g/day minimum of milk, while a sheep will produce 500g/day maximum. The dung is used on the fields, mixed with dung from other animals (including humans) and straw. 3)Horses are kept mainly as a means of transport, and for hiring out. A good horse is a valuable commodity with a market value of up to 20,000RMB. One village claimed to have 400 while another had 30. Households had between 0 and 20 horses. The local breed of horse is larger than a Chinese horse (Xichang) and smaller than the Mongol breeds. They graze mainly on grass supplemented by some grain. Horses foal after three years and then every 1 or 2 years. 4)Pigs are kept solely for their meat with some pigskin being exported to Kangding where there is a processing plant. They are a common means of waste disposal. One village claimed to have 100 pigs. The majority of households would have one pig if any. Nomads did not keep pigs. There are two breeds of pigs: 1) a local "Benti" (with long noses); 2) Tsong Bay (from North and East China). There is also a crossbred Benti x Liajiang. There is no control over their breeding and they tend to farrow anywhere anytime, with a life expectancy of 3-5 years. They have a market value of 14RMB/kilo weight when killed at a weight of 50-150Kg. They live mainly in the town and eat anything, although they were often seen foraging in the fields outside of the town/villages. 6.2.2 ARABLE According to Government statistics there are: 213206.66 ha (3,198,100 mu) of grassland, (ed :this must represent Shiqu county) 4593.33 ha (68,900 mu) of cultivable land. The amount of land held by one household varied between 0.73 and 4ha (on average 2.083ha). 13 years ago the land was distributed among the people (0.333ha per person). Yields are better now than 5 years ago due to 1) self management, 2) better husbandry, 3) better seed, technological advancement and more frequent introduction of new seed. Other factors that were cited in individual cases were the increased use of artificial fertilizers (urea) and more use of children's help. Last year (1994) yields were some of the best, yields this year (1995) are expected to be poorer because of a dry summer (estimates of about 30% reduction for wheat). The main crops of wheat and barley are usually grown on a rotational basis with either potatoes or beans. The use of fallow was common with some farmers having up to 30% at rest in any one season. Green manuring with the use of soya beans as a principle source was also practiced. Animal manure mixed with straw is the most common fertilizer (26,250kg/ha?). General damage is caused to the crops from hail storms (average 7.1 days/year). Irrigation is essential for

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reasonable crop yields and is one of the major causes for concern. Some surplus grain is sold in to the Tibetan Autonomous Region. The principle crops grown are: Commodity Grassland 866.66ha Winter Wheat 666.66ha Barley 666.66ha Beans (Soya) 200ha Potatoes 100ha Oil seed 33.33ha 1)Commodity Grassland. This is included under the total cultivated land statistics. This is cut once a year and used for animal feed. Government support is given for this crop (120RMB/ha). New fields are sown with grass and left for 2 -3 years prior to arable cropping. It is planned to sow a further 866.66ha of grassland under the LEAP 7year plan, the bulk of this is planned to be exported to Shiqu. Improved yields from the commodity grassland is being sought from the use of more productive varieties and better management. There were no reported pest or disease problems. 2)Winter Wheat. This is one of the major crops grown in the area, although it has only recently been introduced in some areas. It has a growing period of 350 days. Yields figures ranged between 3000kg/ha and 5250kg/ha. Market prices were quoted as 2.4RMB/kg. Wheat was also sold to the government at 14RMB/kg. There was no differentiation of varieties grown according to soil conditions, altitude etc. In the Agricultural station there were 18 different plots growing wheat. Wheat is usually grown in a rotation with barley and beans with some using an alternate cropping of wheat and fallow instead. It was usual practice to keep some wheat for sowing the following year (13 - 33%). There were no specific problems reported with disease or pests, but heavy infestation with Wild Oats was obvious and identified as a problem. 3)Barley. This is the most popular crop grown with up to 50% of the land being sown in any one season. It has a growing period of 130 days. Yield figures ranged between 2250kg/ha and 4500kg/ha. Market prices were quoted as 2.6RMB/kg. Typically 25% of the barley crop was sold. Some farmers sold as much as 10% to Nomads. Barley was also sold or given to the Government (some gave 3% to Govt.). There was no differentiation of varieties grown according to soil conditions, altitude etc. In the Agricultural station there were 12 different plots growing Barley. It was usually grown in rotation with potatoes and beans. Some fields were under continuous cropping. It was usual practice to keep some barley for sowing the following year (13 - 33%). The following health/disease/pest problems were reported specifically in relation to the Barley: 1)Rust/brown spot; 2)white insect that attacks one month after planting (possibly a wireworm type); 3)Soot, causing the heads of corn to turn black before ripening. Wild Oats were also a major problem in cereals generally.

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4)Beans (Soya). Up to 7.5% of the cropping may be given over to Beans in any one year, principally for consumption but its role as a soil improver and fertility restorer was also recognized. It was grown in rotation with the main arable crops of Barley and wheat and potatoes, quite frequently as an alternate crop (barley-beans-barley or wheat- beans-wheat). Yields ranged between 1500 - 2250kg/ha. There were no specific health/disease/pest problems identified with the Bean crops. 5)Potatoes. About 5% of the cropping may be given over to Potatoes in any one year. It was usually grown in rotation with barley. Yields of 11250-15000kg/ha were reported. Potatoes may be sold for 2.4RMB/kg. The main health problem concerned a possible wireworm type pest. 6)Oil Seed. This formed only a small part of the overall cropping programme (less than 2%) and not many statistics are available. It was not grown by everyone. The seed is used for oil and the haulm is fed to horses. It is included as one of the crops that will increased under the 7 year plan, and promoted along with the possibility of developing a processing facility in the town. 7)Vegetables. In this section we will consider not only vegetables (excluding Potatoes) that are grown in the field but those grown in the gardens around the dwelling places. In both cases the actual quantities are small, but they do form an important part of the subsistence farmers livelihood strategies (see 6.1(2)). In the garden Oil seed rape may also be grown in small quantities for home consumption. The following are the main types of vegetables grown: Cabbage (two types), turnip, onion (spring), radish, peas/beans, cauliflower/broccoli, spinach. Recently introduced crops include Onions and Chinese cabbage, the growing of these crops was encouraged by the Government and by other growers who had successfully grown them. The principle advantage of these new crops was their saleability. Some excess produce may be sold, although there is no street market as such in the area. Cabbage may fetch 1.6RMB/kg, potatoes 2.4RMB/kg. The agricultural research station had tried growing Peppers (Capsicum) but this had proved unsuitable. Maize and Sunflowers were also being grown in the Research plots. The nomads did not grow any produce either by their encampments or their winter dwellings. There were no particular health/disease/pest problems reported, but lack of water was a restricting factor. 6.2.3 LAND TENURE & MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS In common with Communist practice all land belongs to the People (ie. the Government). The land is the leased from the Government either by the community, government organizations, work units or individuals. Individuals can also lease the land from any of the above organizations. The land is leased from the government for periods of 70 years, which is extendable and inheritable. The first 15 years are rent free, although this may be extended. The amount varies

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from village to village depending on the production unit e.g. Luoxu 86RMB/year/capita/0.2666ha average. There is a policy of preferential treatment for "outsiders" to lease land which will include tax/duty free allowances, this policy is likely to be implemented in 1996. It is also Government policy to encourage the nomads to settle and produce crops although how this was to be implemented was not made clear. At present the nomads have no land of their own but have communal access to grazing land for which they pay the government 1.8RMB per Yak/year (Shiqu rate, Luoxu rate unknown). It is up to the lessee to decide what crops are grown, although there are certain incentives given by the government to grow certain crops: commodity grassland 120RMB/ha; poplar trees 1500RMB/ha. These rates may vary from year to year and are dependent on government policy. 6.2.4 CURRENT TRENDS The current trend is for expansion on both old and new ground. 30% of the current cultivated land is unused (this includes land that is lying fallow). New fields are harvested and left for 2/3years before being brought in to the arable production rotation. Improved yields are being obtained by improved varieties and better management including the use of more artificial fertilizer. Farmers are being encouraged to replace their seed more frequently (every 2/3 years). It is now possible for individuals to lease land for themselves and to "own" livestock which they were not able to do 20 years ago. There is no infrastructure at present for the marketing of produce whether locally or further afield. Commodity exchange occurs in a limited way, there is no street market at present. Some grain is exported to the Tibetan Autonomous region. 6.2.5 RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT For a detailed break down of this refer to the LEAP 7 year plan. It is part of the 7 year plan to plant 1666.66ha of trees and grass (of which 866.66ha is grass). The following crops will also be encouraged: apples, wolfberries, walnuts, vegetables (cabbage, spinach, broad beans, turnip, peas, tomatoes, greens), oilseed, potatoes, green manure. Cash crops will be encouraged to be grown on unused land. Production base increases will be sought in grain and oil, commodity grassland and vegetables for export. This will be facilitated by increasing mechanization, product processing, infrastructure improvement, the introduction of Management and marketing systems and the education and training of farmers. At present no grain is exported to Shiqu because of poor road communications, Shiqu is dependent on receiving grain from Chengdu. One aim of the 7 year plan is to provide more produce for Shiqu. There are no agricultural product processing plants in Luoxu, any processing that takes place in the locality is on a cottage industry basis. Other constraints that will affect the development of resources is the availability of reliable electricity to run processing plants and linked with that is the overall supply of water whether for irrigation, domestic consumption, industrial use or hydro electric. 6.2.6 THE ECONOMICS OF AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT Whether it will ever be economically viable to develop the resources as detailed above (see 6.2.5) is a matter of conjecture. The economy is at present only just

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above subsistence level, with very little being exported out of the area. The ability to increase production above current levels at a reasonable cost and without jeopardizing the present livelihood strategies of the majority local people especially the marginal and disadvantaged is doubtful. Equally while the political will may exist to achieve such an aim, the local people may not be prepared to take that risk or outside investment be forthcoming for such a debatable project. Before any plan is implemented to increase production serious consideration must be given to what is to happen to the surplus. If it is proposed to export the surplus to the county town Shiqu which is 76km away travelling by a road that is usually closed and when it is passable is a hazardous and dangerous journey over a mountain pass of 5000m; the alternative route to Shiqu is 257km and by no means an easy road. To ensure that any produce arrives in Shiqu in a saleable state (fresh and undamaged) then the road connection between the towns must be improved. Other markets are over 300km away and communication with them is by no means easier or more reliable. If these towns are to be the catchment area for the disposal of surplus produce then it would also be advisable to make sure that surpluses occur in products that are marketable in these towns; some market research into what crops would be in demand and current levels of supply into these areas is essential to maximize the economics of this endeavor. If it is proposed to increase production to facilitate the processing of the products into a form that is more easily transportable and therefore allowing access to a wider market it has to be established that there is sufficient surplus production capacity to justify the existence of such a processing plant or plants. This would possibly entail the introduction of new crops (ie. Blackcurrants, Flax) and would restrict the amount of land available for maintaining the existing subsistence levels of production. If it is possible to find suitable crops that could be grown on presently uncultivated or uncultivatable land in sufficiently large enough quantities this may be feasible. The matter of economics should be given serious thought before any development is undertaken. 6.2.7 AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT & CULTURAL IMPACT Although this is covered more generally elsewhere there are one or two aspects that are particularly relevant to the Agricultural situation . The Tibetan people in Dengke are generally agro-pastoralists or pastoralists; the Han Chinese are administrators and advisory and their agricultural expertise would be in agricultural arable production. Furthermore the Tibetans would be more familiar with a subsistence level of production than the Chinese who would be familiar with production according to demand (be it political or market). The current state of relations between Han and Tibetan means that the Tibetan can to a certain degree dictate their own 'fate'. There would not be the same level of consideration given to the possible longer term and/or environmental consequences of any development as in the West. Progress is primarily determined by increased production and profitability. There are two government policies that are or may be implemented: 1) settlement of nomads and get them to produce crops; 2) the encouragement of outsiders to settle and produce crops. These are encroachments into the indigenous culture and could lead to economic and political instability.

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CHAPTER 6.3 FORESTRY

6.3.1 Introduction 1)The Role of Forests 2)The onset of deforestation 3)The scale of the problem 4)Reforestation : too little too late 5)Rationale for timber mining 6)Government response 7)Poor management 8)Indigenous peoples participation 9)The way forward 6.3.2 Forestry in Luoxu Township 1)Introduction 2)Forest Flora 3)Deforestation, felling & timber sales 4)Tree planting 5)Plantation forestry 6)Plantation economics 7)User rights and forest product use 8)Land & tree tenure 9)Forestry staff & training 6.3.3 The importance of trees & forests to the community 1)The community survey 2)Sample size & statistical significance 3)Gender 4)Importance of forest products 5)Poplar 6)Medicinal Herbs 7)Cash Income 8)Food security 9)Tree stories 6.3.4 Discussion 1)The supply and demand for forest products a)Forest Yield & inventory b)Estimated current volume & yield c)Estimated volume & yield in 2021 d)Demand for forest products e)Sustainable net supply of forest products 2)Income generation 3)Environmental & social impact 4)Indigenous knowledge & management 5)Mechanisms for cooperation 6)Ethnic strategies 7)Zones 6.3.5 Recommendation

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6.3.1 INTRODUCTION 1)Role of Forests Forests are an important resource in any country. They not only supply timber and other products but they play a vital role in environmental protection, and have economic and social significance. Forests in mountain areas are particularly important because they a) protect soil from rain and wind b)enhance agricultural production c)provide products, goods and services for peasant farmers and d)protect downstream areas from excessive flooding and other harmful fluctuations in stream flow. This is particularly important in the fragile mountains of southwestern China, where high intensity, long-duration rainfall, extreme variations in landform, steep stream gradients, earth tremors, mass movements, landslides and other natural hazards are common. In these areas, accelerated forest degradation causes adverse effects not only in the uplands but also downstream. 2)The onset of Deforestation Southwestern China was once a very important forest region ,and it still contains today 30% of the nations growing stock. Since the arrival of chinese modernization in the early 1950's the forests of the Tibetan plateau have been reduced by half (first reported by Smil 1983,1984, Zheng 1985, Dong 1985, Yang 1986a&b in Winkler 1995) and macro-scale timber production enterprises were established (Richardson 1990). The destruction of the forests has mainly been caused by "planned" commercial timber extraction (Smil 1984 19) and not through population pressure. Very often large areas of forest have been clear felled, on both northern and southern slopes. 3)The scale of the problem The Tibetan government in exile (DIIR 1992 21) estimates that forest cover for the whole plateau had dropped from 9% in 1950 to 5% in 1985. Smil (1984 19) notes that the most alarming figures on forest destruction in China come from Sichuan. As late as 1986 chinese foresters provided the following statistics for Sichuan Province : Annual felling 30m m3, Annual growth 15m m3, Resource Life 10 years! (Richardson D. 1990) As a result of more than 30 years of intensive exploitation, mostly from the Tibetan plateau (Sichuan) , forest resources are exhausted in many accessible places, and the forest cover has decreased from 30%(1950's) to 14%(1980's). The annual production from West Sichuan exceeds natural reproduction by up to 4 times (Yang 1985) and Luhuo Forest Bureau (near Ganzi) by 3 times, just to pay its 2500 workers. In Aba Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture (TAP) 68% of the forest cover has been removed in recent years (Smil and Yu in Heberer 1984). In Ganzi TAP, along the Yarlung valley (Yang 1986 41) forest cover has been reduced from 19.4% to 10% in 30 years. The consensus suggests that forest cover has been reduced by 50%, not including the last 10 years.

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Map 6 - T

he Forests of S

ichuan Province

Source : W

CM

C C

ambridge U

K

Sichuan ProvinceRemaining Forest

Protected areas

Protected areas (proposed)

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4)Reforestation , on the plateau, too little too late According to Chinese law (Li & Zhang 1985) afforestation should follow felling, however the ratio of trees felled to trees planted is estimated (He 1991) ,on the plateau, at 10:1 and survival rates of 30% are common (Han 1985). Southern slopes are particularly difficult to replant once large areas have been clear felled (Han 1985). Although Yang (1987) has suggested limiting felling coups to 3 to 5 ha this has hardly been translated into practice. 5)The impact of large scale deforestation Large scale clear felling, as practiced widely (Dong 1985), inhibits natural regeneration unnecessarily and has serious ecological consequences. Although the area of intensive exploitation may be small ,the influence on the environment has been rapid. Upland erosion has led to extremely high sediment loads in many of the region's rivers. Each year the Yellow and Yangtze rivers, combined, discharge 2095m tons of silt.(Richardson 1990). Soil erosion has caused sedimentation and siltation damage to reservoirs, hydro-electric projects, and irrigation and domestic water supply networks. It has also led to an increase in flood frequency, loss of crops, property and lives.(Tacke E.F. 1993). Less well known are the climatic importance of Tibets forests. Reiter (1981) reports that the Tibetan plateau plays an important role in global circulation, especially of the jet streams. There is concern that deforestation on the plateau might negatively influence the onset of the Indian monsoon. 6)The rationale for timber mining There are several factors causing this short-sighted destruction. Deforestation is a very common phenomenon in China. Other forest areas, like Heilong Jiang, in the Northeast are being depleted in a similar tragic manner (Smil 1983). Timber is a key commodity and supply is short. Consumption, which is increasing with the booming economy, is much higher than natural regrowth. In the southeast of the plateau the forest industry is undoubtedly the most significant, having played a key role in promoting the development of transport and other industries in the area (Dong 1985). In addition timber sales are the most important cash revenue of the local administration who sell the timber and earn badly cash needed since farmers and nomads pay little or no tax. In order to increase their logging quotas local administrations are suspected of falsely reporting higher figures of growing stock. The felling rate is supposedly set by the forestry departments according to the annual natural production. A functioning system of monitoring is still missing (Richardson 1990) Nowadays the local people ,as well, need cash income to survive. The formerly practiced subsistence economy is being rapidly eroded by government policy, modernization and the market economy. Bartering was banned in the early 1950's and nomads are being settled and forced into wage labour. Working as a logger is one of the very few opportunities for the local Tibetan people to make money. Asked by a journalist (Ludwig 1994) why Tibetans were destroying their own forest they replied that it was the only way to feed their families. 7)Government Response It was two floods on the Yangtze river (in 1981 and 1983) that underpinned

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the relationship between water conservation, land use and forestry and resulted in an acknowledgment that deforestation had played some part.(Richardson 1990). Although Beijing recognizes the problem they have only responded by a number of ineffective measures. On 28 April 1986 the State Council promulgated regulations for the implementation of the Consolidated Forest Law. Grassland and woodland with 30 % canopy cover was in future to be defined as forest resources (formerly it had been 40 %). In a stroke the forest land area had increased from 273 million ha to 287 million ha (Richardson 1990). Other measures ,in Sichuan ,included afforestation of fast growing species in the plains, by ineffective log movement regulations , by limited felling bans, and by limited focus on river headwaters. Since 1984 the forest areas of Sichuan have ceased to decline, from 1984 to 1988 an average of 144,100ha of forest were added each year.(Li W. 1993) Although this is encouraging, much of the emphasis has been on commercial species in the plains, more needs to be done in the hills. The World Bank sheds crocodile tears over deforestation in the hills and then funds plantations in the plains. Rhetoric and reality are miles (and 3,000m) apart. Before reaching the checkpoints entering Chengdu, where the timber is sold, the highway is lined by small improvised sawmills, who turn the logs into planks and beams, because logs appear to be subject to some restrictions. He (1991) blames the forest destruction on the unrestrained activities of local and state enterprises and greedy individuals. 8)Poor management The problem lies not with timber production but the absence of sustainable management. Although much valuable forestry research has been done in West Sichuan (e.g. Li 1990) Dong (1985) reported that the forest industry had not conformed to natural and economic principles and that there had been no real attempt to manage the forest. China has to use its resources and it badly needs timber. The abuse must end by introducing proper forest management methods based on ecological and economic principles. On a global basis a wealth of material exists on sustainable montane forestry. In the Alps, for example the same spruce-fir forests predominate and the basic features of the forests are very similar. 9)Indigenous peoples participation Much deforestation and reforestation , in southwest China has gone on without full reference to the local people, in spite of its current global emphasis. Village forests have been appropriated by government departments and new species introduced without fully consulting the local people. This is exacerbated by the fact that much of the forest areas lie in minority areas and the state organs responsible for forestry are mostly Han chinese led. Any agent of forestry intervention needs to be cognizant with the sensitivities involved. Since the early 80's the international forestry community has recognized the need to incorporated the participation of local people in forestry (World Bank UD & 1992, FAO UD, Gilmour & F isher 1991). At the Rio "Earth Summit", (Grubb M et al 1993 & Ke ating M 1993) which China signed as part of Agenda 21 (3rd to 14th June 1992) the vital role of indigenous

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people, women youth, and other local communities in environmental management and development (including reforestation) was highlighted (Agenda 21 item 10, 20, 21, & 22) and the States role in a) enabling their empowerment b) recognizing and supporting their identity, indigenous knowledge, intellectual property rights and culture and c)in enabling their full participation in the development process. There is resonance in the writings of chinese scholars and foresters. Li W. (1993) recommends the peoples participation in reforestation in the SW China mountain areas. Long C.L. and S.Y.Chen (1994) recommend that indigenous knowledge be used for natural resource management. Use is being made of Rural Rapid Appraisal (RRA) techniques in several parts of the Yangtze headwater shelter forest area to understand the needs of the local people, to resolve potential conflicts of interest and involve them in reforestation (Du S 1993 and Zou H 1993). Sadly very little RRA has been done among China's minority peoples. To the authors knowledge this study ,of which this paper is a part represents the first occurrence of a forestry RRA among Tibetan people in Western Sichuan. 10)The way forward The present situation clearly demands a change. For Sichuan, China and Asia the forests fulfill a crucial ecological function. Over Exploitation must be stopped as soon as possible. For the local people the forests could provide an invaluable asset if managed in a sustainable and economically appropriate manner. Foreign cooperation can be of great help in initiating pilot projects and action research. The current workforce and population needs to be empowered and trained in the planning, design and management of afforestation ,forest management, and environmentally-friendly harvesting systems. In addition the establishment of local small scale forest enterprises could stimulate the economy at the peripheral level. The extra jobs created could provide extra financial resources which could be used by the local administration for infrastructure projects. With help, cooperation and good management the forests of Western Sichuan could return to their former glory. 6.3.2 FORESTRY IN LUOXU TOWNSHIP 1)Introduction Dengke town, the capital of Luoxu township , is located on the eastern bank of the upper reaches of the Yangtze River (32o 28.98' N 98o 00.18'E). Luoxu township lies close to the junction of Sichuan Province, Qinghai Province (Yushu Prefecture) and Tibet Autonomous Region (Jiangda County). Compared with the areas of high elevation that surround it the natural conditions are very favorable. Luoxu township covers an area of 3,360,500 Mu (224 square kilometers). It comprises 68,900 Mu (4596ha) of cultivated land, 93,500 Mu (6234ha) of forest and 3,198,100 Mu (213,207ha) of grassland (Ang Luo 1995). 2)Forest Flora The main natural forest species in Luoxu Township according to Feng (pers comm) are Spruce (Picea balfouriana ??), Fir (Abies squamata)??, "Cypress" (possibly Juniper (Juniperus spp)), Birch (Betula spp) and Poplar (Populus davidiana ??). Using Teng's (1948) classification Dengke lies in the west of the "Northern

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Map 7 - Landuse Map of Luoxu Township Source: Forest WCMC uk - Cropland NRSC UK

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Subalpine forest area" (an area extending from Chamdo in the west to Kangding in the east , and from Litang in the south and the Kuenlun mountains in the north. The dominant climax species in this area are Abies squamata Mast and Picea Balfouriana Redh et Wils. Minor species include :- Abies chensiensis Van Tiegh Larix Potaninii, Tsuga yunnanensis (Franch) Mast T. chinensis, Picea retroflexa Mast, Quercus semicarpifolia Smith, Pinus tabulaeformis densata Mast and Juniperus spp . The Forest flora of this area is characterized by a decrease in complexity from the southwest to the north and west, due to higher precipitation and lower elevation in the southeast. In consequence , species of relatively low altitudinal distribution , such as Tsuga chinensis T. yunnanensis, Abies chinsiensis, Picea retroflexa and Pinus tabulaeformis densata gradually drop out as the general elevation increases to the north and west. Forests in the northern and western part of this area appear only in gorges and in the extreme west Abies squamata lags behind Picea balfouriana. Eventually the latter forming pure stands due to its less exacting moisture requirements. 3)Deforestation , felling & timber sales No records are available of the extent of deforestation in Dengke township since the Sino-Tibetan war (October 1950)or of timber sales. According to government officials and supported by the community survey the forest area has increased within the lifetime of the people surveyed. Although the area has increased it was not established if the standing volume per ha has decreased. The reasons given for the increase appeared to be at variance. The government stated that ( up the Bon Chu and Long Chee rivers) natural regeneration had been encouraged and the villagers surveyed stated that government had planted areas adjacent to the forest. This requires further investigation. The government is allowed to fell 500 cubic metres of timber from its old growth forest, but decided in 1994 not to fell at all in Dengke. It obtains timber for construction from TAR. Individuals do fell the odd tree in Dengke, but they require a permit. No estimated of the volume felled were available. 4)Tree planting Migot (1955) records the presence of planted trees around the Dengke Gomba when he passed through in 1947. Since the Sino-Tibetan war (October 1950) more trees (mostly) Poplar have been planted around homes and compounds (See Map 5 of Dengke town.) Of the villagers surveyed (excluding nomads) 50 % had planted 1 tree or more (the average being 15.6) 5)Plantation forestry With the implementation of the "7 year plan" (See section 3.5) plantation forestry began. The 7 year plan which began in 1994 includes 3 forestry projects that comprise :- Poplar (Kangding & Beijing), Wolf berries Lycium chinense, and apples. The Forestry Bureau (FB) plan to plant 11,00 mu (733.33 ha) of poplar over the 7 years. In 1996 they plan to plant 73.33 ha of Poplar, 40 ha of wolf berries & 8.66 ha of apples (Feng pers com 9/95)

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Photo 13 Agro-forestry along the banks of the Upper Yangtze. Tibetans plant Wolf berries (Lycium chinensis) around a plantation of Poplar

Photo 14 Apple trees ( “Small Winter Red” and “Gold Cap”) intercropped with cabbage at the Gwayso Agricultural Research Station

Photo 15 In search of nomads! The survey team riding through Spruce (Picea balfouriana) and scrub on their way to the high pastures. In the middle distance is the Yangtze river and in the far distance in the Tibetan Autonomous region.

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6)The economics of Plantation Forestry Details of costs or financial viability were unavailable for the new Poplar plantations. Extrapolating from Hongyuan county from a fir-spruce plantation the costs are as follows using a Poplar density of 1666 trees/ha TABLE 6.4 PLANTATION ECONOMICS

ITEM RMB PER UNIT RMB PER HA

COSTS

Year 0 Plants Freight Planting Year 1-19 Tending Survey Year 20 Clear felling

0.5/tree 0.5/tree 600/ha includes levelling 150/ha/10 years 15/ha/19 years 50/m3/200m3

833 833 600 150 15 1000

REVENUE

Year 20 Clear felling

250/m3/150m3 (sold)

50000

On the basis of the figures one could expect an IRR of 13 % * This assumes that the price for poplar pulp is half conifer sawlogs and only 150 m3/ha is saleable. 7)User rights and forest product use No access at all is permitted in the 13,000 mu (866 ha) of protection forest and to other forest land from October to May (Feng pers com 9/95). I am unsure to what extent the latter is enforced as very few of the villagers surveyed appeared to be aware of the regulation. The villagers did respect special groves, trees and Lera mountain. . There appear to be no restrictions on the amount of "minor forest products" removed for home consumption or for sale (i.e. medicinal herbs). Typically villagers collect/use the following from the forest :- firewood (5000kg/family/year), game (historically) ,livestock forage, mushrooms, medicinal herbs (Baymoo, Zhumoo, Wolf berry, Rhubarb, Bezoar, Worm grass & caladium). There is no tradition of fodder or compost collection (Feng pers com 9/95 and supported by the survey), although livestock manure is brought from the grassland to the farms. Nomads have equal user rights in non protected forest for products and for grazing and sheltering their stock. They are reported to illegally encroach on protected forest. (Feng pers. comm. 9/95 9/95) 8)Land and Tree Tenure All land is owned by the State, but it is possible for groups and individuals to exercise some management rights. There are three types of "forest" management. a)Managed by the Forestry Bureau

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b)Forest leased and managed by the community. It can be leased for 80 years, and the lease can be extended if the forest is managed well. Leased forest is subject to three levels of tax, if it shows a profit :- a business certificate tax (300 RMB/m3), an industry & commerce department tax, and a business tax. c)Bare ground, planted leased & managed by individuals, a family or group. 9)Forestry Staff complement, Training & Buildings Most of the agriculture and forestry staff were employed by Shiqu county and seconded to Luoxu township. a)Complement Agricultural & Forestry Bureau staff 6 Agricultural Technical Staff 5 Forestry Department staff 22 Agricultural village testing station (5) 6 Forestry workers (5 villages) 8 Wood inspection staff (Shiqu) 5 Agricultural machinery staff (Shiqu) 9 b)Training Xichang Ag. Technical College Kangding Middle Technical College Kangding Forestry School c)New Agriculture & Forestry Building A new 6 story agriculture & forestry building will be completed in 1996. 6.3.3 THE IMPORTANCE OF TREES AND FORESTS TO THE COMMUNITY 1)The Community Survey The following were interviewed :Total number of people :- 8, Status :-2 leaders, 2 villagers, 2 nomads, 1 key informant (a traditional tibetan doctor) & 1 carpenter Sex :- 6 men & 2 women, Village selection :- 2 near the river & 2 nomad encampments. a)Forests visited by those interviewed :-Longco, Lorong, Porung, Roshay & Obala. The nomads, who move about 3 times a year use the local forest. b)Average time taken for a return visit to nearest forest = 5.5 hrs (s.d. 2.27 & range 2-10) c)Trips per year to the forest = 15 (s.d. 16.86 range 3 - 40) d)37.5% of those interviewed collected firewood from forest & non-forest areas ) e)Forests goods & services (other than firewood) :- Timber (100%), Fungi (75%), Fruits & Nuts (62.5%)1, Fodder (0%), Medicinal Herbs (87.5%), Vegetables (12.5%), Compost (0%), Forage (37.5%), Water conservation (12.5%) f)Obtained timber from TAR & Dengke 18.75% g)Timber species used Bolo (100%)2, Shubar (87.5%)3, & Baysoo (12.5%) h)Firewood species used :- Shubar (100%), Dajong (37.5%), Baysoo (25%) Nayshing, Wanbow, Naray, Lomgma, Bayma, Tseegar, Sasoo, Wayjo, Oogna, Nyerai, Luna, Dedjong4, Siera & Bolo (12.5%). i)The most important species are Bolo (100%), Shubar (100%), Sasoo (12.5%) and Baysoo (12.5%)

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j)Other species collected from forest. -Medicinal herbs :- Baymoo (75%), Wormgrass (37.5%) Zion , Yitsohoi, Juneyhoi, Bahagar (12.5%) -Fruit and vegetables :- Shin (a vegetable), Seedo (25%) k)50% of those interviewed (excluding nomads) had planted 1 tree or more (the average being 15.6). Species planted were Apples and willow. l)87% of those interviewed knew of special trees, and/or groves, and/or mountains. All these were protected from cutting, although in the case of the last two grazing and planting were allowed. m)12.5% of those interviewed knew of tree stories embedded in their culture. n)37.5% reported that the forest size had increased in their lifetime. o)12.5% of those interviewed reported collecting forest products all year round and 25% seasonally. p)Forage species :- Deri, Longma q)37.5% reported food shortages during the year. 2)Sample size & Statistical significance This survey is far too small to be statically significant but it least it gives an impression of the importance of trees and forests to the community 3)Gender It had been hoped to interview 3 women ,but one woman we started to interview was joined by her husband to whom she constantly deferred. 4)The importance of Forest Products Forest products are vitally important for the livelihood strategies of all those interviewed , but especially for the poor and the nomads. 5)Poplar and Species choice. One of the reasons why Poplar was chosen for the 7 year plan was due to its acceptance by the local people (FEDI pers com 9/95). Poplar was not mentioned, by any interviewee although perhaps that's because its not considered a forest species. 6)Medicine The traditional tibetan doctor interviewed depended heavily on medicinal herbs. He and 23 other doctors spend the summer gathering herbs. Forests often provide the only medicines available to the vast majority of the world's population. (75-90% of the developing world) (FAO 1989). A major investigation of the medicinal plant resource is required with a view to securing a stainable supply. 1 This figure was probably higher as we only asked about fruits & nut collection at the beginning and not as snacks. 2 "Bolo" is Spruce (Picea spp) and Fir (Abies spp) 3 "Shubar" is Juniper (Juniperus spp) 4 Dedjong and Dajong may be the same

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7)Cash income Medicinal herbs and other forest products constitute a major source of cash income. For a nomad (interviwee 8) selling medicinal herbs represented the only source of cash. The current value of Baymoo is 200 RMB/kg and for Wormgrass is 8000 RMB/kg. For many of the worlds poor gathering and processing of forest products provide an emergency means of cash earning during emergencies (FAO 1989). 8)Food security 62.5% of those interviewed snacked on or collected fruits, nuts, & berries, 75% on Fungi and 12.5% on wild vegetables. The figure for fruits, nuts and berries might be a little low as the initial question only included products "collected" and snacks were not considered. Forests, globally provide a buffer food source during droughts, shortages and other emergency periods (FAO 1989) 9)Tree Stories One tree in Lhadza , that was reported to be more than 1000 years old had a special significance in the oral traditions of the people as it was linked with 190 springs. As far as the villagers were concerned if the tree was ever felled the village would lose its water . There is considerable resonance here with other tree-water stories embedded in the indigenous knowledge of minority people (see Long and Chen 1994) 6.3.4 DISCUSSION 1)Supply & Demand (see Appendix 1 for more details) a)Forestry Yield and inventory (supply) No systematic inventory has ever been conducted of Dengke's "old growth" forest resources. Time only allowed the survey team the most rudimentary examination of the forest and a systematic inventory should be included as part of further investigation. In 1994 as part of the LEAP 7 year plan a 733.33 ha plantation of Poplar commenced. There are plans to clear fell this after 20 years. Although the forest area has increased (survey) since the Sino-tibetan war (1950) there is every reason to suggest that the stocking has decreased and is reaching critical proportions. Although the local government are allowed to fell 500m3 a year from their forests they have chosen not too. The survey revealed that there had been felling restrictions for "many years". This has to indicate concern on their part. In order to estimate the current & future supply it has been necessary to extrapolate from interviews, research papers, national figures, provincial figures, National Remote Sensing Centre (NRSC) (UK) images & maps, and World Conservation Monitoring Centre (WCMC) (Cambridge, UK) maps. Some locally available maps were digitized and a GIS software package used to calculate areas. The result is at best a guesstimate.

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TABLE 6. 5 FOREST AREAS

FOREST TYPE 1995 HA 2021 HA

Protected Forest1 Shrub "Open" Forest 2 "Closed" Forest3 Poplar Plantations (est.)

866 (Feng) 636 (est) 2127(est) 2618 209.52

866 636 2127 2618 733.33

TOTAL (excd Poplar) 6234 4(use 2618) 6967.33 (use 3350)

b)Current estimated volume & yield TABLE 6.6 ESTIMATED CURRENT STANDING VOLUME & YIELD

Spruce Forest m3/ha Dengke m3 Annual yield m3

Stemwood Branchwood Shrubs Grass Other Poplar

174 56.27 10.09 5.488T/h na negligible

1436.75T

157.86T

TOTAL (wood ) 240.36 * 2618 = 628.320*1.31% = 8230.99

c)Estimated volume & yield in 2021 TABLE 6.7 ESTIMATED STANDING VOLUME & YIELD IN 2021

Forest m3/ha Dengke m3 Annual yield m3

Spruce Poplar

240.36 *2618= 2005 *733.33=

628.320 *1.31%= 146,666 *5%=

8230.99 7333.33

TOTAL 774.986 15,564.32

d)Demand for Forest Products (from Spruce Forest & Poplar Plantations) Information was obtained from the survey and extrapolated from global literature. TABLE 6.8 DEMAND FOR FOREST PRODUCTS

Product 1995 m3/yr 2021 m3/yr

Firewood Local Timber Timber sales

6901 * 2.1%6= 3301 *2.1%= 0

11,845 5,667 3,665 (1/2)7

TOTAL 10,202 21,177

1 The WCMC map (see map 6) shows "Luoxi" protection forest about 30 km from Luoxu. 2 Open forest has less than 30% canopy closure 3 Closed forest has more than 30% canopy closure (protection forest has not been included with closed) 4 The WNMC image with GIS software gave 8506ha (comparison was also made with NRSC images) 5 Includes 50 m3 branch/shrub wood 6 Current population increase 7 Half Poplar sold & half used for local consumption.

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e)Sustainable Net Supply of Forest Products TABLE 6.9 SUSTAINABLE NET SUPPLY OF FOREST PRODUCTS

YEAR SUPPLY m3/year DEMAND m3/year

NET SUPPLY m3/year

1995 8,230.99 10,202 -1971.01

2021 15,564.32 21,177 -5612.68

It would appear that Dengke requires an additional 565 ha (5612.68 *20/200) of Poplar plantation to catch-up and remain sustainable. If in addition to new plantations the old growth forest could be upgraded this would enable Dengke to keep up with demand as population increases. 2)Income generation from forestry Forestry does have the potential for offering major sources of income generation both for government and for the community. There are dangers though of "core" capture or rural elite capture, and that the majority of the income will not remain in Dengke at all or it will remain with a small national elite. Medicinal plants represent a potential source of income generation , in fact for some of the people interviewed it represented the only source. A thorough investigation of the medicinal plant resource is necessary and of their potential for cultivation before they are promoted. Wolfberries are still experimental and little is known of their potential for income generation. Given the lack of infrastructure, and distance to major markets, it is questionable, even with new varieties, if major apple production would be economically viable. The new poplar plantations will represent a considerable source of income, both as wage labour for the community and in timber sales for the government, and forest products. It behoves government to achieve the right balance between optimized income and subsistence demand. 3)Environmental & social impact Any intervention among the indigenous minority peoples of Dengke should be carefully considered and its possible environmental and social impact. Any new development should be predicated on the following measures :- a)enabling self-management (ownership) & more local control over lives b)meeting legitimate felt needs c)reducing isolation from decision making d)reinforcing cultural identity and confidence e)excluding unfavorable forms of assimilation f)allowing time for the majority of adopters g)safeguarding the subsistence base h)strengthening the local economy in an appropriate manner i)recognizing women j)providing appropriate services

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4)Indigenous knowledge & management Time did not allow the survey team to pursue this area in any depth. Although a comparison between the official perception of forest usage and the community survey revealed a much wider range of products and services from the community. The link between natural resources and conservation is embedded in the culture of the people of Dengke and a reverence for certain physical phenomena. For the people of Lhadza a certain 1000 year old tree was linked with 190 springs and if it was ever cut down the village would lose its water supply. For others it was other trees, groves or for Mount Lera. The universality of religious beliefs and practices as a conservation method has been illustrated by a number of authors (Warren et al 1995, Pei ud, Schultes 1974, Ayensu 1980, Barrow 1988, Guha 1985 and Maydell 1986). Reichel (1992) reports that in the Columbian Amazon the religious practitioners engage in complex systems of environmental accounting, auditing and for monitoring life. The recurrent theme is one of reverence and protection of certain trees, forests, pools, animals or birds for religious purposes. Leff (1989) refers to the importance of these religious/conservation practices and suggests that both ethnobotanic and anthropological studies are necessary to understand the phenomena. Further investigation is required to enable any natural resource intervention to be predicated on the religeo-conservation paradigm of the local people. 5)Mechanisms for Forestry Cooperation The survey revealed the presence of formal (religious, political, womens, savings etc) and informal (harvesting , herding, herb collection, firewood collection) mechanisms for cooperation. Although the administration appeared to be unfamiliar with a natural resource "user-group" concept there appears to be no sociological reason why they should not exist. With the nationalization of land in the early 50's traditional management patterns may have broken down. User groups and traditional resource management requires further investigation. 6)Ethnic strategies The Majority of people in Dengke are Tibetan and have not adopted ethnically diverse natural resource use patterns. The nomads ,women and the poor are more dependent on the forest for their subsistence needs and their interests need to be protected. 7)Zones There is a need to safeguard the resources of each group of stake-holders and the following zones need to be developed. a)Protection Forest -500 m either side of ridge tops and major water courses. b)Community Forests - within say 3km of all villages and selected nomad encampments. c)Plantation Forests - on flat marginal land near the road and immediately adjacent to the Yangtze river (between the cropland and the river) 6.3.5 RECOMMENDATIONS a)665 ha of Poplar plantation be planted in addition to the planned 733.33ha b)The old growth forest be upgraded so it achieves a 2.1% annual increment (and thus keeps up with population)

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CHAPTER 6.4 OTHER RESOURCES

6.4.1 Soil 6.4.2 Water 6.4.3 Minerals 6.4.1 Soil. During the course of the Surveys we were able to produce several soil profiles and conducted some soil analysis. The team lacked experience of these procedures and therefore the results may not be particularly accurate, technical or scientific. Generally the land rose from the river Yangtse (3500m) to high mountains (5000m+). The main river valley was subjected to regular flooding and the soil was alluvial and fine sandy silt. The main crop growing area was on this flood plain and on the slightly raised flat land that formed the rest of the valley floor above the level of flooding. There were few stones in this soil. Off the valley floor there was a series of stepped terrace like areas which consisted of glacial and river deposits up to 200m deep. In places where subsidiary rivers and road construction had eroded through this moraine there were obvious soil profiles, particularly to the SE of the Yangtse valley the moraine was arranged with regular layers of larger stones sandwiched between bands of gravel and sand (see Soil profiles in Appendix). Further NW in the valley there was not such a marked stratification. The ground was very free draining apart from where layers of a heavier clay/kaolin (?) substance had been deposited. Stones were widespread in these areas, but only the larger ones were removed from the fields. Above these stepped terraces the land rose steeply to the grass covered hills and mountains, which supported little apart from grass, the steepest and shadiest slopes may support some small scrub. The pH recorded for all the soil analysis samples was 7. The samples that were predominantly clay in texture (3,4,7,8) had high levels of SO3, NO3 & PO4 (except sample 3). Samples 7 & 8 taken from the plateau areas had above average levels on Mn. Samples 3 & 4 while being taken from similar soils and only 350m apart had significantly different levels of PO4 and NH4 (18 & 65 PO4; 1.6 & 7.0 NH4), this different levels of PO4 and NH4 (18 & 65 PO4; 1.6 & 7.0 NH4), this may be explained by the distance from the river and possible flooding. 6.4.2 Water. This is a significant factor for both the current situation and any future development. There is a relatively low amount of rainfall (529mm/yr.) although 87.5% falls between June and October. The rivers run all the year round in sufficient quantities. Most crop producing areas are irrigated if possible and the production of reasonable yields is dependent on this. Water retention in the soil is low because of its sandy or free draining nature. Potential evapotranspiration is 1699mm (3.2 times the precipitation), relative humidity is 55%. Most householders have to fetch and carry water for domestic consumption and may spend as much as 4 hours a day in this activity although 1 hour may be nearer average. The purity of the water supply is unsure, not every family will boil water before drinking it and not every family recognizes the connection between water and illness. The majority of water is supplied from the smaller tributaries that

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drain out of the hills behind Dengke, this includes water for irrigation and hydro electric. The water is silt laden and fast flowing, water was taken from the Yangtse to irrigate the new poplar plantings at Lhadtze. Any shortage in water supply at present, and any increased demand in the future whether for domestic, irrigation, industrial or generation could be met by improved management of the current water resources. 6.4.3 Minerals. We did not have a geologist as part of the team. We can only therefore reiterate information that was conveyed to us in that the area is relatively rich in mineral resources particularly tin, manganese and gold. One aspect of the 7 year plan is to develop the mineral resources of the area, the main problem to that is a lack of investment. Similar constraints as outlined in sections 6.2.5 (Resource Development) & 6.2.6 (Economics) must be taken in to account.

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CHAPTER 7 FUTURE INVOLVEMENT

7.1 Areas of Help and Cooperation requested by Luoxu Officials 7.1.1 Investigation and management plans 7.1.2 External inputs 7.1.3 Training & Advise 7.1.4 Research & Further investigation 7.2 Comments, Discussion & Potential Involvement 7.2.1 Investigation & Management Plans 7.2.2 External Inputs 7.2.3 Training & Advise 7.2.4 Research & Further Investigation 7.3 Needs expressed by Village leaders & householders 7.4 Comments, Discussion & Potential Involvement 7.5 Options for Future Involvement 7.5.1 Operational Roles & Terms 7.5.2 Role & Term risk Analysis 7.5.3 Operational mode risk analysis 7.5.4 Opportunities for Future Involvement 7.1 AREAS OF HELP AND COOPERATION REQUESTED BY LUOXU OFFICIALS 7.1.1)INVESTIGTION & MANAGEMENT PLANS 1)To assist in the investigation of land, forest & medicinal plant resources 2)To assist in the preparation of Management Plans 3)To assist in the development of Lhadze village 7.1.2)EXTERNAL INPUTS 1)Tree planting machine 2)Irrigation equipment (Poplar plantations) 3)Computer hardware & software (GIS) 4)Satellite images 5)Agricultural Product processing equipment 6)New bloodstock 7)New plant stock 8)Rhizobeum 9)"Suffix" herbicide 10)Seed testing equipment & Microscope 11)Investment funding 12)Specialist input (potential for medium/long term) 13)Lhadza village development 14)Forest expansion 7.1.3)TRAINING & ADVISE 1)Basic Computer training 2)Ag.,Forestry & GIS computer training 3)Grafting & pruning training

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4)Crop improvement & pest control 5)Animal husbandry 6)Ag. product processing 7)Seed testing 8)Lhadza village development 7.1.4)RESEARCH & FURTHER INVESTIGATION 1)Sichuan Agricultural University Project (Crop improvement) 2)Apple variety trials 3)Lhadza water resources development 7.2 COMMENTS ,DISCUSSION AND POTENTIAL INVOLVEMENT 7.2.1 INVESTIGATION AND MANAGEMENT PLANS 1) Investigation of Land, Forest & Medicinal Plant Resources Given the paucity of information available and the intimated development of Luoxu as a major supply base for the Sichu County this investigation demands a high priority. A thorough investigation probably lasting for two years would enable the township to develop its resources on a profitable and sustainable basis. 2) Management Plans In the light of the investigation (7.2.1) management plans can be subsequently prepared to ensure the profitable and sustainable development of the Land, Forest & Medicinal plant Resources. 3)Lhadza Village Development It is the intention of the local authorities to develop Lhadza village as a model village. This comprises the further development of agriculture, forestry, economic trees (horticulture) & animal husbandry. To facilitate this it is necessary to investigate the water resources (irrigation, drinking & hydro-electricity) of the area. Cooperation in this plan has been requested. The township have expressed a willingness for foreign specialist input in all the above areas. (7.2.2.(12) & (13) 7.2.2 EXTERNAL INPUTS 1)Tree Planting Machine Given the apparent low cost of labour (currently 0.5RMB/tree 1995) offset against the high capital cost, import cost and running costs of a planting machine such a request is considered inappopriate at this time. 2)Tree Irrigation Equipment (For Poplar planting next to Yangtze) Given the low rainfall (529mm), the rainfall pattern (87.5% between June-Oct) and the sandy nature of the soil this request appears to be reasonable. A detailed costing comparing irrigation with non-irrigation is highly recommended prior to any capital investment.

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3)Computer Hardware & Software Luoxu is remote and not easily accessible. Current levels of computer literacy are very low. Given the increasing availability and user-friendliness of information and decision support systems for resource management (including Geographic Information Systems (GIS)) preparations for the use of relevant technologies need to be implemented (See 7.2.3 (1)&(2) 7.2.3 (1)&(2)). In order to justify the expense involved computer services could be contracted out to other townships and the business sector. 4)Satellite Images are a highly developed and integral part of a GIS (see 7.2.2 (3)) requiring specialized training. (see 7.1.3 (1)&(2), 7.2.3(1)&(2)) 5)Agricultural Product Processing Equipment The exact nature of the processing equipment was not specified. Market research and further investigation is required. Given the present constraints of roads , poor access to markets, livelihood strategies and levels of production there is not sufficient evidence to justify major capital investment. 6)New Bloodstock It is always desirable to improve the quality of ones livestock. To appropriately facilitate this it is necessary to establish the present quality , condition & performance of available livestock. Further investigation is required before any recommendation can be made. This has some potential for foreign specialist input for say one year. 7)New Plantstock The improvement of plant stock and introduction of new and different varieties is to be commended. Analysis of current levels of production and market research is necessary before recommendations of suitable changes can be made. 8)Rhizobeum This nitrogen fixing species improves soil nutritional status. It can be used as a break crop . The introduction of such species will be beneficial. Further investigation with regard to suitability of varieties is required. There is some potential for foreign specialist input for 1 to 2 years (for 7.2.2 (7) & 7.2.2 (8) - same person) 9)"Suffix" Suffix is a herbicide for the control of wild oats. There appears to be a problem with heavy infestation (up to 2m/mu) but with the relative low cost of labour it is hard to justify the widespread usage of an expensive herbicide. Even in the UK the principal means of controlling wild oats is by manual rogueing (weeding). It may be possible to supply a small amount for research purposes. Prior to the use of any chemical herbicides the environmental consequences need to be fully appreciated.

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10)Seed Testing Equipment & Microscope To maintain the quality of agricultural & forestry seed at local level and to assist the work of the agricultural research station this equipment is essential. 11)Investment The 7 year plan (1994 - 2000) requires major investment funding (RMB 41.37m) with an estimated gross profit after 7 yrs of 68.14m (net profit 4.43m). The current level & status of investment was not known. Before any approaches are made to the donor community a full and detailed financial appraisal will be required. There may be other opportunities for investment outside the 7 year plan. These were not specified. 12)Specialist Input The need for specialist input was highlighted during the course of the survey particularly in the areas referred to above (i.e. 7.2.1 (1-3);7.2.2 (6-8)) and below (i.e. 7.2.2 (13);7.2.3 (1-7);7.2.4(3)) If foreign specialist input is required then permits, accommodation & transport will have to be provided. 13)Lhadza Village Development Help and cooperation is being sought for this project (see 7.2.1(3)). Further investigation is necessary to ascertain the appropriate levels of external inputs. (human resources ,equipment, investment). In the light of the community and household survey conducted during the period of PD95 it became evident that the majority of the township lying adjacent to the Yangtze river requires assistance with water resource development. It is apparent that a full scale investigation into available water resources and potential development is necessary. It may be possible to arrange specialist input (see 7.2.2(12)). Both these areas have potential for long term specialist input under a water resources/engineering package. 14)Forest Expansion There appears to be a legitimate need for more forestry plantations (in addition to the planned 733.33 ha of Poplar plantation) and for upgrading the "old growth forest. A thorough investigation of the forest resource is required to determine the scale of the need. 7.2.3 TRAINING AND ADVISE 1)Basic Computer Training It will be necessary to provide basic computer training before more advanced forestry, agriculture & GIS software packages are introduced. This could be arranged on a short term or long term basis, and at local, county or prefecture level.

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2)Agriculture, Forestry & GIS Computer Training Once a basic level of computer literacy is achieved (see 7.2.3(1)) it will be possible to progress to agricultural and forestry computerized management systems and GIS. Further training will need to be given. This could be arranged on a short term or long term basis, and at local, county or prefecture level. Further discussions with regard to the suitability of the various packages available need to be undertaken. 3)Grafting & Pruning Training The need for training in grafting and pruning of apple trees was expressed. This in conjunction with the suggested trial of improved varieties could form part of a larger horticultural training package. This could be arranged on a short term or long term basis, and at local, county or prefecture level. 4)Crop Improvement & Pest Control Expert advise was expressed as a need (see 7.2.2(7-10)) to facilitate improvements in plant stock. This could include the development of higher yielding varieties and disease pest resistant varieties. Other methods of pest control could be discussed with appropriate specialists. This could form part of a more general agricultural training package. This could be arranged on a short term or long term basis, and at local, county or prefecture level. 5)Animal Husbandry Advice was sought with regard to the improvement of the quality of livestock, and for the introduction of new breeds (see 7.2.2(6)). At present there are no reliable figures available regarding the performance of the various breeds, any recommendations made will depend on further studies and performance analysis. Training in Animal Husbandry methods could be incorporated into a more general agricultural training package (possibly including a research and trial element). 6)Agricultural Product Processing Unless there are significant changes to the constraints (as detailed in 7.2.2(5)) at this time it is only worth considering the promotion of cottage industries. It may be possible to arrange specialist advise & training in this area. Should larger scale agricultural product processing become viable training can be reviewed. 7)Seed Testing Training and advise could be provided under a short term training programme or as part of a longer term more general agricultural training package. It may be possible to arrange specialist advise & training in this area. 8)Lhadza Village Development (see 7.2.1(3) & 7.2.2(13)) Specialist training and advise could be provided for this project.

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7.2.4 RESEARCH AND FURTHER INVESTIGATION 1)Sichuan Agricultural University Project The exact remit of this project was not made clear. Further investigation deserves some merit and may lead to more detailed data and cooperation in the future. 2)Apple Variety Trials a)Market Research needs to be done in the current markets (Luoxu, Gansu, Yushu, Xushu) to quantify the potential demand for high quality varieties of apples and apple products. This will determine the viability of any proposed trials. b)Trials To ensure optimum performance of new apple varieties trials should be conducted. This could be included in a longer term horticultural package. 3)Lhadza Village Development (see 7.2.1(3) 7.2.2(13) 7.2.3(8)) Further investigation and research is necessary 7.3 NEEDS - EXPRESSED BY VILLAGE LEADERS AND MEMBERS OF THE HOUSEHOLDS Household surveys: 2 in Oru, 2 in Ladhza, 2 nomad families Community surveys: 1 with leader of Onetoo and Oru, 1 with leader of Ladhza 1) Water for the fields/irrigation facilities 2) Drinking water 3) Finance 4) Bridge between Oru and Onetoo 5) Electricity 6) Land 7) Medicine 8) Education 9) Midwife 7.4 COMMENTS ,DISCUSSION AND POTENTIAL INVOLVEMENT 1) Water for the fields/irrigation facilities This need was expressed by both village leaders and most of the household members. Water for irrigation purposes is seen as the most urgent need. We visited only two villages but we assume that most of the villages need water for irrigation. The time needed for fetching water varies between 2 minutes and 1 hour, people collect the water usually from a stream or river. This means that there are water supplies but only very few fields are actually irrigated. Some villages have a water reservoir but the ones we saw were in poor condition. The need for irrigation is an obvious one. The yields could certainly improve with the availability of irrigation facilities. Irrigation should be high on the list of the government Opportunities for short and long term water engineers.

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2) Drinking Water The need for clean and easily accessible drinking water was expressed by the leader and some of the farmers of Oru. The people of Oru fetch water for domestic use from river Bon Chu (takes about 1 hour), there is at least some water in the river the whole year round but it is very hard to get sometimes. The villagers would like to have the water piped to their village. Most of the people boil the water sometimes, usually for tea, mainly the children drink the water unboiled. In general there was no perceived connection between water and sickness although stomach problems were listed among the most common health problems, especially children seem to suffer from stomach aches. Clean and easily accessible drinking water is very important. although the villagers and their leaders don't see the connection between unboiled water and sickness, it is recognized internationally (by WHO and in Agenda 21) that the quality of the water is a principle cause of illness. Health and hygiene is seemingly not a priority for government programmes. In Luoxu town there is now a minimal supply of piped water. Future involvement could include provision of drinking water. Health, hygiene, & Health education are also areas of possible future cooperation. (See health report for more details) 3) Finance The need for cash (to buy food and timber) was expressed by some villagers and nomads. Some specified that they need credit facilities. According to them it is possible to borrow money but it is very difficult. There is no market system in the area, and there are only a few shops in Luoxu town and no street markets. People exchange commodities or sell some surplus products to friends, relatives and the government. The need for a marketing system is realized (see 7 year plan). Further research is required into rural finance. Future possible involvement could include income generation, credit and savings advise. 4) Bridge between Oru and Onetoo Most of the villagers of Oru see the need for a new bridge between Oru and Onetoo as a high priority. Their present bridge is in very poor condition, vehicles and livestock can't cross the bridge. Oru and Onetoo have the same leader and most of the villagers of Oru have fields on the Onetoo side of the river. The villagers need the bridge for timber transportation, access to their fields and to village meetings in Onetoo. The state of the roads and bridges, throughout the township is poor. To enable the development of the area this needs to be remedied. Future possible involvement could include advise, expertise & technology in developing the infrastructure. 5) Electricity The village leaders and some members of the households expressed the need for electricity. The leader of Oru said that the government promised electricity to the village after the harvest. Luoxu town has electricity, generated by two hydro power stations, most of the villages have no electricity. There is a great potential for hydro power and solar power. Further research on the potential and possibilities needs to be conducted.

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Future possible involvement could include research, advise, expertise & technology. 6) Land Only one household expressed the need for more land. Thirteen years ago the land was allocated to individuals, 0.333ha (5 mu) per person, including children, we don't know when this system will be updated. 7) Medicine A Tibetan doctor expressed his need for medicine, he doesn't have any and has no access to medicine. People from the village and from up to two days horse ride away come to see him regularly. 8) Education The leader of Oru mentioned the need for a school. Only very few children from the villages and the nomad families go to school. Most of the parents never went to school. Some can read and write Tibetan, taught by monks and friends. There are no schools in the villages, only in Luoxu town. Reasons mentioned for not sending the children to school: a)The school is faraway, 30 minutes walk or more b)The children cannot come home for lunch c)They cannot afford to send their children to school because of the expenses involved. d)Children are needed at home to care for the animals e)Children tend to play on the road to school. One in three families send one of the children to a monastery, these children probably get some education. Education is an area of great concern and is considered a necessary prerequisites for development. Efforts should be made to remove the obstacles preventing children from going to school. This should be investigated further. Future possible cooperation could include adult literacy classes, english lessons, computer literacy, sponsorship and scholarship. 9) Midwife In the course of asking survey questions about health and delivery practices one of the leaders mentioned the need for a midwife. Usually older female members of the family and neighbors help with the delivery of babies. Women don't go to the hospital for help and seem to manage without a midwife. Infant mortality figures were not available. The level of health care in general is an area of concern. See medical report and 7.4 (2) (above).

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7.5 OPTIONS FOR FUTURE INVOLVEMENT 7.5.1 Operational roles and terms 1 Advisory 2 Short Term 3 Long Term 7.5.2 Role and term risk analysis 7.5.3 Operational mode risk analysis (Phase1) 1 Action Research Project 2 Government secondment 7.5.4 Opportunities for future involvement 7.5.1 OPERATIONAL ROLE AND TERM OPTIONS 1)Advisory role only 2)Short Term a)Short term irregular (3 weeks every few years) b)Short term regular (1 month every year) 3)Long Term a)Long term broad discipline (2 to 3 people for 2 to 3 yrs) b)Long term multidisciplinary (5 specialists for 2 to 3 yrs e.g. Agriculture, Horticulture, Forestry, Engineering, Technology) Some options (i.e 3a or 3b ) could be supplemented by short term non specialists. 7.5.2 ROLE AND TERM RISK ANALYSIS (+ = positive -= negative) 1)Advisory role only + Allows local control & self determination + Low cost - low levels of peoples participation - dangers of elite capture - no practical involvement 2)SHORT TERM a)Short term irregular (3 weeks every few years) + lends itself to surveys, small infrastructure & instant remedial projects. - high cost - lack of continuity - low impact - lack of scope b)Short term regular (1 month every year) + lends itself to surveys, short training courses, small infrastructure, & instant remedial projects. + greater continuity. - high cost - limited continuity - limited impact - limited scope

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3)LONG TERM a)Long term broad discipline (2 to 3 people for 2 to 3 yrs) supplemented by short term specialists. + Lower profile + Better coordination + Less duplication /overlap + Continuity + Facilitates rapport building - Sub-optimal impact - Knowledge gaps - Restricted scope b)Long term multidisciplinary (5 specialists for 2 to 3 yrs e.g. Agriculture, Horticulture, Forestry, Engineering, Technology) + High impact + Optimal scope + Broad knowledge base + Continuity + Facilitates rapport building - High profile - Possible overlap/duplication - dangers of poor coordination 7.5.3 OPERATIONAL MODES RISK ANALYSIS (assumes long term involvement) 1) -PHASE 1 - ACTION RESEARCH PROJECT (assumes some degree of foreign financial investment) and could lead on to other phases. a)Para-government action research project (initially for 3 years) + maximized flexibility to explore unknowns + not restricted by a blueprint + greater freedom to respond + easier to fund + It allows the foreign partners to gain experience and credibility + freedom of implementation - non compatibility with present government norms - initial government suspicion - degree of political will unknown - not an expressed need b)Government seconded action research project + more government control + less suspicion + more compatible with government norms + accommodation, travel & permits easier to obtain + easier access to maps & data - limited freedom of implementation - limited flexibility to explore unknowns - harder to fund

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- not an expressed need - limited freedom to respond - more danger of elite capture - less likelihood of peoples participation - less financial control - more dangers of marginalisation and disenfranchisement of the poor, and subsistence sectors. - limited possibilities for foreign partners to gain experience and credibility 2)GOVERNMENT SECONDMENT (assumes no foreign capital financial investment) + complete government control + minimal suspicion + complete compatibility with government norms + some access to maps and data - positions may be harder to secure - limited freedom to respond - less likelihood of peoples participation - no financial control - greater dangers of marginalisation and disenfranchisement of the poor, and subsistence sectors. - limited possibilities for foreign partners to gain experience and credibility 7.5.4 OPPORTUNITIES FOR FUTURE INVOLVEMENT 1 AGRICULTURE a)Crop improvement b)Agricultural computer Training & advise c)Investigation of land & plant resources d)Preparation of Management plans e)Rhizobeum introduction f)Further investigation of Sichuan Agricultural University Project g)Training & advise in crop improvement & pest control h)Training & advise in seed testing 2 ANIMAL HUSBANDRY a)Training & advise in breed improvement b)Training and advise in new breed introduction c)Introduction of new bloodstock d)Investigation of present livestock condition e)Training & advise in general animal husbandry 3 FORESTRY a)Investigation of forest resources b)Preparation of management plans c)Forestry computer Training & advise d)Training & advise in seed testing

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4 HORTICULTURE a)Grafting & Pruning b)Apple variety selection trial c)Introduction of new apple varieties d)Training & advise in seed testing e)Rhizobeum introduction 5 BOTANY/ETHNOBOTANIST a)Investigation of medicinal plant resources b)Preparation of management plans 6 ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY a)Lhadza village development (drinking water, irrigation, hydro-electricity) b)Oru-OneTwo bridge c)General infrastructure improvement d)Investigation & development of hydro-electric resources in Luoxu township e)Investigation & development of water resources in Luoxu township. f)Training & advise in agricultural product processing 7 ECONOMICS a)Market research into apple demand & quality b)Market research into agricultural product supply & demand c)Investigate rural economics d)Investigate potential for income generation, credit & savings facilities. e)Advise on donor funding & foreign investment 8 EDUCATION a)Basic computer training b)Adult literacy training c)English lessons 9 HEALTH a)General health care b)Health education

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CHAPTER 8. RECOMMENDATIONS

8.1 Core Recommendations 1)Investigation 2)Management Plans 3)Lhadza Village Development 4)Tree Planting Machine 5)Tree irrigation equipment 6)Computer hardware & software 7)Agricultural Product processing 8)New Bloodstock 9)New Plantstock & Rhizobeum 10)Suffix 11)Seed testing equipment & microscope 12)Investment 13)Specialist input 14)Forest expansion 15)Luoxu Township water resources 16)The Oru-Wontoo bridge 17)Luoxu township electricity supply 18)Education 8.2 Modes of operation 8.3 Recommendations for implementors and donors 1)Local authorities 2)The Care & Share Foundation 3)Other agencies 4)Donor agencies. 8.1 CORE RECOMMENDATIONS 1)INVESTIGATION It is recommended that a major investigation into land, forest and medicinal plant resources is undertaken. This should ideally be conducted by appropriately qualified specialists. This would enable the township to develop its resources on a profitable & sustainable basis. 2)MANAGEMENT PLANS In the light of the above investigation it is recommended that appropriate management plans be compiled and implemented. These plans could be compiled with the aid of relevant technologies and specialist help. 3)LHADZA VILLAGE DEVELOPMENT To enable the appropriate development of Lhadza village it is recommended that a thorough investigation into the water resource potential is undertaken by suitably qualified specialists. This could lead to further cooperation in the future. 4)TREE PLANTING MACHINE For the reasons given in 7.2.2(1) it is not considered appropriate at this time.

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5)TREE IRRIGATION EQUIPMEN T Although in principal this appears to be a legitimate need a detailed costing and specification is required before any recommendation can be made 6)COMPUTER HARDWARE & SOFTWARE (including GIS & satellite images) For the reasons given in 7.2. 3)&4) it is recommended that basic computer training is given prior to the introduction of advanced computer technology. 7)AGRICULTURAL PRODUCT PROCESSING For the reasons given in 7.2.2(5) it is recommended that market research, further investigation & improvement to the infrastructure be carried out before this can be considered. 8)NEW BLOODSTOCK To enable the necessary improvement of current livestock it is recommended that investigations be conducted into present quality ,condition & performance. Appropriate advise could then be given and suitable new bloodstock introduced. 9)NEW PLANTSTOCK & RHIZOBEUM Further investigations are necessary to establish the current levels of crop production & soil status. Market research should also be conducted prior to the introduction of new varieties. Recommendations will depend on the outcome of the investigations and research. 10)"SUFFIX" FOR WILD OAT CONTROL For the reasons given in 7.2.2 (9) it is considered inappropriate to introduce chemical herbicides. Trials could be conducted. 11)SEED TESTING EQUIPMENT AND MICROSCOPE It is recommended that this equipment is purchased. If foreign funding is sought a detailed list of equipment, specification and cost would be required. 12)INVESTMENT If foreign investment is sought it is necessary to provide a full and detailed financial appraisal. If donor funding is sought there are very strict criteria to adhere to. It may be possible to provide expertise in this area. 13)SPECIALIST INPUT It is recommended that specialist input be sought in the areas of 1-3,8,9,12,14-19. The furnishing of permits, accommodation and transport will be essential 14)FOREST EXPANSION It is recommended that a thorough investigation of the forest resource be conducted to determine the scale of expansion and old forest upgrading required.

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15)TRAINING AND ADVISE It is recommended that specialist help is sought to provide training in: a)Basic computer skills b)Advanced computer technology c)Grafting and pruning d)Crop improvement & pest control e)Animal husbandry f)Seed Testing g)Adult literacy h)English lessons 16)LUOXU TOWNSHIP WATER RESOURCES In the light of the community & household survey it is recommended that an investigation into the water resources of Luoxu township be conducted. This would include the areas of drinking water, irrigation and hydro electricity. Specialist help should be sought. 17)ORU-ONETWO BRIDGE In the light of the community & household survey it is recommended that the feasibility of bridge replacement be explored. Specialist help could be sought for this project. 18)LUOXU TOWNSHIP ELECTRICITY SUPPLY In the light of the community & household survey it is recommended that the potential for hydro & solar electricity generation be explored. Specialist help should be sought. 19)EDUCATION In the light of the household survey it is recommended that an investigation be conducted examining the reasons for non attendance at school and appropriate education alternatives . Expert specialist help could be sought. 8.2 OPERATIONAL MODE It is recommended that as part of Phase 1 that a long term multidiciplinary para-government action research project be adopted because :- 1)It will be easier to obtain foreign investment 2)Maximum specialist input 3)Maximum flexibility to explore unknowns 4)Maximum freedom to respond 5)Higher impact 6)Optimal scope 7)Facilitates rapport building 8)It could lead on to further cooperation Under this option up to 5 specialist would be offered for up to 3 years initially in the fields of Agriculture (including Animal Husbandry), Horticult ure (including economic trees), Forestry, Hydro- technology & Engineering). This will need to be supplemented by short term specialists.

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8.3 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR IMPLEMENTORS & DONORS 8.3.1 Local Authorities: to facilitate the responsible and sustainable development of the Luoxu area with the help of foreign investment and expertise that as part of Phase I a long term multidisciplinary (7.5.2 3) para-government action research project (7.5.3 1a) be adopted. This would allow foreign experts to analyze the local situation, explore the currently large number of unknowns (current levels of production, market demands, resource development potential etc.) and immediately be able to take appropriate action to implement any recommendations subject to the necessary approvals and satisfactory levels of funding. Primary concern must be; the expansion of the resource base and its sustainable management, the training and empowerment of the local people, and market and infrastructure improvements. Once this phase has been satisfactorily completed further phases may become possible that could include help in realizing the potential of the natural and human resources. 8.3.2: The Care and Share Foundation: It is recommended that option 8.2. be pursued in accordance with the recommendations to the local authorities (8.3.1). Following the experiences of Project Dengke 92 and 95 and the apparent willingness of the local authorities to receive further help from similar projects in the future it is recommended that every effort is made to supply expertise as often as possible in accordance with the desires of the local authorities and local indigenous people subject to the acceptance of the recommendations and provisos included in the attached report. It is recommended that future (short-term) teams should be much smaller in size facilitating easier administration, faster transportation (increasing the amount of days available for work in the village) and the potential of several smaller teams visiting over an extended period in any one year (3 teams able to visit each for 6 weeks (4 weeks in Dengke each) allowing a possible 12 weeks of contact and activity). It is also recommended that these smaller teams should plan to visit on a more regular basis (ie. annually) again increasing the contact time in the village considerably. If it is the desire of CSF to place expatriates in the village on a long term basis (ie. for individual periods of 3 years), and if, as anticipated, the number of such persons acceptable to the controlling authorities is likely to be small, then it will be essential for this person(s) to be supported by short term projects. This would allow the narrowness of a single persons discipline to be broadened and facilitate the involvement and achievement of much more over a much wider field. As highlighted in the provisional feedback from the vice magistrate it is essential that ways of working more efficiently and effectively with the local people are explored, and responding to their needs. This will again be improved with better communications facilitated by the CSF sponsorship of English teaching both in the local schools and colleges and by the supporting of local people to study, and also by the placing of long term and more regular teams.

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It is also recommended that assistance in the fulfilling of these objectives is sought from other aid and donor agencies, the potential for further involvement is possibly much greater than CSF can manage, and that the content and recommendations of this report be made available to interested bodies whose sympathies coincide with those of the CSF. It is strongly recommended that CSF liases more closely with INGO's involved in development in Western Sichuan. In the past neither the CSF profile nor development approach has not been appreciated by some. It is essential that development recipients determine their own "needs" and "own" their own projects and any intervention that does not facilitate this ,however well meaning, is in danger of being both patronising and paternalistic. CSF must be carefull not to set inappropriate precedents that similar agencies cannot or will not follow. 8.3.3: Other Implementation Agencies. In view of the good will generated by the previous projects and the potential for further involvement on a wider and much larger scale it is recommended that this report and its recommendations be circulated among other agencies whose sympathies lie in the same direction as CSF and who may be able to assist CSF in the implementation of the recommendations or directly undertake various aspects of the recommendations that are or may be outside the experience of CSF. Because of the nature of the good will that has been generated and the established working relationship with the local authorities CSF should maintain overall control of any work arising from these recommendations and their implementation. For the individual agencies concerned there are many potential areas of involvement bringing knowledge and experience in the development of this area. It is the aim and recommendation of this report not to sanction piecemeal development at any cost but to guide the local authorities to find ways of developing the natural and human potential in a responsible and sustainable manner; this may not always be the most economical or the best from the point of view of capital investment returns. We recommend that other agencies wishing to investigate the possibilities of partnership in this area bear this in mind, but would also encourage them to actively consider such involvement as a matter of urgency. How long the window of this opportunity will remain open cannot be guaranteed. 8.3.4: Donor Agencies. Past experience with Project Dengke has shown that for one agency to raise, administer and distribute donor goods on the scale that has been conducted in the past is a major load on the CSF. If the recommendations of this report are implemented and a more structured approach to the needs and development of the local resources is undertaken then this work load will increase. Furthermore there are many needs that can be met by one-off donations of equipment or goods, that do not necessarily demand the supervision of overseas foreign personnel or by cash rather than equipment thus stimulating the local economy. The importation of foreign goods even for charitable purposes is likely to be heavily taxed at the point of import and without suitable financial provision for this eventuality it can place unnecessary constraints on the implementation agency. The Donor Agencies do not

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necessarily have to be sympathetic to the aims and purposes of CSF. Potential areas of conflict of interest may arise and appropriate measures to alleviate and deal with these must be implemented before any undertaking to give or receive any kind of donation. It must be appreciated that some donations may be conditional on certain criteria being fulfilled but at no time shall the aims and the ethos of the CSF be compromised; similarly it may be necessary for the CSF to refuse to accept certain gifts because the spirit in which they are given and the conditions with which they were given could lead to compromising the aims and intentions of CSF as laid down in the Deeds of the charity.

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9. REFERENCES

AUTHOR DATE TITLE PLACE PUBLISHER

Adhikary,S.M.

1988 The Khasa kingdom :a Trans-himalayan empire of the middles ages

Jaipur & New Delhi

NIrala Publications

Ayensu (ed),E.S.

1980 Jungles New York Crown Publishers

Barrow,E.G.C 1988 Trees and Pastoralists : The case of the Pokot and Turkana in Social Forestry Network Paper 6b

London ODI

Beauclerk ,J (et al)

1989 Indigenous Peoples: a field guide for development

Oxfam

Bell,D 1991 To the source of the Yangtze

London Hodder and Stoughton

Bell,Sir C 1928 The people of Tibet

Oxford Oxford University Press

Bishop, B 1990 Karnali Under Stress

Chicago University of Chicago

Bjork,S 1993 The Hongyuan Wetland Research Project : on ecological and technical feasability of peat mining in Hongyuan, Sichuan, China

Sweden Department of Limnology University of Lund

Buckley,M 19944 China - a Travel Survival Kit

Australia Lonely Planet Publications

Campbell, J.G 1978 Consultations With Himalayan gods: oraculer religion and alternative values in Jumla

Ann Arbor University Microfilms International

Chambers,R. 1993 Challenging The Professions :frontiers for rural development

London Intermediate Technology Publications for ODI

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Chao Neng and Gong Gutang

1992 Poplars in Qinghai-Xizang Plateau of China in Yang Y & J.Jianfling's Protection & Management of Mountain Forests

Beijing & New York

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10 APPENDICES Appendix 1 Forestry Appendix 2 Daily Notes Appendix 3 Soil & Water Samples APPENDIX 1 FORESTRY SUPPLY AND DEMAND In order to arrive at supply and demand figures we can only extrapolate from Hongyuan County, Sichuan Province or National figures so the estimates may be very inaccurate. It would be safe to assume that demand is exceeding supply given that the local government has rejected an offer to fell 500 m 3 for their own needs every year and the com munity survey revealed that felling had been restricted for "many years". Without a detailed survey we can only guess. Although the forest area may have expanded over the years (community survey) it would appear t hat the standing volume has decreased. 1.1 SUPPLY ASSUMPTIONS Richardson 1990 ,Yang & Li 1990 & FOC Hongyuan Repo rt 1995 1)Age class structure Much of China is characterized by a disproportionat e age structure. Nationally over-mature and mature forests comprise 65% (Sichuan 82.9%, Hongyuan 95.8%), middle-aged forest 28% (Honguan 3. 5%) and young forests 7 % (Hongyuan 0.7%) 2)Standing volume (m 3 /ha) and yield per annum (%) Nationally the average standing volume is 189 cubic metres/ha (Sichuan 174, Hongyuan 136) and the average % increment for Sichuan is 1.31% (2.28 m 3 /yr) Dengke assumption : Stemwood standing vo lume = 174 m 3 /ha Yield/annum = 1.31% 3)Species composition Nationally conifers comprise 70.3% (Hongyuan 99.9%, broadleaves 20.4% (Hongyuan 9.1%) and Other 9.3%. Nationally Fir-Spru ce forest comprise 30.8% (Sichuan 68.4% Hongyuan 96.7%) 4)"Forest land" composition Only 42% of China's "forest land" is "closed fores t". 58% is either "Shrub", "open forest", "unestablished forest", or "unforested". In Sichuan 10.5% is shrubland and only 12.7% of forest land is high forest. 21.3% of high forest is protection forest. Dengke assumption : Closed high forest is 42% of forest land i.e 6234 * 42% = 2618 ha Only 42% of China's forests are closed (i.e. more t han 30% canopy cover) and for the sake of this calculation Dengke's prote cted forest has been included with open forest. 5)Spruce Forest Research in Western Sichuan by Jiang Hong et al (19 92) indicates that a fully stocked mature stand of Spruce forest is ca pable of producing a standing volume (stemwood) of 127.632T/ha (212.72 m 3 ) and comprises the following components (expressed as a % of stemw ood):- a)Branches and Needles = 32.34 % b)Branches = 20.75 % b)Shrubs & seedlings = 5.8 %

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m 3 /ha Dengke assumption : Stemwood = 174 ( Sichuan average) Branchwood = 5 6.27 (174 * 32.34%) Shrubs/seedlings = 1 0.09 (174 * 5.8%) --------------------- ------------------- TOTAL 2 40 --------------------- ------------------- 6)Poplar Plantations Poplar research in Western Sichuan (Chao Neng et al 1992) would indicate that Poplar in Dengke might be expected to produce a) a maximum mean annual increment at 35 years old of 10 m 3 /ha/year b) a mean annual increment at 20 years (the planned felling age) of 7.5 m 3 /ha/yr c) at 20 years of age the standing volume (stemwood ) will be 150 m 3/ha d) 5% annual increment Dengke assumption : 33% of stemwood is branc hwood, leaves, shrubs & seedlings . Standing volume at 2 0 years = 200 m 3/ha (150 * 33.33333%) There will be 733.33 3 ha of Poplar plantation. 7)Total annual supply from 2021 m 3 /year Spruce 8230.99 Poplar 7333.33 ------------------- TOTAL 15,564.32 ------------------- 1.2 DEMAND ASSUMPTIONS 1)Current Firewood demand a)Average family size 6.4 (Feng pers. comm. 9/95) b)Population 10,600 (Feng pers. comm. 9/95) c)Firewood consumption /family/yr 5000kg (Feng pers . comm. 9/95) or 781.25 kg/person/year (800 kg Community survey) d)600kg of wood = 1 m 3 (Raeside 1985) e)50% of firewood comes from closed forest (Communi ty survey) f)Total Firewood demand from closed forest = 6901 m 3 /year (781.25 * 10,600/600 * 50%) 2)Current Timber demand a)Timber consumption = 230 kg/person/year (Gilmour & Fisher 1991) b)81.25% of timber comes from closed forest (Commun ity Survey) c)Government & commercial demand 0 m 3 /yr d)600kg of wood = 1 m 3 (Raeside 1985) e)Total Timber demand from closed forests = 3,301 m 3 (10,600*230)/600 * 81.25%) 3)Current demand for minor forest products The demand for forage, fruit, nuts, food & medicina l plants is unknown. 4)Total current demand The total forest product requirement is 10,202 m 3 a year.

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5)Annual forest Product demand in 2021 a)Population will grow at 2.1 % and will be ca 18,1 93 b)Half the Poplar will be sold and half used for lo cal consumption c)Half the firewood comes from closed forest or pla ntation d)600kg of wood = 1m 3 e)Firewood = 11845 m 3 (781.25 *18,193/600 * 50% ) f)Local Timber =5667 m 3 (230 * 18,193/600 * 81.25 %) g)Timber sales = 3665 m 3 (50% of poplar yield) h)Other products = unknown i)Total demand = 21,177 m 3 1.3 SUSTAINABLE NET SUPPLY Year Supply Demand Ne t Supply m3 /yr m3 /yr m 3 /yr 1995 8230.99 10,202 -1 971.01 2021 15564.32 21,177 -56 12.68 There is a need for 565 ha of Poplar to keep up wit h demand (5612.68 * 20/200)

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APPENDIX 2 DAILY NOTES Monday 28-08-95 @ 20:54 Monday Morning John Studley, Robin Evans ,Pia Steendam 1)Officials Feng Qing Chun: Vice Magistrate (with responsibilit y for Engineering Forestry and Agriculture) Chong Ong Ou Zhi : Director Forestry & Agriculture Jiang Shi Ming : Vice Director --------"--------- 2)Review of 7 year Plan Crops C T Winter Wheat Dong Chou Ming 10,000 m u 667ha Barley QingkE 10 ,000 mu 667ha Soya Beans ????? 300 0 mu 200ha Potatoes Toodo 150 0 mu 100ha Vegetables 500 mu 33.33ha Cabbage Spinach Broad beans Oil seed U chai Gamzay 500 mu 33.33ha Forests 93,570 mu 6238ha Scrub 1236mu ???? 3)Forest Species a)Picea spp b)Abies spp c)Cyprus spp d)Betula spp e)Populus spp 4)Cash Crops Apples & Wolf berries 5)New Plantations Poplar over 7 year plan 11,000 mu 733.33 ha 6)Forestry project plan for 1996 Poplar 1,100 mu 73.33 ha Wolf berries 600 mu 40 ha Apple Pingo ??? 130 mu 8.66 ha 7) 7 year plan comprises 33 agricultural projects and 3 forestry p rojects 8) Loushu Admin Units Shan Ma ga Zenko Loshu Zenda Town Luoshu Township Luoshu 9) River names Yangtze or Dru Cho (T) SE of Dengke Long Chee NW of Dengke Na Rong Long Help & Cooperation 1)Management plans (ag. & forestry) 2)High technologies 3)Computer training 4)Investigation of Sichuan Ag. University Project Monday Afternoon Plantation Visit (S.E. Luoshu next to Chang Jiang) sandy alluvial site SW aspect slope ca 5 deg elevat ion 3500m Species Poplar & Wolf berries Land owned by Luoshu Township ???? managed by the F B

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1)Poplar (Beijing & Kangding) Yang Show (C) Jumma ( T) Spacing 3m x 2m Beijing 30,000 ??? Kangding 45,000 ??? Planting costs 0.5RMB tree/person by day labour (no t FB) Planting rate 500 trees/day ???? Tree grown from cuttings - 2 yrs in nursery (Luoshu ) Site Flooded in 1994 up to 500m from river bank Poplar planted because they are fast growing, usefu l for shelter and for paper making. Rotation age 20 yrs . Pulp mill i n Kangding. Yield & price >>>FI 2)Chinese Wolf berries Lycium chinense Goojee (C) Tsay Mong (T) Wolfberries sold in Kangding for traditional medici ne for 45 RMB/kg where they are converted into a medicinal liquor. G ood for health and bright eyes >>>> medics. Protection for Poplar ??? Fruit available after 3 yrs - trial - economic via bility (Feng) - wild wolfberries Seed from Gansu (3 days drive away) grown in Luoshu nursery Grown around poplar compartments at 1m spacing. 0.5rmb per tree/per person Suitable climate for Wolfberries Suggestion & further investigation 1) Suggestions a) Map in Dengke GIS in Kangding b) Intercrop Poplar with Sea Buckthorn -poplar at w ider spacing ?? Tuesday 29-08-95 @ 20:11 Morning Orchard Visit 32o 28.98'N 98o 00.18' E Aspect SE Slope 3 deg Surrounded by wall and poplar trees Size 50mu Soil -loam - a little alkaline Species : Small Winter Red Shou Dong Hong Gold Cap Jin Guan - sweeter both from Kangding (Gooja) Spacing 5m by 5m - 700 trees Eating apples picked in September - 5T/yr - sold/ba rtered ??? in local market. heavy weed infestation - no grazing practiced Luoshu had been encouraged to grow apples by Kangdi ng. Initial stocks were supplied by Ya'an and Kangding. Apples were gr own for commodity exchange and cash profit as they cost 10 RMB/kg fro m Ya'an or Kangding. There were no trees in the orchard before, but the land had been cultivated. Land State Owned Agricultural station and managed by two chinese ag. dept. staff. Fertilizer No chemical fertilizer used - organic used (Yak, sh eep, goat, human) Pests

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Jin Gwaydza -sprayed >>>FI Sparrows -not controlled Intercropped with 2 rows of cabbage at 1m spacing i n rows leaves fed to pigs - heart sold to supplement Ag. s taff wages. Crops in orchard : walnut, spinach, turnips Other crops considered : pepper -ground unsuitable. Help & cooperation 1)Training in grafting & pruning 2)Trial of new species. Suggestions 1)Apple market research pre training 2)Intercrop with peas and beans (& cabbage) on a ro tation basis TUESDAY AFTERNOON - WALK ABOUT Left Luoshu by NW exit 1) L Wheat, barley, wild oats R Ploughed & manured no sign of cultivation on hills 2) L walled compounds & house with access to river R Wheat Road runs along riverside - soil silty loam & stone s 3) L Yak & goat calves R Barley & Wheat 4) L Wheat & volunteer barley, breaks of barl ey, tethered horse R Barley & Wheat NW prospect spur (NE > SW) with village (Ora) on ri dge took track to right NE direction 5) L Ploughed & manured R Barley ground rose soil poorer, more rocks, smaller fields , grass and plantain around fields 6) L Grass & plantain R Crop guard hut - 4 women - horseman + 2 horse women - woman with donkey NE Aspect :Ravine into hills track traversing across slope 7) L Ploughed & manured - Herd of goats (70-8 0) & herders R Barley track crosses stream N Prospect : stream into ravine - irrigation channe l at foot of hill 8) Arrived at Ora village (32o 27.88' N 97o 58.70' E (WP 19) - 20 houses) in a shower of rain -talk to villagers - piglets, g oats & dogs leave village 9)outskirts L Houses R Volunteer oil seed N Prospect : "Panday" village NE Prospect: "Daygay" gomba (Gardez sect) E Prospect: Steep sided valley leading to "Rashay" forest (used by both Panday & Ora) track turns east 10) L Ploughed with volunteer oil seed- stream at side of track -cleaned -running clean & fast. R Ploughed with volunteer oil seed low earth field boundaries - unplanted 11) L & R Barley E Prospect: stubble, ploughed, some cattle grazing deviation N across stubble fields to river ????

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12)River Gorge (Na Rong Long River)- 50m deep 400m wide -far bank original bed rock near bank deposited material- barley in go rge - river fast flowing 3-4m wide backtrack S crossing track continuing S across fiel ds of barley- leading to mid plateau 13) L & R Sparse grass and heavy grazing Prospect NW : irrigation channel at foot of plateau leading to Ora through ploughed fields. 14) L Derelict shelter - mud walls Commune system crop storage R Sparse grass with heavy grazing 15) L Ploughed fields (turnips ??) R ? track crosses ravine onto another mid plateau - man , donkey & girl 16) L Sparse grass with heavy grazing R -------------"----------------- - fence - cattle & calves grazing followed droving road with steep sides through gull y , poaching, little grass- met lamas - arrived in Luoshu via chinese ce metery Suggestions 1) Use Ora for Community & H/H survey 2) Conduct an Initial transect (soil, geology, bota ny etc) from Da Chu via mid plateau to forest WEDNESDAY 30-08-95 MORNING Feng, Jiang ,Chong, & Dorjay (Ag. Research station leader) 1)Inadequate education facilities for ag. & forestr y staff Cooperation a)Ag. & forestry Computer training 2)Forest resources Old forest 93,570 mu 0.23% of Shiqu - mostly in Luo shu ?? (50%) Shiqu is the least forested county in Ganzi Prefect ure. 3)Role of Shiqu FD Protect, no felling, planting 4)Forestry Development Plan (part of 7 year plan) 1994 - 2000 plant 10,000mu ????? 1994-95 1100mu Cooperation a)Planting machine >>>>>comment labour cheap request inappropriate b)Irrigation equipment >> specification required c)New varieties of apples -- trial needed d)training in grafting and pruning >>>>suggestion horticulturist included in PD? e)apple tree pest control f)Wheat & barley protection Refer a)Ag. Res. Station water supply >>> engineers 4)Yield, inventory and standing volume - not availa ble 5)Felling & Deforestation Allowed by government to fell 500 cub. metres/yr - since 1994 decided not to fell any trees. Timber for construction from TAR. Forest cover has remained at 0.23% for 100 yrs ?? > >> HHS 6)New planting Since Liberation 1949 (55 in Dengke) trees (mostly Poplar) planted around houses & compounds. Plantation forestry began in 1994 (7 yr plan)

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7) Forest Products user rights No access at all to protected forest 13,500 mu ?? Access permitted from May to October in non protect ed forest 80,000 mu. Products : Firewood typically 5000 kg/family/yr >>> HHS mushrooms, game (historically), and fodder (mostly foraging)>>>HHS Medicinal Herbs : Baymoo, Zhumoo, Wolf berry (grass land) Rhubarb, Bezoar, Worm grass, caladium >>>> 7 year plan Do not use compost >>>>>> HHS Nomads have equal forest access rights in non prote cted forest for firewood, grazing & shelter. They illegally encroach on prote cted forest. Comment : edible fungi implant potential for shelte r forest plantations. Market research needed. 8)Population Luoshu Total 10,000 Farmers 8,500 Gov. workers less 200 Artisans shop keepers less 200 Nomads 1,100 9)Ag. Resources Fields 48,500mu Grassland 13,000mu commodity grass -cut once a year for animal feed - included in cultivated land figure. 10)Tenure & management rights All land is owned by the State Forest - 3 types a)Managed by FD b)Forest leased and managed by community Leased for 80 yrs + (extendable ??) and subject to three levels of tax i)Business certificate 300RMB/cub metre ii)Industry & commerce department tax ____>>>FI iii)Business tax _____>>>FI c)Bare ground, planted, leased & managed by individ ual, family or group Ag. Land Fields leased from government. Leasee can decide on crop. Some government support is given for some crops :- grass 8RMB/mu, P oplar 100RMB/mu (110 trees/mu) accordi year. Leased for 70yrs ,extendible & inheritable. First 1 5 yrs rent free -extendable. Rent varies from village to village according to pr oduction team. e.g. Luoshu 86RMB/yr/capita/4mu (average) Preferential policy for "outsiders" to lease land. (duty free allowances). Possible implementation of policy in 1996. 11)Ag. crop management Planned expansion on old & new ground. New fields s own with grass and left for 2 - 3 yrs prior to arable cropping. Improv ed yields from improved varieties and better management WEDNESDAY AFTERNOON 1) Maps Lhadza 700mu tree planting (Poplar ++??) OneTwo 130mu " Total along Da Chu 11,000 mu " 2) LEAP

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1994 - 2000 7 year plan- instituted at national lev el LEAP PROPOSAL - 6 sections a)Foundation b)Natural Resources c)Strategy d)Industry e)Investment f)Government Policy A)36 Projects Ag. 7 Forestry 3 Hydro-power 4 Agricultural Machinery 3 Highway & Transport 4 Township enterprise 7 Local Market 1 Telecommunications 2 Animal Husbandry 5 TOTAL 36 B)Investment Total investment 41,370,000 RMB from national & county % unknown Estimated gross profit after 7 years 6 8,140,000 RMB " net ---------"---------- 4,430,000 RMB C)PROJECTS a) Land Resources b) Mineral Resources - Problem - Investment D)LAND RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT Plant a) trees & grass 25,000 mu grass 13,000 mu forest 12.000 mu b) apples, wolf berries, walnut, vegetables (cabbag es, spinach, broad beans, turnip, peas, tomatoes, greens, ) oil seed, potatoes & green manure (for fodder & fertilizer) :- Single year green manure - soya bean 1st choice Multi-year " > >>>>list c)cash crops on unused cultivatable land (30%) E)PRODUCTION BASES a)Grain & oil b)Forage grass for export to Shiqu Town c)Environmental Forestry - to protect villages from wind and dust storms d)Vegetable production for export to Shiqu Town e)Goat breeding f)Ag. product processing F) Facilitated by Shiqu County through a)Hydro power generation b)Agricultural machinery c)Telecommunication d)Transport G)MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS FOR 36 PROJECTS a)Market b)Ag. development c)Social services (forestry. ag. technology, & hydr o-electric) d)Investment e)Comprehensive Ag., Science & Technology, & educat ion E)TARGET

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To develop the economy, by raising the standard of living from current levels. Current per capita income is 300 RMB/yr. Af ter 7 yrs it is anticipated that levels will be raised to 1,040 RMB/yr. F)CURRENT SITUATION 11 out of 36 projects have commenced, but there are some problems. G)COOPERATION a)Investment b)Specialist input >>>> comment willing for longer term involvement - permits ?? c)High technology introduction - computers , satell ite images, GIS >>> comment : need to teach basic computer literacy fir st d)Crop improvement & pest control input e)Animal husbandry & new breed introduction f)Ag. product processing g)Investigate land, forest & medicinal plant resour ces h)Rhizobium introduction H)COOPERATION PROJECTS a)Lhadza Village - model village to develop ag. forestry, economic trees & animal hu sbandry i)Investigate village water supply>>>>> ref eng . ii)Hydro electric supply potential >>>> ref eng . iii)irrigation system>>>>> ref eng. b)Wild Oat control. Herbicide "Suffix" suggested>>> > comment as a gesture of goodwill supply a research amount f or a trial - encourage manual roguing. (200,000 to 2m plants per mu ????) c)High Technology introduction Any suggestions ??? 3)AG. CROP MARKETING & EXCHANGE Need to develop agricultural infrastructure - commo dity exchange occurs - no street market at present - some grain sold to TAR -none to Shiqu due to transport difficulties - currently grain for Shiqu is supplied from Chengdu - one aim of LEAP is for Luoshu to sup ply Shiqu with grain. The main market for most commodities is Chengdu. Ri ce is purchased from Chengdu. 4)AG. PRODUCT PROCESSING No factories exist at present - cottage industries present - hydro electricity is a priority for processing. 5)AG. EXPERIMENTAL PLOTS Size ? Apples Barley 12 types (takes 130 days of growing) Winter Wheat 18 types (---350 ------------) Beans, potatoes, sun flowers, maize 4 types Sichuan Ag. Technical College, Chengdu - specialist involvement since 1993. (Report sent to Sichuan Ag. Bureau) 6) SEED STORE a)Cooperation i)Microscope ii)seed testing equipment 7)SUGGESTIONS PD? Horticulturist included THURSDAY 31-08095 AM Review PM Report writing

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FRIDAY 01-09-95 AM Report Outline PM - F&B Animal Husbandry a)Yak Products : butter, milk, meat (not often killed for meat), wool & skin Non breeding Yaks are used for transport Grassland 3 types : spring summer & winter up t o 6 hrs away from home village Calve March - June, 1 calf every two years Milked June - October ,for whole life Life expectancy 20 years. Cross-bred with short horns or fresians to incr ease milk production. Ist cross is called a "Pian niu" (C) Dzo (T) and the second cross "a Guo niu". Market value Yak 1000 RMB, Dzo 1500 RMB & a Guo niu 450RMB Cooperation :Yak cross breeding improvement b)Goats Products : milk cheese butter meat wool skins Breed Local "Benti" (C) One goat herd collects goats from several farms Kid March - June Milked May - Sept, for whole life Life expectancy 3 to 5 yrs Graze in forest,marginal & bare land Market Value 150 RMB c)Sheep (very few) Products: wool skin meat (exported to Qinghai) Breed :Local Benti ??? Lamb April to July Life expectancy 5 years ++ Graze : same as Yak Market value ??? d)Pigs Products: meat (local consumption) & skin (sold in Kangding) Breeds Local Benti (long noses), crosses Benti x Liajiang, Tsong Bay (N&EC) Farrow - no control - any time Life expectancy ? Feeding habit : omnivorous anywhere in town Market value 14RMB/kg weight when killed 50 - 1 50kg e)Horses Products & uses. transport Breeds Benti (smaller than Mongol breeds but la rger than Xichang). Bred only for local use. Foal ?? Life expectancy ?? Feeding Habit : Grass and some grain Market value ; 2000 - 20,000RMB depending on co ndition Cooperation: new bloodstock ? (Shire Horses) Discus s f)Chickens

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Products & uses : eggs & meat Breeds Benti (very small) & chinese Mainly for Chinese (Tibetans prefer Yak !) g)Bees Wild bees in mountains - no knowledge of honey bei ng collected >>HHS CLIMATE Weather Station 3242m by river 1960 - 1980 (until s eat of government moved to Shiqu). Coords_________ FI Temperature Average annual temperature 5.6 oC Average July " 14.5 oC Average January " -5.2 oC Mean highest " 14.4 oC Mean lowest " -15 oC Temperature(6/3-1/11 ) 0 oC+ 250.9 days 2 437.9 oC " (11/4-16/10)5 oC 189.3 days 2228.9 oC " (3/5-19/9) 10 oC 109.9 days 1493.5 oC Sunshine Sunshine hours 2,414 hrs/yr (6.61 hrs per day) July to October 821.8hrs (6.68 hrs per day) Yearly average sunshine rate 50% Solar radiation 142-145 Kilo calories/cm2 Precipitation Annual average rainfall 529mm July average rainfall 116mm Dec --------"---------- 1.7mm Rainy season June to October (87.5%) Potential evapotranspiration 1699mm (3.2 times the rainfall) Relative humidity 55% Hail (average) 7.1 days/year FORESTRY AND AGRICULTURAL STAFF Mostly employed by Shiqu county an seconded to Luos hu Agricultural & Forestry Bureau 6 Agricultural Technical Staff 5 Forestry Department Staff 22 Agricultural village testing station (5) 6 Forestry workers (5 villages) 8 Wood inspection staff (Shiqu) 5 Ag. machinery staff ( " ) 9 STAFF TRAINING Xichang Ag. Technical College Kangding Middle Technical College Kangding Forestry School SICHUAN FORESTRY INVESTIGATION DEPARTMENT (SFID) Staff from SFID were conducting a survey in Luoshu at the same time as Dengke 95 SATURDAY 02-09-95 WALK ABOUT Long Chee Ke - Lhadza - Danda Left Dengke by SE exit along main road -in fair con dition and running SE

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Station 1 Road bridge across hydro outlet, east of Dengke Prospect N Outskirts of Dengke - hydro penstock, plant & tail race - wet ground to right of outlet, barley on left. Prospect E Compound (???) surrounded by trees (Poplar), horses , pigs tethered outside. Wheat ready for harvest Prospect S Hydro outlet (water was clear and fast flowing) - h ills on far side of Yangtze - ploughed - old weather station ?? Prospect W Trees (Poplars) and Tibetan houses (Dengke) Passed ladder factory compound and UK- China friend ship commemorative stone. Road condition fair. Station 2 - Road bridge over Long Chee River River flowing fast and clear 15m wide, main stream 10m. The river rises by 3m in spate. Prospect N Compound (semi derelict) - formerly a middle school - currently a ladder factory ? -surrounded by poplar trees. View up vall ey. Prospect E Road rising onto mid terrace (moraine) - Lower Long Chee Ke village, some trees (willow and poplar) around village. Prospect S View of Long Chee flowing into Yangtze. Yangtze was muddy - hills in Tibet treeless with a few cultivated patches - wate r mill (used but not working at present) - lowest mill of three. Prospect W View up the Yangtze valley - most fields ploughed - Dengke village enveloped by trees - hills beyond Dengke not very green. Road rising -uncultivated both sides - very rocky - shrubs (Verbena spp) - moraine over limestone ?? Station 3 Lower Long Chee ke Total population of Long Chee Ke (Upper & Lower) 30 0 - 60 households Prospect N 3 Tibetan houses - 2 cows and 1 calf - tree willow & poplar outside village walls. Prospect E Road rising up mid terrace - muddy stream running d own road and through walls of mud & stone. Shrubs on left Prospect S Harvested fields, grazed by horses, pigs, dzos, don keys, - trees on N aspect slopes on hills in Tibet. Prospect W View up Yangtze - most fields harvested this side o f Yangtze (but not other side) followed road for 1 kilometer - turned into barley field on south side of road. Group 1 (1 lady, 1 man , 1 monk) Harvesting barley - own fields (leased) - harvest t ook 3 days - Sacha monk from Sacha monastery (3 hours walk NE) - Sacha monastery has 40 monks, but not all are permanent residents. Monk wa s helping his family with the harvest. Returned to main road - proceeded SE - passed road on left to Long Chee Ke. Followed road for ca 1 kilometer - turned right off road into barley field to talk to Group 2

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Station 4 Prospect N Mud wall (boundary of Long Chee Ke) Prospect E Low hills & cultivated valleys - Sacha Chorten (3m high empty) in the middle of field - Lhadza village Prospect S Barley harvest Prospect W View up Yangtze valley Group 2 (initially 2 men, 3 women, 2 girls (not rel ated)) >> 5 families from Long Chee Ke - they harvested together last ye ar as well - the village leader decides when to begin harvest - the barley is threshed and ground - two grinding wheels in village - sell some of grain to gov. and pay no rent - at least one family had leas ed the same field for 12 years - year by year beans/peas barley rotat ion - beans/peas fed as fodder - other fields in which wheat, beans/ peas, & a little veg - animals : dzos, yaks, horses, pigs, goats - 1 family had 10 Yak, 1 had 3, 2 had 0 - Yak kept at home and taken daily to the hills by the children - It was reported that the children do go to school when its not harvest time ! - The adults look after the Yak the rest of the time - It was reported that each family had 3 child ren ! - Harvest time is the difficult (hardest) time of the year - women reported there was not always enough to eat. returned to road - road rises through moraine & dep osited river alluvium (ferrous & acidic? kaolinic?) Station 5 - Dry valley leading to bend in Yangtze r iver Prospect N Rough grazing up to hills - eagles soaring (ca 2 ti mes 12) Prospect E Road rising leaving fields and harvest behind - gro und much poorer - Lhadza in foreground - old terraces on hill behind Prospect S Dry valley 50m wide eroded sides leading into Yangt ze Prospect W Roads runs straight through fields - harvest on rig ht - ploughed on left - calves grazing - Soil Profile (4m) on side of road O horizon - 75mm - thin layer vegetated 1 " - 150mm - small stones 5-15 mm 2 " - 600mm - gravel , shale & ? 3 " - 150mm - larger stones 100-150mm 4 " - 750mm - gravel, shale & ? 5 " - 150mm - larger stones 100-150mm 6 " - 1350mm- gravel, shale & ? 7 " - 775mm- larger stones 150-250mm - road bends and levels, pond on left of road creat ed by road (culvert needed ??) dry valley leading to previous dry valle y - no running water. - dry valley with blue silt (kaolin?) on left of ro ad Station 6 - Plateau West of Lhadza Prospect N Small terraced fields of barley - few trees around houses (Lhadza) Prospect E Small fields - rough grazing giving way to old terr acing on hills Prospect S Hills folding into Yangtze valley Prospect W Larger fields sloping down to Yangtze - steep sides to Yangtze river -

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goats and calves grazing freely on rough ground and ploughed fields arrive in Lhadza village - 24 houses 130 people (5. 4) Group 3 (3 men, 1 monk (Sacha), 1 woman, & 1 boy) Fairly new house (ca 2 yrs) - timber from Tibet - o ats & peas drying in loft Nearest forest is 1 hour away - "Horonu" ? - collec t :firewood, mushrooms, medicinal herbs, wild fruit, fodder Don't collect leaf mold - like mushrooms and would like more - they go to the forest all the year round to collect prod uce but their animals do not graze in the forest - Yak feed on trees in f orest during winter (snow) - Forest is larger now than formerly - in th e last 10 years useful trees have been planted - there are now more fields and life is better - road was built ca 20 yrs ago - influx of Han & Ti betans during the cultural revolution - water nearby, which they some times boil and are never ill ! - little irrigation - they are free to cross into TAR but prefer to live in Lhadza as there is no water in Ti bet - eldest brother lives in house when married, others move out when t hey marry - monk lives in village and only goes to monastery on spec ial occasions - the nearest Bonpo monastery is in Derge - there are sev eral Galupa, Nyeema and Sacha monasteries in the vicinity of Lushu town ship - The oldest man had been once to Lhasa on pilgrimage - the last King lived in Derge and the last Lord lived in Luoshu. walked up stream - met 2 girls and monk collecting water from stream - led by them passed empty nomad tent - Station 7 -above Lhadza - next to a barley field Prospect N Steep hillside - some rock outcrops - sparse vegeta tion Prospect E valley with small stream supplying Lhadza - barley in terraces being harvested Prospect S over Lhadza and the Yangtze valley Prospect W The Yangtze valley - met relatives of Ang Luo harvesting barley - descended west towards Lhadza passing disused res ervoir (in need of repair) 50m by 20m by 2m(deep end) sloping bottom, earth walls (one side excavated) stone & cement dam with a stone plu g. >>>> ref to eng. -Group 4 (mixed group of ca 12) Relatives of Ang Luo - only 4 lived in house - new house (less than 1 year) - no toilet - large artistic "cow pat" heap in corner - radio cassette player, hand sowing machine (only one coul d use) - neat and tidy vegetable garden : onions, cabbages, apples . They liked the apples which were small but tasty (gold cap?) (Return journey to Dengke) - Followed Mani wall (with prayer flags & chorten ) for 1 km W and joined main road between Station 5 & 6. -crossed two dry valleys before traversing NW acros s fields towards upper Long Chee Ke - passed through Long Chee Ke - deserted except cal ves, pigs, dogs & children - followed well made cement sided irrigation channe l for 1 km -descended to Long Chee river crossing by Dengke hy dro intake and ascending to Dandar -3 Yak bringing in harvest from across river - Followed Dandar-Dengke road passing another mani wall with prayer flags - observed the edge of forest to the north - Followed road into Dengke passed orchard (ref Tue sday)- harvest on roof

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-approached Dengke from NE MONDAY 04-09-95 ALL DAY 1)Meet Onetwo and Ora leaders Mr Badger - Magistrate Mr La Jo :Secretary - not present 1 0 yrs ago 1)Population 323 don't know M 161 (est) " F 162 (est) " 3 children born in 1994, and 2/3 children per famil y 2)Households 72 " 3)People per household 5.18 4)Ethnic origins F rom Tibetan 100% don't know don't know how long the village has been there 1 0 years ago 5)Livelihoods Agro-pastoralists 321 Doctor (Trad. Tib) 1 Part time gov. official 1 Teacher 0 1 6)Farm size 5mu per person set 13 years ago -1982 7)Livestock Yak, dzo & donks 2000 ?? Sheep 500 Goats 1000 Pigs 100 Horses 400 Chickens 0 8)Water No springs River Water (Na rong long) two places according to season Summer season - piped supply for a good 2km - 10min Winter season - from river near bridge 2min? ?? Good quality water - boiled occasionally - not cons idered to be the principle cause of illness. 9)Electricity Not currently - expecting to be supplied after the harvest -from Dengke Hydro 10)Forest called "Porong" Forest - 6 hrs return walk 11)Forest Products Firewood, Timber, Fungi, Berries, the odd nut, medi cinal plants, not fodder. Animals graze in forest especially in the w inter. Products collected all the year round. For Timber a permit is required. 12)The forest area has grown in area in the last te n years due t planting. Species planted : Bolo, Baysue, Shoeper ( furniture) Young trees not physically protected . 13)Crops & yield Barley 400jin/mu 200kg/mu 3000kg/ha Wheat 600jin/mu 300kg/mu 4500kg/ha Beans 300jin/mi 150kg/mu 2250kg/ha Potatoes no figures Oil seed " Cabbage "

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Lowboo " Other " Apples a few trees Sell barley & wheat 10% sold to nomads Wheat @ 120Rmb 100jin (1.2 RMB /jin) Barley @ 130RMB 100jin (1.3 RMB/ jin) Most common Wheat Least common: Cabbage Lowboo or V eg 14) Villages in Luoshu Xian :WAntwo, Phlagan, Luosh u, Dandar, Gwayso, Gower (nomad) , Lhadza & Long Chee 15)Village structure & organisation Only a Magistrate & Secretary who relate directly t o the township. They have village meetings every month and one person pe r family attends. The magistrate is chosen by the local people. Confl icts are dealt with by the Magistrate &/or Secretary, although big prob lems are referred to Luoshu. Harvest or planting time is decided by t he leader of the xian. 1 0 yrs ago 16)Officials 2 2 17)Local Organisations Local Militia, Womens group, Party Political, Relig ious, nearest savings group in Luoshu. 18)Education The magistrate had received little education but co uld sign his name in tibetan. 3 out of an estimated 60 children go to school. It is too far to come home for lunch. Nearest school is in De ngke 45 mins walk away. 19)Medical Problems Regular Stomach aches/head aches . No attributable cause. When ill always go to the hospital although there is a trad. tib. d octor in Oru. The doctor is trained in Tib. (Derge) , Chinese & Weste rn (Kangding) medicine. No toilets in the village. There is no village midw ife and home delivery is normal practice. 20)Problems & possible future cooperation Most important : domestic water supply & irrigation Electricity, Midwife, School, MONDAY PM TRANSECT 1 Station 1 Bridge over Na Rong Long (Bon Chu) 32o 28.92' N 97o 58.40' E Valley 200m river 10m wooded bridge with dry stone parapets. (unusable by livestock and transport - flood damage -rose 3m? ) - pond always there - "Argu Largu " which the goats eat - goats go everywhere - soil light free draining with many stones 125-200 mm Station 2 Steep slope 45o W aspect loose stones som e terraces further down - barley & grazed after harvest by cattle & go ats - irrigation channel (non lined) dry stones - only ran when rive r (Bon Chu) was in flood - suppled Luoshu - soil light well drained - small stones 25-50mm - paths a major cause of erosion - veg : Adurigu (s melled) not even eaten by goats - Daygay kappa no use at all - Chell y Bhota clumpy grass eaten by horses and goats Station 3 (top of slope) SW Aspect 3o slope - near Leprosy Lady's house - cropping pattern :alternate barley & fallow - some terracing - soil

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light and loamy - some stones 50-75mm only large st ones are cleared from the fields - goats ca 70 going into valley (Bo n Chu) to graze with goat herd girl (8 yrs old) & mother - goats are usu ally looked after by 2 girls (usually 8-11 year old girls) - June-Aug goats go into mountains - rest of time near by - Ora goats run together - p ath between fields on edge of terrace 1m drop grass edges - Gender roles Task M & F Male Female Ploughing * Sowing * Weeding * Reaping * Binding * Carting * " by Yak * Threshing * Toasting * Grinding * Cooking * Manuring * Collecting Water * Firewood * Mushrooms * Med.herbs * Decisions Crops * *(mostly) -manure any kind including human - some straw added - animals fed on straw - Needs : 1)A good bridge between Ora and OneTwo 2)Drinking water 3)Irrigation Station 4 edge of Oru 11 houses - 70 people -6.3 people/hh - all agro-pas toralists apart from Trad. Tib. Doctor - no local leaders all problems r eferred to OneTWo - no new houses this year (1995) -one last year (19 94) - no change over 10 years - no oral history of migration or immigrat ion - Children 0-5 9, 5-10 5, 10-15 6 Total 20 , Age of m ajority 15 Veg : Lilo (Fat Hen ____________) eaten by humans, Yak, horses, pigs, sheep not very tasty - Ahjong ___________ better th an Lilo eaten both dried & fresh fast growing - _ _ _ _ _ Vetch ______ _____ >>>>>>FI oil seed volunteers -water course had dried up sinc e Tuesday 29th Aug TUESDAY 05-09-95 AM -path to Oru -volunteer Sunflower plants on path s ide - 150mm tall -unlikely to mature - Pulmanaria Spp - Soil profile O 50mm Grass & herbs 1 50-1050mm Light sandy well dra ined -root systems present throughout 2 1050-3050mm Moraine, gravel & st ones (up to 300mm)- compacted - no strat ification --------------------------------------------------- ---- 2 1050-2050 as 1 above but with stones (30-50mm) 3 2050-4050 as 2 above -Stinging nettle plant with palmate leaves in clump s up to 1m

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tall - also docks.

HOUSEHOLD SURVEY 1 House Downstairs (12 years old) - living rooms - wood storage - animal tethering and a dog Upstairs (2 years old) - 2 living rooms with plank flooring - one was empty and one contained : 2 beds (one cler ical bed with canopy) ,stove, two wooden chests, an oil lamp, t wo windows (no glass) ,religious pictures (B and a tiger, B and an e lephant), DL picture, 1 tankha, 1 god house, & 1 prayer wheel (6" in d iam) - 2 storage rooms with dirt floor -peas hanging to dry outside - oil seed & grass drying in the storage rooms - red medicinal fruits "O rsea" around lintels - Son went to monastery when 10 now 15 - most fa milies have one son in monastery - interviewees father received glass es during PD92 - House hold (8 people) 4 men 4 women F M Mother 71 Father 75 Wife 40 Interviewee 45 Daughter 13 Son 15 Daughter 9 P Uncle 60 lived in village for 22 years - previously res ident in Roshay under commune system 10 other relatives in village Derge Khamba King of Derge died after 1950 Land Leased 30 mu in 2 lots -one lot of 18mu lower and near water, one lot of 12mu upper with no water. 18mu lower - barley, wheat, beans, p otatoes, 2 rotations barley-potato-barley and wheat-beans-wheat 12mu upper - continuous barley No wheat grown 5 yrs ago - same seed upper & l ower - Yield total wheat & barley 10,000jin Barley 370jin/mu lower - 300jin/mu upper - whe at 400jin/mu 12mu barley & 15mu wheat N/A for beans and pot atoes Consumption - barley wheat potatoes 6000jin (o wn & animals) 300jin wheat sold to gov. @ 7RMB/jin .300jin o f barley given to gov. 1000jin for seed. Crop problems : pots.: worm - hail stones - Trees & Forestry Has planted a tree -willow - bought from a gov. official - no experience of apple planting - Timber - Boler for construction - Shubar for f urniture - available in Roshay Forest Firewood (6 species) :Nayshing Wanbow Naray (n ear river) Longma Bayma Tseegar (from forest) Most important trees : Shubar & Bolar Tree trads. One holy mountain - mostly protect ed some trees may be cut and grazing The forests are 2 hrs away : Naro Barong Duron g Nenko Medicinal Herbs (collected frequently in the s ummer time) - all tib. docs. go together (24) - Uncle & Father are a lso Tib. Docs - Most important herbs are :Zion Baymoo Yitsohoi June yhoi Bahagar - grow a few in garden Health Leprosy most common - not treatable by tib. me d. - Lots of TB - throat infections - stomach complaints (attrib to d irty food & water) - diarrhea sometimes - liver complaint - Livestock

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Horses 10 Transport Goats 20 Milk (F) Meat ( M) leather (Sold) Dzo Dzomo Yak 60 Milk Work Trans port(F) Meat Breeding (M) Donkey 5 Transport Above average number of Yak , not many healt h problems ,young yak brain problem - Water From River Bon Chu - hard to get but always so me - takes his mother 1 hour four times a day (for humans & animals) - boil water for tea only no perceived connection between water & sickne ss - adults don't drink unboiled water - women collect water - not ver y clean Needs (Pers.) 1) No medicine of any kind 2) father is sick 3) Would like to enlarge his house but has fin ancial constraints People come 2 days to consult him - next neare st tib. doc. is in Derge or Zurgoo - No toilets - go in field - no special place No food shortage , although some families do h ave some shortage Doctor from Dengke comes to village 2 or 3 tim es a year - patients have to pay - free vaccination for children - few accidents mainly harvest, horses & firewood - some elderly peop le have eye problems - 2/3 doc 1/3 farmer Community needs 1)Bridge : Timber transportation, access to vi llage meeting, access to the fields - they go to Shuqu via Ang Luo home town Education : only a few children go to school b ecause its a long way- some cant afford to go to school - have to pay TUESDAY PM HOUSEHOLD SURVEY 2 House : 3 rooms downstairs - Room 1 kitchen/l iving : breakfast bar ,earth stove & dresser ,free standing metal st ove with stack ,cooking utensils, smoked eaves Room 2 ,currently used as a carpentry workshop Room 3 , currently in use for wood storage House cost 2,000RMB (average) Household : 4 people M F Husband 34 Wife 32 Daughter 10 Daughter 8 owned house for 4 years - previously lived wit h wifes family in Oru. The parents are the only relatives in village although there are many around the locality. The wife is a Sichuan Kha mba and the Husband is Han Chinese. He said it was no problem for a H an chinese man to live in a Tibetan community. Land :lease 3 & a half mu in many different p laces including across the river.4 fen in each place. Crops: Food Sell Seed Barley 300jin/mu 1mu 200jin 50jin 36jin Winter Wheat 400jin/mu 1mu 300jin 100jin Beans na 0.5mu Fallow 1mu Rotation :Barley-Beans-Barley, Wheat-Beans-Whe at Only wife has field ,husbands land is in NE of Chengdu (Xuhong -his hometown) he has travelled widely within PRC b ut decided to settle and marry a local girl Trees & Forest

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No history of tree planting in family. Use :Sasoo, Baysoo, Wayjo, Dajong for firewood They collect Wormgrass & Baymoo Wood for furniture (and firewood) collected f rom Puronga (5km) and from TAR (25km) Use mainly dung on the fire. Daughters collect medicinal herbs from the for est and grassland Most important trees : Sasoo(Bolu) Willow, Bay soo & Shuba Dont normally collect berries nuts etc (dont l ike them) Didn't know any tree stories - one special tree in Roshay forest opposite the herdsman - cant cut wood Livestock Used for Yak, 7 Transport (at harvest and f irewood), ploughing, skin & meat Dzo 6 Dung & milk Pigs 6 Meat below average number of livestock No health problems Garden Potatoes, Cabbage (small), lettuce, Turnip, eat all themselves Wife looks after the garden Suffers from lack of water Haven't grown any new crops. Resources Water Sources : River Bon Chu - always enough but fa r away - Collect times Fast half hour slow 1 hour - collected twice a day - either may collect water but usually wife - always boil water - unsupervised children may drink unboiled water - some perce ived associated between water and sickness (Han influence ??) Firewood Sources: Rashay & Puronga - 1 person one day t o collect - firewood for 10-15 days from October onwards -will last win ter - mainly burn dung - dont collect in summer For work the husband usually arranges for the client to provide wood. A permit for 1 cubic metre is 320RMB Access Credit Not easy to obtain Cooperation Villagers all help - usually the same peop le every year - some exchange Main Changes (in last 20 yrs) Better food supply now Problems/needs 1)Food/land (1 and a half mu) not enough Money from pig ,yak, carpentry Education Children -needed at home to care foe animals Husband - 6 yrs in primary school Wife - none Hope children can go in future - its a long wa y , children play on road Natural Disasters 20 days ago there was an earthquake - since 19 85 there have been three earthquakes - no serious damage - no serious flooding in Oru - in valley floods occur -4 yrs ago the bridge was damaged - hailstorms 10-20mm every year - barley ,wheat & veg. dama ged - snow & blizzards occur with no damage or loss of life.

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Health -headache, shoulders (upper back), mino r ailments go to local tib. doc. major to hospital. Vaccinations in h ospital - accidents : fall from horse, harvest, -not common Children : cough cold diarrhea (water) Delivery - older relatives or neighbours help No toilet - no special place to go GENDERIZATION Work Men Women Both Tree ownership * " planting * " cutting * Collection Timber * Firewood * Foliage/branches * Dung * Fruits na Land leasing * plough * planting * weeding * reaping * binding * threshing * roasting * grinding * Livestock care * selling * Vegetables planting * caring * consuming * fetching water Credit * market * GENDERIZED TIMELINE Wife 6:30 Gets up Makes fire Sweeps floor Fetches water Collects dung (in winter) Milking Send Sheep and Yak to Mountain (children look after) Goes to fields (not much to do ?) Fetches animals Makes meal Goes to sleep when dark Wife happy with current work load Husband (Carpenter) 7:30 Gets Up Breakfast Washes Out to work returns from work 8 - 9 pm either eats out or eats at home Goes to bed when dark

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WEDNESDAY 06-09-95 AM HELP UNLOAD Help unloading & carrying bridge parts PM Help unloading & carrying bridge parts THURSDAY 07-09-95 VISIT TO LHATZE VILLAGE 32 2775 N 98 0163 E 2 Reservoirs, 1 above village, 1 in middle AM INTERVIEW LEADER: GANGA JANSUM Population 140 (10 years ago 110), 80 men/60 women, 5,83 people/hh 24 households, all Tibetan, Dema Khamba, lived always in Lhatze Occupations All farmers with animals, no nomads, no tea chers, 10 farmers are traders as well (with Lasa, TAR), 4 farmers a re carpenters/artisans, 14 monks, 2 hh have 2 monks, rest 1 Leadership Tib Leader is chosen by the villagers, 13 yr s leader now, elected every 3 yrs, receives some payment from gvt. 1 big meeting once a month, small once a w eek, people come with problems No Chinese officials in village Farm size Largest 60, smallest 11, av. 25 mu/hh Livestock Horse, dzo, pig, donkey, goat, sheep, no chick en 30 horses, 400 altogether Water From stream, nearby, not enough for fields, ru ns all year round, OK to drink, boil it only for thee, makes strangers feel bloated when they drink it for the first time No electricity Forest Small forest: 'Ne lo long'- 3 hrs walk Don't get wood for house, only for firewood, t imber for house from TAR or Obala (Go-we). Obala is not far by truck, t here is also grassland and nomads Mushrooms collected from the valley. Villagers go to other forests as well Firewood: shoepa, oogna, nyerai, bolu (some from river), firewood collected 3 times a year, 1 day, villagers mos tly use dung Animals graze in forest during winter Timber from Go-we (used for electricity poles) , need permit, don't go often Don't collect medic. herbs, collect some fruit - Seydo Near forest: bigger now, cutting restricted for many years, some planting by the forestry department Go-we: bigger now, same story Crops Yield Mu Barley (600 gin/mu) with W .Wheat 300 mu W.Wheat (700 gin/mu) Beans 200 gin/mu 90 mu Cabbage (round) Potato 2000 gin/mu 10 mu Spring onion Oil seed Apple

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Most grown: barley, least: beans and veg. Every family has at least 1 apple tree Villages 8: Lhadze, Go-we, Unto, Loshi, Flagon, Danda, Gonso, Longchi Local organisations Womens group 1 - discuss women things Religious group 1 Political 1 Community 1 Children Total 40, 0- 5 13 5-10 11 10-15 16 No one goes to school this year, some went las t year, too far Leader went to school when he was 9 for 1 mont h, taught himself Tib. and maths Health Most common: Headache, cold/flu, shoulders, ga ll Midwifery: Mother, sisters help, don't go to h ospital, 3 babies born last year Doctor visits village once a year, gives free vaccinations, charges for visits to check health No toilets, no special place, go to unclean pl ace Informants: 3 old wise people know about anima l health Needs 1) Water for fields 2) Electricity (no transformer) The 2 reservoirs are too small, leak. Lhatze is a good place for forest, trees and g rass (nomads) Model village, plant trees, develop agricultur e, the plan is in Loshi, people are happy with plan PM TRANSECT LHATZE VILLAGE 32 2705 N 98 0160 E 3412n ? 3700 1. Above village, harvested barley fields SW aspect, 4/5 terraces before hill, grass, light sandy soil, well dra ined, some stones, 50 m. above stream bed. Every year barley, irrigatio n channel on hillside 50 m. above. July and August limited water, from main stream, reservoir enough for 3 mu (?). September and Oct. most water in stream, need water most in May, June and July. Water rises 50 gonfun, 6 inches. Barley sown mid April, everywhere sown at the same time. Problems: rust/brown spot, white insect - half inch - attacks 1 month after planting - worm, soot (black- head) People sell barley in Oct. to gvt. Dung on field: 3500 gin/mu Chemical fert. used in some places - urea 2. Upper reservoir. Has a cloth and soil plug. Filled with water after planting time. Holds water OK. Transect abandoned due to heavy rain HOUSEHOLD SURVEY 1 LHATZE People Name: Gura-ja (Uncle= Jagna) 12, 5 women, 7 man. Uncle 79, father 76, stepfather 74, interviewe e 49, sons 30, 24 and 12, wife 50, daughters 22, 20, 17 and 15

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30 years in village, before in Shinzo, came to Lhatze after comm. system. Most of the villagers are related. Dem a Khamba. Land 60 mu, some below the road (mainly wheat and b eans), some above the road (mainly barley and beans) Crops mu yield --------------------------- Wheat 20 450 jin/mu normal,300 th is year, very dry Barley 10 300 jin/mu normal,300 th is year Potatoes 3 1500 jin/mu Beans 8 200 Vegs. 1 Fallow about 18 mu Yields: Last year was best, now better than 5 yrs ago due to: 1) self management 2) better husbandry 3) better seed, science, people exchange s eed every 2/3 yrs Fertilizer: use little more art. fert. than 5 yrs ago consumption: 6000 jin for people and an imals (total produce) 440 jin for sale (wheat 1 .2/jin, barley 1.3/jin) 1000 jin for seed (wheat a nd barley) 360 jin for gvt. (given) Forest/Trees Int. has planted 10 trees, poplar from fores t dept., willows from forest, 2 of each died. Some training in husba ndry and protection. Species used: Bolu (house timber), shoepa, daj ong and luna (firewood), mushrooms, fruit (baymu). Timber from TAR, firewood also but some from behind. Mushroom etc. from forest and top of mountain. Most important: bolu, shoepa (timber and firew ood) Would eat more mushrooms (if insect free) Stories: A 1000 years old tree outside the village, protects 190 springs, tree that catches water, if cut down spring will dry up Livestock Yak 40 for milk, transport, meat, sell Goat 40 for milk (1 jin/day min), meat, dung Sheep 20 for milk (1 jin/day max), meat, dung, wool Pig 0 Horse 4 for transport, dung, riding/hir ing Donkey 11 for transport, dung Chickens 0 Health problems: mouth, intestinal, TB (lu ngworm?) - now better medicine, have to pay some but heavily subsidi zed Use milk for butter, yoghurt, dried cheese, do n't drink much Veg. garden: cabbage (2x), potato, turnip, uni on, apples (5 trees) Int., wife and daughter look after the veg. ga rden, use the produce to eat, give away, sell, don't exchange. New vegs .: Chinese cabbage and onions, saleable, encouraged by other growers and gvt. Water From river, 5 minutes, fetch 3/4 times/day, by everyone who has time not by old people. Have collected water from r eservoir, end of October reservoir filled - winter supply Firewood Longco - 4 to 5 hrs walk, go once a year, 5-6 people go for 1 day. 1 person collects 800 jin/day. They use 10,000 j in/year incl. dung. Credit Can borrow but not easy, interest 20% Changes 1) Religious policy - freedom 2) Private land holding 3) Freedom to do business

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Needs 1) Electricity 2) Money, borrowing 3) Irrigation GENDERIZATION Work Man Women Both Planting trees * Cutting trees * Collecting timber * Collecting firewood * Collecting dung * Collecting food * Leasing land * Ploughing * Planting * weeding * Reaping * Binding *(m) Threshing * Roasting barley * Grinding Caring livestock * Selling livestock * Planting garden * Caring garden * Eating produce * Water collecting *(m) * Receive credit * Goes to market * GENDERIZED TIMELINE Man 6 am get up eat and drink tsampa and butter 7 am begins work, harvest, look after yak break for lunch, bread, yoghurt and butter 8/9 pm return home 10 pm noodles 11 pm bed FRIDAY 08-09-95 AM Updating records, computing, GIS, meeting PM VISIT LHADZA VILLAGE HOUSEHOLD SURVEY NR.2 Name of the interviewee: Ajue Nr.in household 10, 6 females, 4 males. Interviewee 52, husban d 54, 4 daughters 27, 23, 20, 11, 2 sons 20 and 18, 1 son in law, 1 granddaughter 5 mnts 1 of the son is monk Always lived in village, grandparents also lived in village, 1 relative living in the village, 5 other relati ves live in Longshika Ethnic origin: Lhadza tibetan Land 40 mu, in 4 different places Grow barley, wheat, beans, potatoes, vegs, cab bage, turnip, shinto Consume and save for seed the same amount and sell less (4:4:3) Produce more now than 5 years ago, attributed to self management and help from children Trees Planted 36 trees of which 4 survive, 2 apples, 2 willows. Died from lack of water, apple trees were given by the g vt. free. Willows cut from old trees. Some training has been given b y gvt.

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Kinds of trees: Besoe, boloe, shupa, dedjong, djong Collect bemo from forest, no fruit, collect mu shrooms and like them, would eat more, collected from 3 km away, fore st called Lorong where they also collect timber for the house and fir ewood. Collect bemo also from top of mountain and mushrooms from farawa y in the mountains. They collect some firewood from the river Most important trees: boloe and shupa Stories: there is a special, holy mountain (Le ra) on which they can't cut trees, no physical protection but under stand the consequences would not be good. OK to graze cattle. Nearest village nomads Livestock Horse 2 transport Yak 8 milk, female for field, me at and skin Cow 1 milk, transport, skin Donkey 1 transport Goat 5 milk, skin Pig 1 meat Drink milk if there is enough Garden Cabbage (2x), turnip, potatoes (2x), oil seed rape, radish They all look after the garden and sell some p roduce but mostly for themselves. Cabbage sold 8 mau/jin, potatoes 1,2 yuan/jin, sold in Loshi on the street. No new varieties grown. Oil seed rape, seed us ed for oil, the haulm is used for horse feed Water Collected from the stream 4/5 times a day, usu ally by son or daughter but mainly by women. The water is considered to be clean and they don't always boil it. Some association of sickness with unboiled water. Water for the field is taken from the s tream No water is used from the reservoir. Problems No water in the fields, if there is not enough water for the fields there will be not enough food. They usually ha ve enough food Survey incomplete because interviewee was need ed to help with harvest GENDERIZATION carried out with a female aged 43 from a different family. Work Man Women Both Plant trees * Cut trees * Collect timber * Collect firewood * Collect foliage * Collect fruit * Ploughs * Plants seed * Weeds field * Reaps * Binds * Threshes * Roasts barley * Grinds * Caring livestock * Sell livestock * Veg. plant * Veg. care * Fetch water * Goes to market * GENDERIZED TIMELINE Women

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6 am get up, light fire, drink tea, send yaks to pasture, fields for harvest lunch gardening, fieldwork, back for dinner, garden, collect yak 11 pm go to sleep Threshing machine belongs to village Girl, aged 12, from different family 6 am get up, drinks tea, put dung on the wall, make fire, harvest (glea ning) home for lunch harvest gleaning back for dinner harvest gleaning drink tea feed dog, drink tea harvest 11 pm goes to sleep Menu: Breakfast: tsampa, tea, Lunch: potatoes, vegetables Dinner: bread, meat She washes her hair every 20 days, never been to school SATURDAY, 09-09-95 Visit to Obala by truck HOUSEHOLD SURVEY WITH NOMAD FAMILY GPS Magellan 32 38.71 N 98 03.85 E GPS Panasonic 32 39.25 N 98 04.06 E Altitude 4336m (altimeter reading 4720m) Tent made out of yak hair, with adjustable op ening in the roof to allow smoke from the stoves to escape. Moved 1 year ago from Sichu, will soon be moving lower down the valley, usually stay in the same place for 2/3 months, in June and July they are high up the mountain, they move 4 times a year and spend the longest time in one place during the winte r, they have a house in the valley (Goala) like all nomads. In the tent was an earthstove and a tinstove, beds were made of sticks with skin coverings placed around the outer 'w all' of the tent, there was a god shelf with 8 pictures and many cups, butter lamps and food offerings. They have a short/medium wave radio and listen every day mainly in the afternoon and evening, they listen to news, s tories and music. The radio was tuned at around 7 Mhz or 7 Khz. Family 4 members, 2 male/2 female. Interviewee, male 55, son 28, daughter 24, granddaughter 2. Interviewees wife died. They are newcomers to the area, moving from East Sichu township, Loshi i s his parents home area. Parents now dead. 13 relatives live in the are a. They belong to the Goala community, the leader lives a long way away. Ethnic origins: Dema Tibetan. Language: speak Kamba, they understand Drogee, all herdsman in the area speak Kamba. Over the mou ntain and in Sichu they speak Drogee. Land Have no land of their own but have communal ac cess to grazing land for which they pay the gvt. 1.8 yuan per yak/year (Sichu rate, not sure of local rate). In his grandfathers time there wa s more grass, this was attributed to 1) less people 2) less anim als 3) better quality

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grazing. No produce grown at home. They sell b utter to the gvt. 6/10 jin per yak for which they receive 3 yuan per jin. Forest and trees They have never planted a tree, they use shup a, boloe, siera, they collect bemoe and wormgrass for themselves, th ey don't collect berries but snack on them when in the woods. Shin is a vegetable type plant which they find in the wood, they eat the leav es. They like mushrooms and collect them. The animals graze in the for est in winter, they eat deri and longma. Most useful trees: boloe (sasu) and shupa. No traditional stories although there are special trees which shouldn't be cut down, some individual and some groups o f trees. Livestock Yak 50 milk, transport, skin, wool , riding Horse 7 riding and selling Cat 1 Milk 25 of the yak 2x/day, get 5 jin/yak/day. Use the milk for tea, butter, yoghurt and dried cheese. Calf april/m ay, every other year. Skin for sale and own use. Wool used to make t ent and rugs. Animal health: affected by change of pastur e, calves suffer from diarrhoea, adults also suffer from 2 diseases, 1 contagious diarrhoea (?) called geh and 1 non contagious fatal disease called tsah, symptoms: no diarrhoea, die very quickly. No r ecognized problems with fertility. Water Water taken from the stream, 3 min. 2/3 times a day, collected mainly by the daughter, other sites used also ha ve water nearby. They sometimes drink the water unboiled and no asso ciation with illnesses. There is always enough water, for animals as w ell. Firewood Collected locally, 1 day 20x a year. They burn mainly firewood. Pasture land 1 hour away Biggest changes 20 years ago they worked hard and got nothing - commune system now they work hard and get something There is freedom to believe and do what you wa nt to do. Problems Purchasing of wheat, barley and rice is ex pensive, they exchange butter and dried cheese for barl money from selling yak, 2000 yuan per adult, 3 0 yuan for a calf, they sell bemoo, 40 yuan/jin and wormgrass 3100 yua n/jin, sold to tibetan traders in Loshi Medical Food shortage sometimes, midwifery: home deliv ery, assisted by mother, sister, relatives. Doctors: tib. doctor in vil lage, he tests urine and stool. Some immunizations of children are ca rried out annually by visiting doctor. The 2 year old has been immun ized. Common illnesses: flu, some stomach problems, 1 disease as sociated with animals: blisters in the skin (brucellosis and ringwor m?), no leprosy among nomads. Accidents: fall from horse, not ofte n burns, frostbite in Sichu, go to hospital if near. Education Non of those present went to school, some have been taught to read and write by friends/monks. Most nomad children do n't go to school only if they have relatives living near to a school. 1 in 3 families has a monk.

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GENDERIZATION Female 24 Work Male Female Both Cuts trees * Collects timber * Collects firewood * Collects fruit * Cares animals *(m) Sells animals * Fetches water *(m) Sells in market * Cooks food * Makes butter * Exchanges goods * Spinning * Weaving * Puts up tent * Looks after yak * Milks yak * TIMELINE Male 55, sick 9 am get up waited all day for transport to go to hospital 10 pm went to bed Female 24 5 am get up milk yak (3 hrs), lights fire, makes tea/break fast, move dung, make butter, make dry cheese, feed dogs (anything), make lunch, make dry cheese, milk yak, tying up yak, light fire, co ok dinner 11 pm went to bed Male 28 5.30 am get up take yak to pasture, yak left alone, breakfast , back to pasture, home for lunch, back to pasture, bring yak home, ti e up horses, dinner, 11 pm go to bed Meals. Breakfast: tsampa, some rice Lunch: bread, yoghurt Dinner: soup, meat (no vegs. all day) Journey down from Obala to Loshi 1) Obala pass, 1 nomad tent in distance, herds of yak and sheep, poor grassland, wet with running water, rocky mount ain tops, some scrub, road recently regraded, water running on road in places, telephone lines run all the way to Loshi, poles in the process of being replaced. 2) Below tent, scrub increases, 1/1.5 m. yak a nd goat grazing high up to mountain tops (coal seams?), 2 more tents 3) 3 more tents, long hair goats, horses, over grazed, grass poor 4) across river, linesman working on telephone lines with tent and broken down lorry, trees 2 - 3 m. up valley s ide broad leaved with conifers higher up, some clearance skids and c ollect a special shrub Voc. Boloe = spruce Shupa = junipa Sieto = black currants Other varieties that we don't know: Luma (f irewood), Sura (azalia type) Nyama and Bayma

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MONDAY 11-09-95 Nomad/Forest Visit Horses arrived late - left Dengke at ca 12 no on by W exit - Took Onetwo road for 2 km and left it just before O ru - headed N to pick up Bon Chu (river) - proceeded up valley for 2 km and then struck onto water shed between Bon Chu and Long Chee - treeline (Juniper)

WP 20 32o 29.28 N 97o 58.29 E -traversed NW - and then E through Spruce & Juniper and thorny scrub - WP 21

32o 29.19 N 98o 00.47 E - followed spur E u p onto a small plateau - nomad tents (2) with S aspect WP 22 32o 2 9.50 N 98o 00.87 E. Tent : Small tent 10ft by 15 ft containing stove, god shelf with butter lamps & pictures - (2nd tent belonged t o sister in law ) - butter churn (modern hand) valued @ 600RMB ,purchased in Luoshu Demographic 2 people lived in tent - Mother 25 Daughter 3 (still breast feeding) Husband aged 27 was in Luoshu, where he had a house (with parents ?), where he stayed during the harvest & sowing se asons. Her parents lived in Dander where she had many relatives. Had ca mped in current location for two months. They usually moved twice a yea r. Ethnic origin : Daima Khamba Land : Area of grazing rights unknown , rent p er Yak paid by husband, amount unknown. Change in Condition in last 20 yrs : better no w but did not know why Produce : no home produce sold or exchanged Income : through sale of Baymoo & Worm Grass t o traders in Luoshi Baymoo - half/jin for 50RMB/jin/yr Wormgrass -half/jin for 2000RMB/jin/yr Forest Firewood Species :Shubar______ Bolo (Spruce) No tree stories Special Forest/Trees: they currently camped ju st to the south of a sacred mountain with a large forest - no cutt ing allowed - grazing allowed & tree planting. Firewood: collected from across the Long Chee river - two hrs away nothing else collected from forest Snacked (while in forest) on Shinto, Seetoe - don't like mushrooms Most important trees : Bolu (Spruce) - tent & firewood Shoepur - firewood Dung and firewood are both used on the fire. Livestock Horse 2 Transport, selling & riding Yak 30 Milk (from 15), butter, yog hurt & dried cheese dung, meat, eating & sellin g, transport Dog 2 Guarding Dung from the Yak was also used on husbands fields (2000kg/yr) (5 trips of 8 yak/yr) - 1 Yak can carry 50kg (in two sacks) Water: from 1 place 10 mins from tent - twice a day Major changes - ownership of Yak now possible Problems : lack of cash - greater problems on the farm. Food is sufficient Yak meat cooked by immersing in water and boil ing until the water had evaporated . Health Water not boiled, not related health problems, no Doctor visits, no vaccinations. Most common illness : colds flu headache stoma ch (children) -buy own medicine from Luoshu hospital. No major accidents

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Education Daughter : will be sent to school when 7 Husband went to school - wife did not Never been visited by foreigners before Genderization : M : Take Yak to mountains, cut trees Timeline : Female nomad age 25 5 am get up -milk yak (1 hour) - send Yak to mounta in - collect & dry dung - light fire - make breakfast - make butter - collect Yak - milk Yak - make butter - tether Yak - light fire - make tea - 9pm dinner - 11pm go to bed TUESDAY 12-09-95 @ 17:27 AM Report PM Met Ten Pay & Mr Feng A) LUOSHU TOWN 1) Luoshu Town 2) NW Sichuan Province - on border between Qinghai/ Sichuan Province & TAR 4) 7 officials in town (6 M & 1 F) 5) Organisations a)Credit society :1 b)Political : 1 town government & 8 village governm ent c)Religious : 3 monasteries 7) Population : Male : 1540 Female : 1546 TOTAL : 3086 Households : 481 Av. size of HH 5 9)Livelihood strategies Agro-pastoralists 1823 Pastoralists 245 Artisans 56 Professionals, Teachers 46 11)Livestock: Yak, Ox, Sheep, Goats, Horse, Donkey, Pig. Total: 15685 13) Crops: Barley, Winter Wheat, Potato, Broccoli, Beans. Most common: Winter wheat Least common: Broccoli Cash value 1,210,000RMB??? Average income 574.4RMB/yr 14)Development projects: 7-year plan. Community Based Analysis: Constraints: History, Road conditions, Resources, C ommunications Opportunities: There is great concern at all levels from National Government to local to develop Luoshi. B) LUOSHU TOWNSHIP Roads 161km Villages : 52 (17 without road) Main markets : Luoshu, Gansu (300km), Yushoe (394km ), Xushu (257km) (76km - usually closed) - Kangding & Chengdu are to o far away - Local officials :51 - 42 M & 9 F - 4 Han & 47 Tib. Local Organisations : Unions :18 Cooperatives : 0 Farmers groups:0

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Womens groups 0 ?? (Both community surveys revealed the existence of womens groups )>>>>>FI -later Credit society :6 (CS 0??) Savings society:6 (---"--, 1 in Luoshu) Burial Societies 0 (handled by monasteries) Political societies:6 Religious organisations: 16 monasteries & 1 nunnery (116 nuns from 3 provinces - Drooga Sect) Population 10600 (of which 10350 are farmers) Ethnic Mix: Mainly Han/Tibetan (Dema Khamba); also Amdo and Lha sa and 1 or 2 Hue. No Jairong. Origins: mainly local, wouldn't answer questions on influx of Han Chinese during cultural revolution. Some left in 1979 with the reorganisation of county, numbers not given. Farm size: 300 mu Livestock: Total 99,000; Yak 57,000; Sheep and Goats 39,000; H orses 4,500; Pigs 1300; Donkey 35; Chicken 200; Ducks 5. Crops: Barley, Winter Wheat, Potato, Beans, Oil Seed. Average income: 574RMB/yr in Luoshi, 500RMB/yr for whole of township. Factories: Leather factory processing yak, sheep, goats and wi ld animal skins. Site is the former middle school. Employs 11 people . Profit in 1994= 14,000RMB. Sawmill employs on average 5, may recruit extra sta ff during busy periods. Main source of timber - Tibet. Constraints: History, road conditions, resources, communications . Opportunities: There is great concern at all levels from Central G overnment to local level to develop the resources around Luoshi. WEDNESDAY 13-09-95 AM Report writing PM Bridge THURSDAY 14-09-95 AM Report Writing PM Meet Mr Wu -Forestry Exploration & Design Instit ute Dengke is rich in resources - water & mineral - Tree planting is a priority in PRC - the formal age nda is going "green" i.e. forestry & ag. development. The advantages of the "green " agenda" are both economic and ecological. As a result of a survey it was decided to plant a belt of trees West of Dengke as part of the 7 yr plan. 11,000mu of mainly Poplar with some willow was the first sta ge. Planting was completed in two years. Funding for this planting w as provided as part of the Yangtze flood prevention programme by Centra l government. Before the plan , Poplar was considered the best species f or West Dengke. After two yrs it became apparent that the survey was not thorough enough because the soil quality varied. We must learn from mistake s. The present survey is also concerned with expanding the infrastructure - a "green" project. The new "planting" in the Long Chee and Bon Chu riv er valleys was carried out by locals. The local people prefer spruces for firewood and timber. Spruce is not suitable for the Yangtze river valley . One of the conditions of collecting firewood is the replanting>>>>?

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An inventory/survey is not necessary for the purpos es of FEDI they are mainly concerned for the future. It is not a priori ty for forestry plans and planting. There is a lack of capital and techno logy to conduct many surveys. There are over 100 counties ,and forestry has a higher priority in some of these that Luoshi. There are no sample p lots. They are responding to government rather than local demands. Forest are as are much the same as 100 yrs ago. Limited climate change was used to substantiate this claim. They were not considering any new areas for future planting (waiting for orders from above before selecting suitable are as). Future cooperation - was welcomed - one suggestion was -foreign investment - site selec tion & species selection by locals - and the appointment of local trustees t o oversee the programme. Local knowledge was claimed to be sufficient in for estry while other areas needed some education. Locally agriculture ha s a priority over forestry. In forestry the most practical And realis tic species choice is Poplar. The advantages of Poplar as proved by th e survey : 1)Fast growing 2)Timber needed for furniture>>>>Fi 3)Acceptable by the locals>>>FI Foreign involvement was welcomed and government wou ld match 50:50 any foreign funding with assistance from FEDI and Provi ncial government. Once a capital programme is approved it may be poss ible to recruit foreign personnel. If FEDI was appointed as investigating a gents this allow access to maps, data, photographs and assistance. Economics - In an expanding economy investment is n eeded. Investment & cooperation projects will need approval from high er authorities depending on the scale of funding. (Ganzi -Sichuan -Beijing) In the cities beneficial projects have been proved. The areas of the Infrastructure survey of Luoshi Xi an is restricted to 2 sq. km of Dengke town. water supply and road c ondition were not being considered at present, although drinking wate r was recognized as a priority. Future cooperation in this developme nt was suggested. They are planning to build a 6-story building for A g. & Forestry department. Work will commence at the end of 1995. This was a g overnment priority in a developing area. With funding from Sichuan Pro vincial government. Gover - process the products. Apples - the wrong variety of apple was selected fo r growing in this area. A better choice would have been the apples s elected for Batang. Chinese Wolfberries have good potential. FRIDAY 15-09-95 AM Report writing PM Meet Mr Feng Presentation of Report - our efforts were commended - Mr Feng stated that he would have to report to higher authorities and report back to us. Life expectancy of a pig 3-5 yrs Market value of a sheep 350 RMB Horses foal after 3 yrs old and then every 1 or 2 y rs Bon Chu = Na Rong Long Protected Forest 13,000mu Local gov. planted trees in Maga New forest up the Bon Chu and Long Chee is mainly n atural regeneration Beijing/Kangding poplar are in an intimate mixture. at 110 tree/mu Planting rate in good conditions 30-40 holes/day Nomads - move three times/yr - generally to the sam e places at the same time. Population -Township

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Total 10,600 Farmers 8000 Nomads 1000 artisans,traders,teachers, gov. workers 1000 (o fficials 51) monks and nuns 600 (nuns 160) Ethnic groups Tibetan 91% Han 8% Other 1% The meeting concluded with a presentation of two sa tellite maps of Dengke area to Mr Feng and a copy of the draft report (sec tions 4,5 & 6) SATURDAY 16-09-95 @ 21:28 AM Meeting with Mr Feng, Mr Ga Ma And the Mayor Mr Feng thanked us for our efforts and summarized o ur report. He would like to welcome delegations :engineering, health, forestry etc but it has to be approved by higher officials. There are many areas that still need development. There is a lack of fin ance and knowledge e.g computers and modern machines - don't know how to use them. Help should be appropriate. Areas of misunderstanding 1)Areas of cooperation need to be agreed beforehand by both parties. - please come with a clear proposal so that we can prepare ourselves and decrease misunderstanding. Because the culture and the management style are different there is some misunderstanding. Through good communication we can improve the efficienc y of our projects. E.G 1. September is harvest time so there was no big welcome. EG 2 Some materials can be bought locally i.e. paint 2)The programme details should be clear in order to clarify the right responsibilities and benefits. This time we did not know what to expect so we could make the necessary arrangements. Eg Wat er: ,sand inform hydro, organize local labour. 3)Please bring a very detailed list of items & cash next time. 4)Poor explanation of activities in PD92 eg The Den gke map - permission was not sought and explanation not given. Mr Feng said he would have to refer the expert resi dent project to a higher authority. At present he would prefer to foc us on "certain scale projects" that could lead to an expert resident pro ject. Areas of help -Water supply -irrigation -hydro power station -school (paint not very useful) -hospital equipment (pumps not very useful , didn't work in winter, no one could repair them) -electricity for the villages -forest expansion (100ha) -telecommunication (satellite not the best option - 10 miles of wire) -big bridge -satellite and cable TV Mr Feng asked us to concentrate on one area at a ti me, so that they could benefit more from the items and projects. Ple ase spend your money efficiently. From an efficiency point of view this time (PD 95) was better than last time (PD 92).

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APPENDIX 3 SOIL & WATER TESTS Soil and Water Testing Soil diluted in domestic (non distilled) water 1 so il :5 water. Sample 11 was used as the dilution. Sample 1 - Soil Situation : Very close to Yangtze- grassland -sandy with stones From 7cm deep Sample 2 - Water from Yangtze Situation : East of Bridge - slow moving muddy wate r Sample 3 - Soil Situation : 150m from Yangtze - soil from ploughed field - clay with stones removed- From 10cm deep Sample 4 - Soil Situation : 500m from Yangtze - north of E-W road - harvested (stubble) field - clay with few stones From 10cm deep Sample 5 - Soil Situation : close to no. 4 - very wet grassland - From 6cm deep Sample 6 - Water from very small stream - flowing f rom old hydro - water clear flowing Sample 7 - Soil Situation : Plateau between old and new hydro - cla y with stones From 10cm deep Sample 8 - Soil Situation : Plateau just above new hydro - clay wit h stones - harvested (stubble) field From 10cm deep Sample 9 - Water from hydro inlet - clear & fast fl owing Sample 10 - Soil Situation : Grassland above Dengke (Gwayso) - sandy steep sloping soil From 15cm deep. Sample 11 - Domestic water supply from government c ompound. Water No pH SO3 NO2 NO3 Mn PO4 NH4 2 7 low low 1 low low low 6 7 low low 1 low low low 9 7 low 0.0 2 low low low 11 7 low low 1 low low low Soil 1 sand 7 25 0.8 4 1.3 4 1.8 3 clay 7 166 3.8 34 3.8 18 1.6 4 clay 7 high 5.5 33 3. 8 65 7.0 5 wet 7 30 0.6 0 3. 8 2 0.4 7 clay 7 high 7.1 29 24. 9 47 5.6 8 clay 7 high 6.1 24 13. 8 65 5.6 10 sand 7 34 0.7 0 1 .2 5 1.1

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Cultivation (1)

Cultivation (2)

North Face (1)

North Face (2)

Snow

Forest (1)

Forest (2)

Grazing (1)

Grazing (2)