UNIT-I PGDEM-02

WATER RESOURCES Written by Dr. Hardeep Rai Sharma,

SIM conversion by Prof. Narsi Ram Bishnoi

STRUCTURE

1.0 OBJECTIVES

1.1 INTRODUCTION

1.2 UNIQUE CHARACTERISTICS OF WATER

1.3 TYPES OF WATER RESOURCES

1.3.1 Surface Water

1.3.1.1 Rivers

1.3.1.2 Lakes

1.3.1.3 Ponds

1.3.1.4 Oceans

1.3.1.5 Glaciers.

1.3.2 Ground Water

1.3.3 Artesian Well

1.3.4 Springs.

1.4 WATER CONSERVATION PRACTICES

1.5 SUMMARY

1.6 KEY WORDS

1.7 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1.8 SUGGESTED READINGS

1.0 OBJECTIVES

After studying this unit, you will be able to understand:

1. The necessity of water and its characteristics.

2. Different type of methods adopted for conservation of water.

3. To know about the water resources and its Indian scenario.

1.1 INTRODUCTION

Water is the basic component of living beings. Human and plant body

consists of 60% and 90% water respectively. It is impossible to think life

without water, we require 3 to 5 liter of water a day; without water one can not

survive. It is some what difficult to discuss all uses of water, but some are

enlisted below:

1. Man uses water not only for drinking purposes but also for bathing,

washing, laundering, heating, air conditioning, agriculture, gardening,

industries (e.g. for power generation, steam generation and fire

protection, swimming and boating and other recreational purposes.

2. Most of the biochemical reactions that occur in the metabolism and

growth of living cells involve water, so Water is often termed as the

universal solvent.

3. Mammals require water to regulate their body temperature. Man's body

temperature remains fairly constant at 36.8ºC, and a rise of 3ºC may

prove fatal. This is regulated by water only. The history of human

civilization reveals that water occurrence and civilization are almost

synonymous. Several cities and civilization have disappeared due to

water shortages originating from climatic changes. Millions of people all

over the world particularly in the developing countries are losing their

lives every year from water borne diseases.

1.2 UNIQUE CHARACTERISTICS OF WATER

Water (H2O) has some unique characteristics/physical properties which

make it more useful and important than other solvents. These are:

1. Water has a boiling point of 100ºC and solid water (ice) has a milting

point of 0ºC. Otherwise, water at normal temperature would be a gas

rather than a liquid and the earth would have no oceans, lakes, rivers,

plants and animals.

2. Liquid water has a very high heat of vaporization. It means that water

absorbs large amount of heat when evaporated by solar radiation from

water bodies and releases the same when it return to earth surface as

precipitation. This ability to store and release large amounts of heat

during physical changes is a major factor distributing heat throughout

the world.

3. Liquid water is able to store large amount of heat without a large

temperature change i.e. it has high heat capacity. This property

prevents large bodies of water from warming or cooling rapidly,

help/protect living organisms from the shock of abrupt temperature

changes. This property also helps in keeping the earth's climate

moderate; makes water an effective coolant for car engines, power

plants and other heat producing industrial process.

4. Water is Able to dissolve large variety of compounds i.e. it is a superior

solvent. This makes water to help in transport of nutrient throughout the

tissues of plants and animals, to be a good cleaning agent for all

purpose -cleaner and to remove and dilute, the water soluble wastes of

civilization. This ability of water to act as a solvent also makes it easy

to pollute.

5. Water has an extremely high surface tension (the force that causes the

surface of a liquid to contract) and an even higher wetting ability. These

properties are responsible for liquid water's capillarity-the ability to rise

from tiny pores in the soil into thin, hollow tubes, called capillaries, in

the stems of plants.

6. Liquid water is the only common substance that expands rather than

contracts when freezes. Ice has a lower-density than liquid water and

thus ice floats on water. Water bodies thus freeze from the top down

instead of from the bottom up. Without this property, lakes and rivers in

cold climates would freeze solid and most known forms of aquatic life

would not exist. However, water expands on freezing it may also break

pipes, crack engine block and fracture streets and rocks, so we use

antifreeze agents.

Water Use: Water is mainly used in -two ways – in stream and off stream

use. Instream water use include the use of water for navigation, hydroelectric

power generati6n, fishing, wild life habitat and recreation.

Off stream use remove water from its source (surface water and

ground water). Water is used for various purposes like drinking, washing

clothes, bathing, cleaning, cooling, irrigation and in industry. Water is

consumed, it is no longer available for reuse in the local area because of

evaporation, storage in the living matter of plants and animals, contamination

or seepage into the ground. Almost three-fourths of the water withdrawn each

year throughout the world is used for irrigation. The remainder is used for

industrial processing, cooling electric power plants, in homes and business.

However, water use vary widely from one country to an other,

depending on the relative amounts of agricultural and industrial production.

People in more developed countries use more amount of water as compared

to people living in less developed countries. Worldwide, upto 90% of all water

withdrawn is returned to rivers and lakes for reuse and is not consumed.

Indian Scenario: In India total annual renewable freshwater resources are

estimated at 2085 billion cubic metres (Gm3). However, the annual average

water availability (AWR) in terms of utilizable water resources is estimated at

1086 Gm3, comprising 690 Gm3 of surface water and 395.6 Gm3 of

groundwater. In India 6.6 % of the total use of water is used for domestic

purposes. 78.5% in irrigation, 4% in energy production, 4.5% in industries and

6.2% for other purposes.

In the beginning of the century, India's per capita water availability was

45-55 cubic metres (m3) per year. It is reduced to 1283 m3 in the year 1991.,

As estimated India's population by the year 2010, 2025 and 2050 will be 1189

millions, 1392 millions and 1640 million respectively. Accordingly the per

capita water availability (AWR) will be 913 cum, 780 cum and 662 cum by the

year 2010, 2025 and 2050 respectively. In fact our country may likely to

experience "water stress" from the year 2007 onwards.

1.3 TYPES OF WATER RESOURCES

The earth's water resources consists of the oceans and seas, the ice

and snow of polar regions and mountain glaciers, the water contained in

surface soils, and underground, the water in lakes, rivers and streams. These

water resources collectively form hydrosphere. Less than 1% of these

resources consist of freshwater, about 2% is freshwater ice located mainly in

the polar regions and remaining 97% consists of sea water. The annual

evaporation of water from the hydrosphere and its return as rainfall amounts

to about 260 x 1012 m3. The total water content of the atmosphere is about

7x1012m3, indicating atmospheric water is replaced in an average about 37

times a year.

1.3.1 Surface water

The yearly amount of water flowing in streams in any region is directly

related to the annual rainfall. Most of the streams in arid or semiarid regions

are dry except right after the rare rains. On the average about 70% of the

rainfall evaporates directly or indirectly via plant transpiration of the remaining

30% travels through underground strata along rivers and streams and about

90% of the total run off reaches the oceans. The quantity of water remaining

on the surface water after losses due to evaporation, percolation and

transpiration etc. is known as runoff and forms the surface for all surface

water. Rivers, lakes, ponds, streams, oceans are example of surface water.

1.3.1.1 Rivers

Most of the surface runoff is dominated by the large stream network of

major rivers systems. Of the enormous number of streams on the continents,

only about seventy major systems carry one-half of the entire runoff from the

land areas of the world.

Large rivers are the main source of water supply for many cities and

towns. River may be perennial as well -as non-perennial. In perennial rivers

water flows for all the seasons because such rivers are snow fed. The

non-perennial rivers get dried in summer either partially or completely and in

monsoon, they are flooded with water. The total average annual water yield

(runoff) from rivers is approximately 47.000 km3 (1.2 x 1016gal). The natural

shape of the channel of a river at any point is determined the rate of flow

(discharge) of water and the topology and geology of the terrain through

which the river passes. The quality of water from a river depends mainly on

character and area of catchments; topography seasonal conditions and

various anthropogenic activities in the vicinity of the river catchments area.

Surface flow in our country takes place through 14 major river system

namely Brahmani, Brahmaputra, Cauvery, Ganga, Godavari, Indus, Krishna,

Mahanadi, Mati, Narmada, Perriar, Sabarmati, Subernarekha and Tapti.

Brahmaputra, Ganga, Mahanadi and Brahmani are perennial. Apart from

them there are 44 medium and 55 minor rivers system which are monsoon

fed, fast flowing and originate in the coastal mountains of the major rivers.

Most of the Indian rivers' have nearly 80% of their discharge during the

monsoon months (June - September). Water flows in some great rivers is

depicted in table- 1.

Table 1. Water flows in some great rivers (in m3/sec.).

River Location Annual Discharge

Amazon South America 175, 000

Congo Africa 39,200

Lena Russia 16,000

Parana Paraguay, Argentina 18,000

Bbramputra Asia, India 19,800

Ganges Asia, India 18,700

Mississippi North America 17,500

Yangtze Tibet, China 28,000

1.3.1.2 Lakes

Lakes owes their existence to depression in the landscape. The water

filling these depressions comes from runoff or ground water or both. Thus

some lakes are- rivers running into and out of them, some have only an outlet,

other have inlets only and some are filled only by groundwater. A lake can be

consequence of any one of a variety of geologic events i.e. earth quake,

volcanic activity and glaciations and some are due to the human activity.

Although lakes exist under different climatic conditions from arctic to

deserts to tropics and contain water that range, widely in both salinity and

acidity. They all share one characteristic they are relatively short lived in the

geological time. Lakes are maintained by springs or ground water seepage,

may disappear if the regional water table drops. For some lakes climatic shift

that results in increased evaporation, decreased rainfall or both may reduce

the water volume and may even cause them to completely dry up eventually.

Lakes may be natural or artificial. An artificial lake formed by the

construction of dam across a valley is known as storage reservoir. The

multipurpose reservoirs also make provisions for other uses in addition to

water supply like for power generation, irrigation and recreation purposes.

1.3.1.3 Ponds

Ponds are the man made bodies to collect water and are smaller than

lakes. The monsoon water is collected in the ponds which is used for different

purposes such as bathing, washing the clothes for cattle drinking throughout

the year. Large ponds also use water for irrigation of crops. The ponds as

rescharger of ground water table. Through these ponds act water seeks into

ground and cause improvement in water table gradually.

1.3.1.4 Oceans

Oceans are the earth's largest reservoir of water and are the prominent

feature of earth's surface. It covers 71% of the total area, to an average depth

of 4 kilometers. Seawater contains large amounts of dissolved salts, the most

abundant are sodium chloride and magnesium sulfate. The salts from

weathering and erosion of soils and rocks ultimately reach to oceans by

rivers. The salinity of sea water make it unable to drink. In fact, drinking of salt

water actually causes dehydration and an increased urge of water. The

salinity of sea water is remarkably uniform. It varies from 32,000 ppm (in rainy

climates or during melting of ice) to 38,000 pprn (sea ice formation or

excessive evaporation) with an average of 35,000 ppm. This salinity makes

sea water unfit for drinking as well as for cleaning and irrigation. Ocean

circulates heat energy through persistent currents, which redistribute the solar

energy that is absorbed by the surface waters. The circulation of surface

ocean currents is controlled by a coupling of winds with surface waters. The

sea is an essential reservoir in most of the cycles of materials and energy flow

on earth. Materials that are cycled into an ocean waters may remain there for

thousands even millions of years before being cycled out again. Thus it also

acts as a final dustbin for much of the water and air pollutants. Sea is also the

source of food and minerals also. The economically feasible raw materials

extracted from oceans' are sodium chloride, bromine and magnesium.

1.3.1.5 Glaciers

Glaciers which are really rivers of ice, represent another pathway taken

by the runoff components of the hydrological cycle in the journey of the sea.

Today, glaciers constitute the largest fresh water reservoir, although this

resource goes unused. Water in the form of glacial ice covers about 10% of

the earth's land surface

and is contained primarily in another(85,%), Greenland and some higher

mountain valley (4%)., If all of this, ice were to melt, the level of the seas

would rised by about 60 meters, sinking mainly all world's major coastal

cities.

In the earth history as a whole, the presence of any glacial ice at all

was a rare event. Yet during the post one or two million years, glaciers

alternatively expended and receded many times. As recently as 18000 year

ago, more then 30% of the earth's land surface was covered with ice. In North

America one ice sheet perhaps 3 km thick covered much of Canada and

Northern States. At that time sea level was about 100 meters lower than it is

now, because so much of ice tied up as ice.

Over geological time, the glaciers formed or receded depending on the

climate. Although greatly diminished in size, glacial ice, still represent the

earth's largest reservoir of fresh water.

1.3.2 Groundwater

The groundwater usually refers, to the water below the water table

where saturated conditions exist. Under the influence of gravity some

infiltrating water slowly percolates through pores in rock such as sand stone.

These water bearing layers of the earth's crust are called aquifers and the

water in them is known as groundwater. There are no open spaces under the

ground like rivers runs on the surface, except in cavernous limestone

networks and some open lava tubes in volcanic terrenes. The water travels by

twisting through the pore spaces between the sand grains. The' smaller the

pore spaces and the more difficult, fluids to pass through a solid is known as

permeability. The permeability depends largely on the amount of pore space

between the grains or crystals of the rock, the porosity. Thus the ground acts

like a sponge, seeking up rain in some places and leaking it out at other

places. The sandy or other kinds of beds that produce waters are called

aquifers.

There are two types of aquifers: confined and unconfined. An

unconfined aquifer forms when groundwater collects above a layer of

relatively impermeable rock or compacted clay. The top of the water saturated

portion of an unconfined aquifer is called water table. Shallow, unconfined

aquifers are recharged by water percolating downward from soils and

materials directly above the aquifer.

A confined or artesian aquifer forms when groundwater is sandwiched

between two layers of relatively impermeable rock such as clay or shade.

1.3.3 Artesian well

Confined aquifers are completely saturated with water under a

pressure greater than that of the atmosphere. In some cases the pressure is

so great that when a well is drilled into the confined aquifer, water is pushed

to the surface without the use of a pump. Such a well is called a flowing

artesian well. In other confined aquifers wells, known as non-flowing artesian

wells, pumps are used in order, to get water for various human purposes. In

these aquifers pressure is insufficient to force the water to the surface.

1.3.4 Springs

Springs arc places where a flow of water rises to the surface through

natural rock opening under hydraulic pressure from the depth. The aquifer is

either exposed at the surface or under lies a pervious material. The water of

springs will be either in plenty or scarce, depending on the area and the

thickness of the aquifer. A spring or chain of springs is common at the

junctions of permeable and impermeable rocks.

Hot springs and Geysers

They generally occur in regions of active or recent volcanism. The

ground water comes in contact with the heated or superheated steam inside,

the earth and emerges at the surface either as a hot spring or as a geysers. A

geyser is hot spring in which water is forced up by steam pressure at

intervals. As the opening at the surface is small, water and steam cannot flow

out regularly. The steam pressure forces the water to shoot out through the

openings. Mineral springs are hot springs in which minerals are dissolved and

water have unusual colour, taste or odours. The coldwater springs are found

in The Himalayas, the Western Ghats along Koukan coast and the Chota

Nagpur uplands. Hot springs are found in many parts of the country especially

in the hilly or mountainous parts of Jammu and Kashmir as well as in

Himachal Pradesh, Bihar and Assam. Some of the important hot springs are

the Manikaran (Kulu),Tatapani (Shimla) and Jwalamukhi (Kangra) in Himachal

Pmaish; Rajgier (Patna), sitakund (Munger) in Bihar.

1.3.5 Wetlands

Wet lands are bogs, swamps, wet meadows and marshes play a vital

and often unappreciated role in the hydrological cycle. Their bush plant growth

stabilizes soil and holds back surface runoff, allowing time for infiltration into

aquifers and producing even, year long stream flow. When wet lands are

disturbed their natural water absorbing capacity is reduced and surface water

runoff quickly, resulting in floods and erosion during the rainy season and low

stream flow the rest of the year.

1.4 WATER CONSERVATION

The following methods strategies can be adopted for the conservation

of water:

1.4.1 Reducing Irrigation losses:

Improved agricultural irrigation could reduced water losses by between

20 and 30% because agriculture is the biggest water user (80% of total fresh

water consumptive user), there would be a tremendous saving. Most irrigation

systems distribute water from a ground water well or surface canal by gravity

flow through unlined field ditches. Although this method is cheap, it provide far

more water than needed for crop growth, and at least 50% of the water is lost

by evaporation and seepage. Following suggestions can reduce the irrigation

losses

1. Fix price for some and agricultural water to encourage conservation as

subsidizing water may encourage overuse.

2. Use lined or covered canals that reduce seepage and cultivation.

Irrigation ditches can be lined with plastic sheets to prevent seepage

and water logging, and ponds can be constructed to store runoff for

later use.

3. Irrigate the fields at times when evaporation is minimal, such as night

or in the early morning.

4. Use improved irrigation systems, such as sprinklers or drip irrigation,

that more affectively apply water to crops. Sprinklers reduce water

wastage from 50% to 30%. In drip irrigation (micro-irrigation) is applied

at low rate over a long period of time, at frequent intervals directly into

the plant's root zone and also through a low pressure delivery system.

5. Proper use of available water sources. That is, irrigate with surplus

surface water to recharge groundwater aquifers by applying the surface

water to specially designed infiltration ponds or injection wells. When

surface water is in short supply, use more ground water

6. New hybrid crop varieties should be used which require less water or

are more tolerant to saline water.

7. Improve land for water application; i.e. improve the soil to increase

infiltration and, minimize runoff.

1.4.2 Water conservation in house holds

In our daily life, if we slightly modify our life style we can conserve good amount of water e.g. while during brushing and shaving some people left the tap open which will waste a lot of water without any use. 25% of the water

could be saved through simple measures such as water saving toilets, shower heads, leak control without noticeable impact on current life styles. Use of shower during bathing is more helpful as it consumes less water in case of bucket. In showers water breaks into droplets and thus less amount of water can give us complete bath. In our surroundings water taps are running as such as we pass by ignoring them. If we shut down the tap, it will help in saving water. In houses many times the water tanks is out of flow due to our ignorance. If we use less water containing flushes in our toilets it will save water. The old flushes tanks were of 10 Litre capacity, now with new techniques, small flushes tanks of 4-5 Litre capacity are available in market. In some foreign countries Govt. of providing subsidy on ML falling new flushes in toilets. Gray-water recycling systems are being adopted in some water-shortage areas. Gray-water, the slightly dirtied water from sinks, showers, bath-tubs and laundry tubs is collected in a holding tank and used for flushing toilets, watering lawns and washing cars. In many parts of the North America, domestic water use now exceeds 600 Litre per person per day, yet in dry African Nations people consumes only 8-20 Litre per person per day.

Each of us can consume much of water we use and avoid water pollution in many simple ways.

• Don’t flush every time you use the toilet. Take shorter showers, and shower instead of taking baths.

• Don’t let the faucet run while brushing your teeth or washing dishes. Draw a basin of water for washing and another for rinsing dishes. Don’t run the dishwater when half full.

• Use water conserving appliances: low-flow showers, low-flush toilets,

and aerated faucets.

• Fix leaking faucets, tubs, and toilets. A leaky toilet can waste 50 gal per

day. To check your toilet, and a few drops of dark food coloring to the

tank and wait 15 minutes. If the tank is leaking, the water in the bowl

will change color.

• Put a brick or full water bottle in your toilet tank to reduce the volume of

water in each flush.

• Dispose of used motor oil, household hazardous waste, batteries, etc.,

responsibly. Don’t dump anything down a storm sewer that you

wouldn’t want to drink.

• Avoid using toxic or hazardous chemicals for simple cleaning or

plumbing jobs. A plunger or plumber’s snake will often unclog a drain

just as well as caustic acids or lye. Hot water and soap can accomplish

most cleaning tasks.

• If you have a lawn, or know someone who does, use water, fertilizer,

and pesticides sparingly. Plant native, low-maintenance plants that

have low water needs.

• Use recycled water for lawns, house plants, and car washing.

1.4.3 Others

Treated wastewater (sewage water) can be used for irrigation and it will

also reduce pollution of receiving waters. We can use recycle water of an

industry or we can change the designing of the industrial process to save

water. One of the simplest and most effective measures available for water

conservation is metering and the consumer is billed for each unit of water

used. So called "increasing block" pricing in which the consumer pays a

proportionately higher rate with higher use, is a particularly effective way to

encourage water efficiency.

1.5 SUMMARY

The earth’s water resources consists of the oceans and seas, the ice, snow of polar regions, mountains and glaciers. The water also present in surface soil and underground, lakes, rivers and streams. Unnecessary loss of water can be overcome by decreasing evaporation loss of irrigated water, to encourage the public to reduce unnecessary wastage of water.

1.6 KEY WORDS

Resource: Any material which can be transformed in a way that it becomes more valuable and useful, can be termed a resources.

Glacier: A body of ice, consisting largely of recrystallized snow, that shows evidence of downslope or outward movement due to the stress of its own weight.

Aquifer: Water- bearing formation of rock or soil that will yield usable supplies of water. May be classified as confined or unconfined.

Artesian Aquifer: Aquifer in which water is field under pressure by confining layers, forcing water to rise in wells above the top of the aquifer.

Springs: Springs are places where a flow of water rises to the surface through natural rock opening under hydraulic pressure from the depth.

Geyser: A hot spring equipped with a system of plumbing and heating that causes intermittent eruptions of water and steam.

Wet Lands: Ecosystem of several types in which rooted vegetation is surrounded by standing water during part of the year.

1.7 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. What are the main types of water use?

2. How can we reduce the water demands in agriculture and households?

3. Discuss the types of water resources present with earth.

4. Describe the path a molecule of water might follow through the hydrological cycle from the ocean to land and back again.

5. How can we use the earth’s water more substainably.

6. What percentage of the earth’s total volume of the water is easily

available for use by the people?

7. List unique properties of the water.

8. List four causes of water scarcity.

1.8 SUGGESTED READING

1. Birdie, G.S. and Birdie, J.S. (2006). Water Supply and Sanitary

Engineering. Dhanpat Rai Publishing Company, New Delhi.

2. Chatterjee, A.K. (2001). Water Supply, Water Disposal amnd

Environmental Engineering. Khanna Publisher, New Delhi.

3. Cunningham, W.P. and Cunningham, M.A. (2003). Principles of

Environmental Science. Tata McGraw Hill Edition, New Delhi.

4. Figuerer, C.M. (2005). Rethinking Water Management: Innovative

Approaches to Contemporary Issues. Earthscan, New York.

5. Kanchan, C. (2003). Water Resources, Sustainable, Livehood and

Ecosystem Services. Concept Publications, New Delhi.

6. Krishnamoorthy, B. (2005). Environmental Management. Prentice Hall

of India, New Delhi.

7. Miller, J.T. (2004). Environmental Science. 5th Edition. Thomas Press,

Australia.

8. Mohammad, K. (2003). Water Resources System and Analysis, Lewis

Publication, New York.

9. Rana, S.V.S. (2006). Environmental Pollution: Health and Toxicology.

Narosa, New Delhi.

10. Rubin, H. (2002). Water Resources and Quality, Springer, New York.

11. Singh, J.S., Singh, S.P. and Gupta, S.R. (2006). Ecology, Environment

and Resource Conservation. Anamaya Publication, New Delhi.

12. Vasudevan, N. (2006). Essentials of Environmental Science. Narosa,

New Delhi.

UNIT-I PGDEM-02

WATER MANAGEMENT

Written by Dr. Hardeep Rai Sharma

SIM conversion by Prof. Narsi Ram Bishnoi

STRUCTURE

2.0 OBJECTIVES

2.1 INTRODUCTION

2.2 WATER MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES

2.2.1 Build dams and reservoirs

2.2.2 Divert water from one part to another

2.2.3 Tap more groundwater

2.2.4 Tow freshwater icebergs from the Antarctic

2.3 WATER SHED MANAGEMENT

2.4 DESALINIZATION

2.5 RAINWATER HARVESTING

2.5.1 Types of rainwater harvesting

2.5.1.1 Traditional rainwater harvesting

2.5.1.2 Modern methods for rainwater harvesting

2.6 CLOUD SEEDING

2.7 SUMMARY

2.8 KEY WORDS

2.9 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

2.10 SUGGESTED READINGS

2.0 OBJECTIVES

After studying this unit, you will be able to understand the various

techniques:

• To reduce unnecessary loss of water

• To conserve the rain water • Desalinization of salty water 2.1 INTRODUCTION

Water-Management aims to increase the supply of water and to reduce

unnecessary loss of water. Unnecessary loss of water can be overcome by

decreasing evaporation of irrigation water (reducing irrigation losses); Redesign

mining and industrial processes to use less water; Encourage the public to

reduce unnecessary water waste and use ; Increase, the price of water to

encourage water conservation.; Purify polluted water for reuse. Some of these

points are discussed in detail in above topic of water conservation.

Water supply can be increased by- building dams and reservoirs divert

water from one region to another; Tapping more ground water; converting salt

water to fresh water (desalinization) Seeds clouds to increase precipitation; Top

freshwater icebergs from the Antarctic to water short coastal regions.

2.2 WATER MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES

2.2.1 Build dams and reservoirs: Dams are built to conserve surface water

and regulate its availability. In monsoon season rivers carries huge

amount of water into oceans in a short span of 3-4 months. Many times

rivers cause a great loss to crops, animals and humans beings in form of

floods. Every year states like West Bengal; Bihar, Orissa and Uttar

Pradesh faces floods in monsoon seasons. If we conserved and collect

the water which otherwise goes to sea, is helpful to us by many ways.

Thus dams are built to collect excess water, The water collected in dams

is used for irrigation purposes, especially in drought prone regions by

making canals. Further can generate hydroelectric power, control floods,

protect fertile flood plains of rivers. Dams also create recreational

opportunities, such as bathing swimming and fishing. These are some

negative impacts of dams like high costs of construction; water logging on

adjacent land; rehabilitation problems, destroy vast areas of valuable

agricultural land, wildlife habitat and scenic beauty; interfere with

spawning migration of some fish and trapping of nutrients alongwith

sediments. Further more faulty construction or earthquakes can cause

dams to fail and water that floods from a damaged dam can cause a

huge loss to man lives and property.

2.2.2 Divert water from one part to another: In this method of increasing the

use of a limited water supply, water is transferred from an excess water

zone to an area having low water availability. The National Water Policy

1987 emphasizes a strategy for maximizing water resources availability,

transfer of water to water short areas from other areas as well as

transfers from one river basin to another, based on a national

perspective, after taking into account of the requirements of area/basins.

Against high per capita water availability of 18061 cu.m. in Brahmaputra

basin, there are river basins with per capita water availability as low as

360 cu.m. in Sabarmati basin and 72.8 cu.m. in Cauvery basin. Thus

water can be transferred from one area to another by making canals.

2.2.3 Tap more groundwater: The demand from ground water is mainly for

irrigation, domestic, municipal use, industries and power only. According to

the estimates made by the National Commission for Integrated Water

Resources Development Plan (NCIWRDP), the total requirements from

groundwater are 252 billion cubic meters (bm3) (year 2010), 282 bm3 (year

2025) and 428 bm3 (year 2050). The estimated utilizable ground water

being 396 bm3, it will be seen that by the year 2050, there will be heavy

exploitation from the ground water.

No doubt overexploitation of ground water is a measure to meet the

demand of water, but it is only for short term basis. Ground water resources can

also exhaust if not properly managed in space and time. It is observed that due

to excessive exploitation the water table is reaching downward in many parts of

the country like Mahesana district Gujarat, Coimbator district in Tamil Nadu and

Kolar district in Karnataka.

The increased use of ground water give rise to several problems:

1. Aquifer depletion or overdraft when groundwater is withdrawn faster than

it is recharged by precipitation.

2. Subsidence or sinking of the ground as groundwater withdrawn.

3. Salt water intrusion and freshwater aquifers in coastal areas as

groundwater is withdrawn faster than it is recharged.

4. Groundwater contamination from human activities.

2.2.4 Tow freshwater icebergs from the Antarctic, to water short coastal

regions: Some scientists believe that it may be economically feasible to

use a fleet of tugboats to tow huge, flat, floating Antarctic icebergs to

Southern California, Australia, Saudi Arabia and other dry coastal places.

But a number of unanswered questions and problems exists. How much

would be the scheme cost? How can most of the iceberg be prevented

from melting on its long journey through warm waters? If the towing

project is successful, how would the freshwater from the slowly melting

icebergs be collected and transmitted to shore? Who owns the icebergs

in the Antarctic, and how could international conflicts over ownership be

resolved?

2.3 WATER SHED MANAGEMENT

Water Shed is a physical unit in which water from all over the area flows

under gravity to a common drainage channel or hydrologically watershed is an

area which has only one outlet for draining runoff/surface flows. Watershed is

most appropriate unit for efficient handling of rainwater under different land use

activities. Protect, Conserve and improve the land and water resources of the

basin for efficient biomass production is the main motto of watershed

management programme.

Many of the watersheds are under severe strain due to excessive

deforestation for commercial purposes, hydroelectric power generation and

activities such as mining; industrial and tourism, with unplanned urbanization.

Like a basic functional unit of ecology, a watershed includes both organisms and

abiotic environment each influencing the properties of the other as both are

necessary for the maintenance of life.

Integrated treatment of all lands on watershed basis was first adopted

and implemented by Damodar Valley Corporation in 1949.

Cause of degradation of catchment are;

1. The absence of vegetation produces runoff and. to considerable extent

making the soil susceptible to erosion.

2. Grazing causes loss of vegetation and thus enhancing soil erosion.

3. Destruction of habitat area by local people due to over population and

over industrialization etc.

4. Winds also cause soil erosion in the naked hills.

5. Intense evaporation from the naked mountains causes dryness of the

watersheds.

6. Steepness of slope causes more erosion and intense runoff

7. Mining in the area causing overburden.

8. Hydroelectric project for irrigation also affect the watershed ecosystem.

Management

Agroforestry

This system of land management is applicable both to degraded farms,

forests and grazing lands. Agroforestry is a collective name for all land use

system and practice in which woody perennials are deliberately grown on some

land management unit as crops and or animals. It is helpful in soil conservation,

moisture retention and manage of watersheds.

In high rainfall areas of Dehradun on marginal soils, incorporation of trees

(Eucalyptus and Leucaena) and grass (Chrysopogon fulvus) along with crops

such as maize or wheat reduced runoff and soil loss substantially. The other

species used for forestation are: Dalbergia sissoo, Tectona grandis, Bombax

sp., Acacia nilotica for Yamuna watershed areas.

Maintenance of tree cover

Trees should be planted and should not be cut down near the watershed

areas so as to prevent soil erosion as we know root act as soil binder.

Mechanical measures

These measures includes bunds, graded terraces and bench terraces on

steep slopes which are adopted to supplement practices such as minimum

tillage and contour cultivation. In a watershed at Dehradun, 62% reduction in

runoff and 40% in peak rate was recorded as a result of bunding. Similar results

are available from Chandigarh (Siwaliks) where bunding of agricultural lands

reduced runoff, peak discharge and soil loss.

Proper Mining

Working of mines not only creates problem for the mines but also results

in poor water quality, destruction of vegetation cover, piling of waste material

and deposition of mineral dust on vegetation. The indirect effects include

reduced water infiltration and storage, enhanced erosion and production of acid

mine draining water which affects water quality both above and below the

ground.

Limestone quarrying at Dehradun and Mussorie by open coast method

resulted in ore-overburden. Stability of hills slopes due to excavation is

disturbed. The following steps are suggested for causing less destruction: i)

contour trenching at an interval of 1 m on overburden dump, ii) Planting cuttings

of Vitex negundo, Ipomoea camea at 15 cm interval, and iii) Draining of "Nala"

and water courses in the mined area.

Watershed Management in Himalayan Region

The Himalaya is characterized by subsurface flow system and has most

of Indian watersheds. Slope instability is the main cause where degree of hazard

is accelerated through deforestation, overgrazing and other human activities.

The following catchments based operations through treatment of sloping land

and water courses in stages proved beneficial.

i) Protecting watershed against biotic damage through closure.

ii) Culting down water courses through construction of retaining walls.

iii) Slope broken into contour wattling with species that could be vegetatively

propagated.

iv) Steeper slopes broken by retaining walls in sliding faces where moisture

is critical, straw mulching tied with thin wires, ropes helps in establishing

vegetation.

By proper managing our watersheds we can control floods, erosion and

silting problem to some extent and save the loss of precious water and soil.

2.4 DESALINIZATION

The partial or complete removal of the dissolved solids in sea or saline water to make it suitable for domestic Agricultural or industrial purposes is known as desalinization. Brackish (salty) waters are those water having total dissolved solid content ranging "in 3,000 ppm to 20,000 ppm. Water having total dissolved solids from, 20,000 to 50,000 ppm are classified as seawater. About 70 elements have been detected in seawater, some of them in very small amounts. The sodium, magnesium, calcium and potassium and their combining ions are present in high amounts as compared to others. Presently about 12 million m3 of freshwater is produced throughout the world daily by desalinization process.

Nature itself is the largest desalination plant as hydrological cycle on earth. The sun energy evaporates the waters from the oceans and the surface waters and reproduce/condense again on the earth's surface, as desalted water. This water is vital liquid for all creatures on the earth. The main processes used for desalinization are solar distillation, freezing, reverse osmosis and electrodialysis.

Distillation

Salt water when turns into vapor, become sweet and the vapors does not

form salt water again when it condenses wrote by Aristotle and is a true fact.

Sailors have used simple evaporation apparatus to make drinking water.

Desalinisation by solar energy is feasible or suitable in areas having abundant

solar energy and saline water and where water requirements are very small and

no other source of energy is available, that is mainly in arid and semiarid regions

of the country. Solar still distills saline water.

Freezing

The freezing of salt solution causes crystals of pure water to nucleate and

grow, leaving a brine concentrate behind. One commonly proposed freezing

method is the use of liquid refrigerants other than water. Butane is evaporated in

direct contact with sea water, resulting in the formation of ice crystals. Huge ice

masses were carried out by the ships and converted into fresh water. Freezing

process has basic advantages e.g. much lower latent heat of phase

transmission is required in the solid state than that required in evaporation state.

No scale formation from the usual impurities (as in distillation) and less corrosion

of steel at freezing point. However, the main disadvantage of the freezing

method is that water is required for washing of ice crystals and ice formation

takes more time than formation of water.

Reverse Osmosis

When salt water and fresh water are separated by a semipermeable

membrane, osmotic pressure causes the freshwater to flow through the

membrane to dilute the saline water until osmotic equilibrium is reached. If we

reverse the above phenomenon i.e. if a greater pressure is applied to the salt

water side of the membrane, then relatively pure water will pass out of salt

water. This is known as reverse osmosis. The membranes may be made of

plastic or of cellulose with extremely fine pores. For commercial use three types

of Composite membranes are best developed. Cellulose triacetate films

deposited on a polysulfane support and polyamide film on a polysulfane support.

The polyamide film membranes provide the best desalination performance. The

ideal reverse osmosis membrane would reject all salts contained in the salt

water and have a rejection ability of 95 to 97% (maximum 99.5%). Suspended

solids from the intake water, organisms, organics compounds, iron an dissolved

scaling elements in brackish water affect the membranes, causing scaling or

fouling thus degrading water permeability through the membrane with due

course of time. The largest sea water reverse osmosis plant is located at Char-

Lapsi, Malta with capacity of 20,000m3 /d.

Electrodialysis

An electric current is passed through- brackish or low salinity water in a

chamber in which many closely spaced ion-selective membranes are placed,

thus dividing the chamber into compartments. The electric current causes the

salts to be concentrated in alternate compartments, with reduced salt content in

the remainder. Membrane of synthetic resins have been developed some of

which are highly selective to the passage of positive ions and others which are

highly selective to the passage of negative ions. Since alternate membranes are

used the water streams lose sodium ions through the membrane on the one

side, and chloride ions on the other side. A principal disadvantage of

electrodialysis is that power consumption in proportional to salt concentration.

The main problem with all desalinization method is that they require large

amounts of energy and therefore are expensive. The main use of water is in

irrigation and thus it is not cheap to use desalted water in irrigation. Money and

energy are additionally required to pump salt water to and fro from desalinization

plants. Building and operating vast network of desalinization plants adds more

costs further and need trained man power. Mountains of salts produced from

plants has a problem of disposal, if these salts were again dumped into oceans,

they would increase the salt concentration near the coasts and affect sea

organisms. Desalinization, however, can provide fresh water in selected coastal

cities in arid regions like Saudi Arabia where the cost of obtaining fresh water by

any other method is high.

2.5 RAIN WATER HARVESTING

Rain water harvesting means capturing rainwater where it falls or

capturing the runoff in your own village or town and taking measures to keep

that water clean by not allowing polluting activities to take place in the

catchments. Water harvesting is proving to be a technology, fit for arid regions,

poor Nations, rich and prosperous ones as well. Prevailing of draught in many

parts of the country and continuously increasing demand for water made us to

think to utilize the rain.

Precipitation is, in general, the sole and thus the most important source

the replenishment of the water resources in India. Generally, the conservation

harvesting of water refers to collection and storage of rain water and other allied

activities aimed at prevention of losses through evaporation and seepage.

The annual average rainfall for India is 1200 mm. But only very few

places get rainfall throughout the year. In most of the places the duration of

rainfall is spread over only for few months i.e. June Sept. to October , December

in a year. Generally the rain water will flow rapidly and reaches to sea via rivers.

Ironically even Cherrapunji which receives about 11000 mm of rainwater

annually, suffers from acute shortage of drinking Water. The main factor in these

areas is the non-conservation of rain water that allowed it to drain away.

Broadly rain water can be harvested by two means

i) Rain water can be stored in containers/tanks above or below ground for

ready use.

ii) Rain water can be charged into soil for later utilization (ground water

recharge).

General principles for rain water harvesting

Rain water harvesting methods are site specific. Before a system is

installed one must know:

1. The soil characteristics (water holding capacity, runoff and eradability).

2. The topography (slope and the direction followed by natural runoff),

3. The precipitation characteristics (amount, reliability etc.)

4. The climate (wind, sunlight and temperature etc.)

Rain water harvesting techniques

Water harvesting techniques have two components:

a) Runoff areas: where the water is harvested from roofs of residential and

commercial buildings, packing lots industrial areas, green houses and other

surfaces as well as from intermittent water courses.

b) Run on areas: where the water is stored until needed which may be in

the form of small tanks of steel, concrete, fibre glass, earthen ponds or ground

water recharge.

2.5.1 Types of rain water harvesting

Rain water harvestings are of two types

1. Traditional rain water harvesting

2. Modern rainwater harvesting.

2.5.1.1 Traditional rain water harvesting

Since long the rain water harvesting has been the part of Indian

traditional and over centuries India have developed a range of techniques to

harvest rain water for eg.

i) In hilly and high rain fall areas, general practice of rainwater harvesting is

roof top collection and storage by construction dugs cum embankment

type of water storage structure on the foot hills to arrest flow from the

spring and streams.

ii) In Rajasthan, traditional water harvesting systems are tankas

(underground tanks) and Khadins (embankment in plain areas),

iii) Farmers in some areas stored rain water agricultural fields.

iv) In Eastern Himalayas and North Eastern hill ranges, simple bamboo

pipelines were built to carry water from, natural spring.

v) Ponds (Talab), Bawaries, Hauz, Oranies, Zohads are different name in

different states of water collecting devices.

2.5.1.2 Modern methods of rain water harvesting

Rain water harvesting by percolation tanks and infection wells

In areas of declining trend of ground water, the artificial recharge of

ground water is of greatest in water harvesting. Construction of percolation

tanks is a technique useful for arid and semi-arid regions in hard rock areas.

Percolation tanks or ponds are sallow depth tanks farmed at appropriate place's

in natural or diverted water courses, provided with a weir to allow the excess

water to continue its course.

Harvesting by check dams

Check dams of varying designs are constructed for the purpose of

stabilizing the grade and harvesting runoff water from large catchments, even

under arid conditions. Check dams are made of locally available materials like

brush, poles, woven wire, loose rocks, plants or slabs etc. Water harvesting

through check dams helps in ground water recharging more than water shed

development or well recharging.

Recharge tube wells

Recharging of tube wells have to be provided in percolation pond tanks

fed to hasten the percolation effect where the water table is very deep. The

purpose of tube well is to directly feed the deep aquifer with less evaporation

losses, besides protecting the water quality.

Ground water dams

Ground water dams are structure that intercept or obstruct the natural

flow of ground water and store water underground. The basic principles of the

ground water dams is that instead of storing the water in surface reservoir, water

is stored underground. The main advantages of water storage in ground water

dams is: i) evaporation losses are much less for water stored under ground; ii)

Risk of contamination of the stored water from the surface is reduced because

parasites can not breed in underground water.

Roof top rain water harvesting

In this system, rain water is collected on the roof of the building and

diverted to surface tank/pit through delivery system. The overflow of rain water

in surface tank/ pit can be diverted to abandoned dug well or bore well to

recharge underground aquifer system. The major advantage of the system is:

• Low cost of construction

• No operating cost and very little maintenance is required.

• By implementing this technique, a large portion of which generally goes

waste can be used for recharging well so that the steep decline in water

levels can be arrested by localized efforts of the communities.

Benefits of rain water harvesting

• The ground water level is increased.

• Recharging of well.

• Reduction in crack formation in walls and structures.

• Dilution of the salt content of water in the wells i.e. improvement in the

ground water quality.

• Improvement in moisture content in the soil.

• Aids the growth of plants and trees.

• Sea water intrusion into the land is arrested.

• Reduction in the soil erosion.

• Improvement in the groundwater quality.

2.6 CLOUD SEEDING

All air contains moisture. When warm air rises from the earth's surface

and begin to cool, some of the moisture condenses into tiny droplets that cause

clouds. More than 99% of a cloud is air. The tiny droplets combine with millions

of others to from raindrops or hailstones which are heavy enough to fall to

ground. For precipitation to form temperature inside the cloud have to be less

than the freezing point of water. When droplets of this super cooled water

encounter to dust, salt or sand they form small ice crystals. Water vapor in the

cloud then freezes directly into the surface of these crystals and they gain

weight and fall. Natural rainfall works in the same way. Cloud seeding involves

the addition of chemicals into clouds which enhance the formation of ice crystals

that are deficient in ice crystal nuclei. Silver iodide is generally used for cloud

seeding. This condensation and freezing releases a large amount of heat that

makes clouds more buoyant and may double their size and height. A clouds

grow taller, their updraft increases, they draw in more moist air from near the

surface, and their ability to process water efficiently increases.

The ability of a cloud to produce rain depends on the flow of air into the

clouds and the liquid water content. Planes take off and fly into and above the

clouds and release plumes of microscopic silver iodide particles using flares.

When the particles meet cool moisture in the clouds, they trigger the formation

of ice crystals and raindrops. The amount of silver iodide that is released is

small enough that it does not pose a pollution risk. Cloud seeding gave good

result in Texas where it was first performed in 1971.

2.7 SUMMARY

Watershed management and rain water harvesting are most perfect

technology for efficient handling of rain water. The main motto of watershed

management and rain water harvesting is to protect conserve and improve the

land and water resources of the basin for efficient biomass production.

2.8 KEY WORDS

Cloud Seedings: Cloud seeding involves the addition of chemicals into clouds

which enhance the formation of ice crystals that are deficient in ice crystal

nuclei, Silver iodides is generally used for cloud seeding.

Watershed: The land surface and groundwater aquifers drained by particular

river system.

Runoff: The excess of precipitation over evaporation, the main source of

surface water and broad terms, the water available for human use.

Desalinization: Removal of salt from water by distillation, freezing, or

ultrafiltration.

Rechargezone: Area where water infiltrates into an aquifers.

2.9 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS:

1. Discuss the problem arises due to excessive use of ground water.

2. What is water shed management? Enumerate the various techniques of

water shed management.

3. Define Desalinization. List various methods for desalinization of saline

water.

4. Define rain water harvesting. Enumerate various methods for rain water

harvesting.

5. Write short note on following:

(i) Reverse osmosis

(ii) Distillation

(iii) Cloud seeding

2.10 SUGGESTED READING

1. Birdie, G.S. and Birdie, J.S. (2006). Water Supply and Sanitary

Engineering. Dhanpat Rai Publishing Company, New Delhi.

2. Chatterjee, A.K. (2001). Water Supply, Water Disposal amnd

Environmental Engineering. Khanna Publisher, New Delhi.

3. Cunningham, W.P. and Cunningham, M.A. (2003). Principles of

Environmental Science. Tata McGraw Hill Edition, New Delhi.

4. Figuerer, C.M. (2005). Rethinking Water Management: Innovative

Approaches to Contemporary Issues. Earthscan, New York.

5. Kanchan, C. (2003). Water Resources, Sustainable, Livehood and

Ecosystem Services. Concept Publications, New Delhi.

6. Krishnamoorthy, B. (2005). Environmental Management. Prentice Hall of

India, New Delhi.

7. Miller, J.T. (2004). Environmental Science. 5th Edition. Thomas Press,

Australia.

8. Mohammad, K. (2003). Water Resources System and Analysis, Lewis

Publication, New York.

9. Rana, S.V.S. (2006). Environmental Pollution: Health and Toxicology.

Narosa, New Delhi.

10. Rubin, H. (2002). Water Resources and Quality, Springer, New York.

11. Singh, J.S., Singh, S.P. and Gupta, S.R. (2006). Ecology, Environment

and Resource Conservation. Anamaya Publication, New Delhi.

12. Vasudevan, N. (2006). Essentials of Environmental Science. Narosa,

New Delhi.

UNIT II PGDEM-02

MINERAL: USES, RESERVES AND THEIR CONSUMPTION PATTERNS

R. Baskar

Structure

1.0 Objectives

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Definition

1.3 Properties of minerals

1.4 Minerals and their uses

1.5 Common rock forming minerals

1.6 Resources and reserves

1.7 Availability and use of mineral resources

1.8 Types of mineral resources

1.9 Patterns of mineral consumption

1.10 Summary

1.11 Key words

1.12 Self assessment questions (SAQ s)

1.13 Further reading/ Suggested Reading

1.0 OBJECTIVES

After learning this unit, the student will be able:

• To understand the importance of minerals in modern society.

• To know the difference between a resource and a reserve

• To appreciate the consumption patterns of some minerals

1

1.1 INTRODUCTION

With the rapid increase in world population, a resource crisis is real possibility, and there is

fear that the earth may have reached its capacity to absorb environment degradation related to

mineral extraction, processing, and use. Minerals have become a critical part of our modern

life. Commonly, they are used in the construction of our buildings, roads, agriculture, in

making machines, for the production of energy, in medicines etc. Rocks are aggregates of one

or more minerals. The rocks, which form the Earth, the Moon and the planets, are made up of

minerals. Rocks can be formed from a combination of several different minerals or a single

mineral can make up the bulk of a rock, i.e, limestone or marble is mainly composed of the

mineral calcite. Minerals are chemical elements or compounds which occur naturally within

the crust of the Earth. They are the discrete crystalline particles of which nearly all rocks are

made. Minerals are solid substances made up of atoms with an orderly and regular

arrangement, which is the basis of their crystalline state. Because of their orderly atomic

arrangement it is also possible to express the composition of a mineral as a chemical formula.

Minerals are inorganic substances composed of elements like silica, oxygen, aluminium, iron,

etc. Minerals can also occur as aggregates of crystals that rarely show perfect crystal shapes.

This can be useful for identification, i.e. whether they are fibrous, dendritic, lamellar or

foliated, etc. Minerals provide the elements essential to life, the metals of industry and the

materials for building. Mineralogists are geologists who study minerals.

1.2 DEFINITIONS:

Mineral: They are naturally occurring, inorganic solids with an ordered atomic arrangement

and a chemical composition which is fixed or which varies only within well-defined limits.

2

Ore: It is a mineral or aggregate of minerals that is economically minable.

1.3 PROPERTIES OF MINERALS

• They occur naturally.

• They are inorganic solids.

• Atoms are arranged in a definite geometric pattern, which is reflected in the crystal

form and cleavage of the mineral.

• Their chemical composition is fixed or varies within well-defined limits.

• Variations in Composition and Crystalline Structure - Most minerals contain

impurities and several also display ionic substitution. There are other minerals,

which have identical chemical compositions, but different crystalline structures

due to the conditions under which they crystallized.

• Most minerals have non-structural ions trapped or included in the atomic structure

during growth of the structure as impurities.

• Polymorphs are minerals, which have the identical chemical composition, but

different internal structure. For example carbon polymorphs, diamond and

graphite, which are both, composed of pure carbon but have substantial differences

in their atomic packing and bonding.

• Crystal Form - the shape of a mineral when bounded by smooth, planar surfaces

which form regular geometric patterns.

• Hardness - measure of the mineral's ability to resist abrasion - Hardness reflects

the strength of the bond between atoms within the crystal structure.

• Cleavage – It is the tendency of minerals to break along parallel planes of

weaknesses (cleavage planes) within the crystal forming parallel planar surfaces

along broken fragments.

3

• Color – It is useful for some minerals (olivine is always green), but commonly too

variable for most (quartz can be almost any color).

• Luster – It is the appearance of the mineral in reflected light. Luster is described as

metallic or non-metallic. Sub metallic is further described as vitreous (glassy) or

non-vitreous.

• Streak – This is the colour of the mineral when it is powdered.

• Other Properties - magnetism (magnetite), taste (halite), and fluorescence (some

fluorites).

1.4 MINERALS AND THEIR USES

Modern society depends on the availability of mineral resources. Minerals are so important to

people that, of being equal, one's standard of living increase with increased availability of

minerals in useful forms. Minerals can be considered our non-renewable heritage from the

geologic past. Although new deposits are forming from present earth processes, these

processes are too slow to be of use to us today. Mineral deposits tend to occupy a small area

and to be hidden. Deposits must therefore be discovered, and unfortunately, most of the easy-

to-find deposits have already been exploited. If civilization were' to vanish, our descendants

would have a much harder time discovering minerals for technological advance than our

ancestors and we did. Unlike biological resources, minerals cannot be managed to produce a

sustained yield. Recycling and conservation will help, but eventually the supply will be

exhausted.

Humans in almost every facet of daily living have always used minerals. Ancient man used

rocks to make weapons and other useful tools in the Stone Age. Then, people discovered the

4

methods of isolating metals from their mineral ores, through the Copper, Bronze, Iron, Steel

and Atomic Ages. At every step, minerals assumed progressively greater importance.

Uses of Some Common Metallic Minerals

METAL ORE CHEMICAL FORMULA USES Aluminum, Al Bauxite Al2O3.2H2O Cooking utensils, beverage

and food cans, aluminium foil, furniture, buildings, electrical appliances, transport equipment.

Chromium, Cr Chromite FeCr2O4 Plating household appliances, vehicles, to strengthen steels and cast iron.

Copper, Cu Native Copper Chalcopyrite Chalcocite

Bornite

Cu

CuFeS2

Cu2S

Electrical appliances, telephone cables, electrical systems, motors, ornamental items made of brass and bronze, plumbing pipes.

Gold, Au Gold Au Currency, jewellery. Iron, Fe

and steel

Hematite Magnetite Limonite

Siderite

Fe2O3

Fe3O4

2Fe2O3.3H2O

FeCO3

Domestic appliances, motor vehicles, buildings, bridges, tools, machinery, transport equipment, building materials.

Lead, Pb Galena

Cerussite

PbS

PbCO3

Batteries, factory machinery, transport equipment, building materials.

Nickel, Ni Pentlandite

Garnierite

(Ni,Mg)SiO3.nH2O Stainless steel, motor vehicles plating, aircraft, transport equipment, household appliances, electrical machinery.

Silver, Ag Native Silver Argentite Ag

AgS

Photographic film and developing paper.

Tin, Sn Cassiterite SnO2 Tin plate, solder, in electrical equipment.

Titanium, Ti Ilmenite

Rutile

FeTiO3

TiO2

Ti metal for engines, Ti pigment for plastics, welding electrodes

5

Uranium, U Pitchblende or Uraninite,

Yellow-cake

UO3

U3O8

Power generation, radioisotopes for research.

Zinc, Zn Sphalerite

Smithsonite

ZnS

ZnCO3

Roofs, fences, car bodies, motor vehicle grills, household appliances, door handles, zinc oxides for tyres and paints, dry-cell batteries.

Uses of Some Non-Metallic Minerals

Name Uses

Asbestos Fireproof fabrics, brake linings Barite Oil-well drilling muds, glass, paint Borates Flux, glass, detergents and chemicals

Clays Bricks, pottery, fillers for paint, rubber

Diamond Drills, abrasives, precious gemstone

Feldspar Flux for glass manufacture, abrasives, toothpaste

Fluorite Glass, enamel Garnet Abrasives, semi-precious gems.

Graphite Pencils, batteries, crucibles, lubricants

Gypsum Wallboard, plaster, soil improvement

Halite Food, Chlorine for water treatment

Magnesia Cements, refractory brick

Mica Electronics, electrical insulation

Olivine Refractories, semi-precious gems Quartz Broadcast frequency control, silica glass

Sulphur Fertiliser, sulphuric acid, paper making, bleaches

Talc Toiletries, ceramics, paint, paper

Vermiculite Sound insulation in plaster and loose fill, plastics

1.5 COMMON ROCK-FORMING MINERALS

6

There are more than 3,500 known minerals, however, only a small number of these are

abundant. Minerals are grouped according to the anion or anion complex that they contain.

Example - silicates (SiO4)-4, carbonates (CO3)-2, sulfides (S), oxides (O-2), and halides (Cl-1 or

F-2). The minerals in each group often display similar properties and are commonly found

together due to their similar chemical composition.

Silicates – They are minerals whose crystalline structure contains the SiO4 tetrahedra. The

silica tetrahedra is the basic building block of all silicate minerals. Silica and oxygen make up

about 74% of the earth's crust. Silica (+4) bonds with four oxygen (-2) such that there is a

residual -4 charge. Other cations (like Ca, Na, Mg, and Fe) either link the tetrahedra together

or are incorporated in the tetrahedral structure, determining the mineral form.

Ferromagnesian Silicates – They are silicates with iron and/or magnesium in their structure.

Most ferromagnesium minerals are dark-colored and denser than the non-ferromagnesian

silicates.

Olivine – They are single tetrahedra silicates which show a continuous range in ionic

substitution. It is a major component of the mantle that is common in Fe- and Mg-rich igneous

rocks. Olivine is a high temperature mineral that lacks cleavage and has a greenish colored,

glassy luster, and conchoidal fracture.

Pyroxenes – They are solid solution series with 3 major end members: MgSiO3-FeSiO3 -

CaSiO3 and are single chain silicates. Pyroxenes are dark-colored, high- temperature minerals

with two well-developed cleavage planes at about 90o to each other.

Amphiboles – They are complex double-chain silicates which include several different solid

solution series. Amphiboles are dark-colored minerals that have two well-developed cleavage

planes at 56o and 124o to each other.

7

Garnet – They are a series of single tetrahedra silicates which characteristically occur in

well-formed near-spherical, twelve-sided crystals - Garnets show extensive variation in color.

They are very hard (7-7.5), lack cleavage, translucent to transparent and have a vitreous

luster.

Biotite – It is an iron-rich member of the micas (sheet silicates). Biotite is a dark-colored

mineral with a vitreous luster.

Non-ferromagnesian Silicates – As the name indicates they are silicate minerals without

substantial Fe and Mg in their crystalline structure. These are generally lighter-colored than

the ferromagnesian silicates.

Plagioclase Feldspars – They are solid solution series between anorthite (CaAl2Si2O8) and

albite (NaAlSi3O8). These are light-colored, framework silicates which have two directions of

cleavage at about 90o. The Na-rich albite is generally white, whereas the Ca-rich varieties are

often blue-gray. All plagioclases are characterized by fine, parallel lines along the cleavage

planes (striations).

Potassium Feldspars – They are solid solution series between albite (NaAlSi3O8) and

orthoclase (KAlSi3O8). The K-feldspars are also 3-dimensional framework silicates which

display 2 directions of cleavage at about 90o. The pink color of orthoclase is diagnostic.

Quartz – It is a three-dimensional silicate (SiO2) of almost pure silica and oxygen - It is one

of the most common minerals in the earth's crust. There is no residual charge in the silica

tetrahedra because all of the oxygen are shared by two silica atoms. This results in a very

resistant mineral which often survives after all the other components a the rock break down

forming river and beach sand. Quartz displays conchoidal fracture, hardness of 7, and a glassy

luster. Color is highly variable.

8

Muscovite – It is a white mica (sheet silicate) with the same characteristics as biotite, but with

a white to silver color and transparent to translucent nature.

Carbonates – They are minerals which contain the carbonate (CO3)-2 anion complex.

Calcite - CaCO3 - calcium carbonate which occurs as thick masses of limestone, chalk and

marble . It is relatively soft (3), has perfect rhombohedral cleavage (75o), and reacts with HCl.

Calcite is commonly precipitated from concentrated solutions or extracted from sea water by

marine organisms.

Sulfides - minerals which contain the sulfur anion (S).

1. Galena - PbS - lead sulfide which has a metallic luster, perfect cubic cleavage, and a high

specific gravity (7.5).

2. Pyrite - Fe2S - iron sulfide which is a yellow, metallic mineral which has a hardness of 6-

6.5 and lacks cleavage. It has a greenish-black streak.

Oxides - minerals which contain oxygen anions (O).

1.Hematite - Fe2O3 - iron oxide which is commonly dark red to steel blue-black - It gives a

deep red streak, lacks cleavage and has a moderately high specific gravity (5-6.5).

2. Limonite - Fe2O3.H2O - a yellowish-brown, hydrous iron oxide which usually forms by the

weathering of iron minerals - It is characterized by a yellow streak, absence of cleavage and a

dull rusted metallic texture.

Halides - minerals which contain Cl, F or any of the other halogen elements as anions.

1. Halite - NaCl - sodium chloride characterized by cubic cleavage, clear or transparent

nature, salty taste, and a resinous luster and forms by the precipitation from sea water.

9

2. Fluorite - CaF2 - calcium fluoride which has good cleavage in four directions, variable

color, hardness of 4 and a specific gravity of 3.

F. Others - Native elements ((Au, Ag, Cu, C), sulfates (CaSO4) anhydrite and CaSO4.2H2O

gypsum), and clay minerals (kaolinite)

1.6 RESOURCES AND RESERVES

Mineral resources can be defined broadly as elements, compounds, minerals, or rocks that are

concentrated in a form that can be extracted to obtain a usable commodity. This definition is

unsatisfactory from a practical viewpoint, however, because a resource will not normally be

extracted unless extraction can be accomplished at a profit. A more pragmatic definition is

that a resource is a concentration of a naturally occurring material (solid, liquid, or gas) in or

on the crust of the earth in such a form that economical extraction is currently potentially

feasible. A reserve is that portion of a resource that is identified and currently available, that

is, from which usable materials can be legally and economically extracted at the time of

evaluation. The distinction between resources and reserves, therefore, is based on current

geologic, economic, and legal factors. Resources include,

• Materials that are identified and legally and economically available (reserves)

• Materials that are identified but legally or economically unavailable (sub economic

resources)

• Undiscovered materials (hypothetical or speculative resources).

The main point about resources and reserves is that all resource categories are not reserves. It

is important for planning to estimate future resources. A simple periodical listing of the total

amount of material available or likely to become available is misleading when used for

planning purposes; what is required is a continual reassessment of all components of a total

resource by considering new technology, the probability of geologic discovery, and shifts in

10

economic and political conditions. Data for an identified resource such as gold or building

materials can be classified as follows:

• Measure-identified resources are those that are well known and measured and for

which the total tonnage or grade is well established.

• Indicated identified resources are not so well known and measured and therefore

cannot be outlined completely by tonnage or grade. Total tonnage or grade can be

estimated, but not as well as for measured identified resources.

• Inferred identified resources have quantitative estimates based on broad geologic

knowledge of the deposit. Total tonnage or grade can only be crudely estimated.

The category into which a particular identified resource fits is a function of available geologic

information. Obtaining this information involves testing, drilling, and mapping, all of which

become more expensive with greater depth. The example of silver will illustrate some

important points about resources and reserves. The earth's crust (to a depth of 1 km) contains

almost 2 million metric tons of silver- this is the earth's crustal resource of silver - an amount

much larger than the annual world use, which is approximately 10,000 metric tons. If this

silver existed as pure metal concentrated into large mine, it would represent a supply

sufficient for several hundred million years at current levels of use. Most of this silver,

however, exists in extremely low concentrations - too low to be-extracted economically with

current technology. The known reserve of silver, reflecting the amount we would obtain

immediately with known techniques, is about 200,000 metric tons, or a 20-year supply at

current use levels. The problem with silver, as with all mineral resources, is not abundance

but with its concentration and relative ease of extraction. Atom of silver is used, it is not

destroyed, but it is dispersed and may be unavailable. In theory all mineral resources would be

recycled, given enough energy, but this is not possible in practise. Consider lead, which is

11

mined and was for many years used in gasoline. This lead is now scattered along highways

across the world and deposited in low concentration in forests, fields, and salt marshes close

to these highways. Recovery of this lead is for all practical purposes impossible.

1.7 AVAILABILITY AND USE OF MINERAL RESOURCES

The availability of a mineral in a certain form, in a certain concentration, and in a certain total

amount at that concentration is determined by the earth's history. What a mineral resource is

and when it becomes limited are the associated technological and social questions.

1.8 TYPES OF MINERAL RESOURCES

Some mineral are necessary for life. An example is salt (sodium chloride). The primitive

people traveled long distances to obtain salt when it was not locally available. Other mineral

resources are desired for their beauty, and many more are necessary for maintaining a certain

level of technology. The earth's mineral resources can be divided into several broad categories

based on our use

• Elements for metal production and technology, which can be classified according to

their abundance. The abundant metals include iron, aluminium, chromium,

manganese, titanium, and magnesium. Scarce metals include copper, lead, zinc, tin,

gold, silver platinum; uranium, mercury, and molybdenum.

• Building materials such as aggregate for concrete, clay for tile, and volcanic ash far

cinder block.

12

• Minerals for the chemical industry - for example, the many minerals used in the

production of petrochemicals

• Minerals for agriculture - for example, fertilizers

When we think of mineral resources, we usually think of the metals used in structural

materials, but in fact (with the exception of iron) the predominant mineral resources are not of

this type.

1.9 PATTERNS OF MINERAL CONSUMPTION

Consider the annual world consumption of a few selected elements. Sodium and iron are used

at a rate of approximately 0.1 billion to 1 billion tons per year. Nitrogen, sulfur, potassium,

and calcium are used at a rate of approximately 10 million to 100 million tons per year. These

four elements are used primarily as soil conditioners as fertilizers. Zinc, copper, aluminum,

and lead have annual world consumption rates of about 3 million to 10 million tons, whereas

gold and silver have annual consumption rates of 10,000 tons or less. Of the metallic

minerals, iron makes up 95 percent of all the metals consumed and nickel, chromium, cobalt,

and manganese are used mainly in alloys of iron (as in stainless steel). Therefore, we can

conclude that the nonmetal minerals, with the exception of iron, are consumed at much

greater rates than elements used for their metallic properties.

As both the world population and the desire for a higher standard of living increase, the

demand for mineral resources expands at a faster rate. Ironically, the more developed

countries in the world, though only with 16 percent of the earth's population, consume a

highly disproportionate share of mineral resources. For example, 70 percent of the aluminum,

copper, and nickel extracted is used by the United States, Japan, and Western Europe. About

10,000 kg. (10 metric tons) of new mineral material (excluding energy resources) are required

each year for each person in the United States. As less-developed countries become more

13

affluent and use more resources than world per capita mineral consumption is expected to

increase. If the world per capita consumption rate of iron, copper, and consumption rate of

iron, copper, and lead were to rise to the U.S. level, production of these metals would have to

increase to several times the present rate. As such an increase in production is very unlikely,

affluent countries will have to find substitutes for some minerals or use a smaller proportion

of the world annual production. With the exception of construction materials (crushed stone,

sand, and gravel), this seems to be happening in the United States, where per capita

consumption of aluminum, copper and lead has decreased about 12 percent from the mid-

1970s to the late 1990s.

Domestic supplies of many mineral resources in the United States and other affluent nations

are insufficient for current use and must be supplemented by imports from other nations. The

deficiency of U.S. reserves for selected non-fuel minerals and major foreign sources for the

needed minerals. Of particular concern to industrial countries is the possibility that the supply

of a much desired or needed mineral may become interrupted by political, economic, or

military instability of the supplying nation. Today the United States, along with many other

nations, depends on a steady supply of imports to meet the mineral demand of industries. Of

course, the fact that a mineral is imported into a country does not mean that it does not exist in

quantities that could be mined within the country. Rather, it suggests that there are economic,

political, or environmental reasons that make it easier, more practical, or more desirable to

import the material.

1.10 SUMMARY

Minerals are naturally occurring inorganic solids and they have a number of uses in our day to

day living. The main rock forming mineral groups (silicates) are olivine, pyroxene,

amphiboles, mica, quartz and feldspar. Minerals resources are the materials that are identified

14

but legally or economically unavailable and materials that are identified, legally and

economically available are known as reserves.

1.11 KEY WORDS

Resources - Materials that are identified but legally or economically unavailable (sub

economic resources)

Reserves - Materials that are identified and legally and economically available (reserves)

Minerals - They are naturally occurring, inorganic solids with an ordered atomic

arrangement and a chemical composition, which is fixed, or which varies only within

well-defined limits.

1.12 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS (SAQ´s)

1. Define a mineral and discuss the properties of minerals.

2. List the number of minerals in your home and describe their uses.

3. Differentiate the terms reserves and resources.

1.1s3 FURTHER READING / SUGGESTED READING

Allison, I. S. & Palmer, D. F. 1980. Geology, the science of a changing Earth. VII Edition.

McGraw-Hill Inc.

Cox, K. G., Price, N. B. & Harte, B. 1974. An Introduction to the Practical Study of Crystals,

Minerals and Rocks. Rev. 1st ed., John Wiley & Sons Inc., New York.

Hamilton, W. R., Woolley, A. R. & Bishop, A. C. 1984. The Hamlyn Guide to Minerals,

Rocks and Fossils. The Hamlyn Publishing Group Ltd, London.

15

Lutgens, F.K and Tarbuck, E.J. 1998. Essentials of Geology. VI edition. Prentice Hall, Inc.

New Jersey.

Edward. A.Keller. 2000. Environmental Geology. VIII edition. Prentice Hall, Inc. New

Jersey.

16

UNIT II PGDEM-02

MINERALS: BIOLEACHING, RECYCLING AND OCEAN RESOURCES

R. Baskar

STRUCTURE

2.0 OBJECTIVES

2.1 INTRODUCTION

2.2 DEFINITION

2.3 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

2.4 FACTORS AFFECTING BIOLEACHING

2.5 MECHANISMS OF LEACHING

2.6 TYPES OF BIOLEACHING

2.6.1 TANK BIOLEACHING

2.6.2 HEAP BIOLEACHING

2.6.3 BIOLEACHING WITH FUNGI

2.7 COMPARISION OF BIOLEACHING TECHNOLOGIES TO OTHER PROCESSING TECHNOLOGIES 2.7.1 ROASTING (SMELTING) 2.7.2 PRESSURE OXIDATION

2.8 CASE STUDY

2.9 HARVESTING MINERALS FROM THE SEA

2.9.1 SULFIDE DEPOSITS

2.9.2 MANGANESE OXIDE NODULES

2.9.3 COBALT-ENRICHED MANGANESE CRUSTS

2.10 RECYCLING OF MINERAL RESOURCES: RESPONSES TO LIMITED

AVAILABILITY

1

2.10.1 RECYCLING SCRAP METAL

2.11 SUMMARY

2.12 Key words:

2.13 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

2.14 SUGGESTED READING

2.0 OBJECTIVES

In this chapter the learning objectives include:

• Understanding bioleaching, its types and advantages and disadvantages

• Factors affecting microbial leaching

• Mechanisms of bioleaching and comparision of bioleaching to other processing

technologies

2.1 INTRODUCTION

Extraction of metals involving microorganisms is one of the latest approaches to obtain metals

from mineral resources, which are not accessible by conventional mining practices. Microbes

(such as bacteria and fungi) convert metal compounds into water-soluble products and are

biocatalysts of these leaching processes. For example, application of microbiological

solubilization processes is helpful to recover metals from industrial wastes that can serve as

secondary raw materials.

Bioleaching uses microorganisms to extract metals from ores in which they are embedded.

Bioleaching, an efficient and environmentally safe method is used when there are lower

concentrations of metal in the ore as an alternative to smelting or roasting. The microbes feed

on the nutrients in the ores, thereby separating the metal that leaves the microorganism´s

system; after which the metal can be collected in a solution. Microorganisms act as a catalyst

2

to speed up natural processes inside the ores. For example, bacteria convert metal sulphide

into sulfates and pure metals by oxidation. These constituent parts of ore are separated into

valuable metal and leftover sulphur and other acidic chemicals. Eventually, enough material

builds up in the waste solution to filter and concentrate it into metal.

Bioleaching of sulfide minerals is now an established industrial technology for the recovery of

gold from arsenical pyrite ores. Approximately 20% of the extracted copper in the world

currently comes from bioleaching processes. Bioleaching produces less air pollution and little

damage to geological formations, since the bacteria occur there naturally. An ideal metal

deposit must allow a certain amount of water into the rock to carry the bacteria. However, it

should be surrounded by rock that is impermeable to water to make sure no ground water gets

polluted.

2.2 DEFINITION

Bioleaching is the process of extraction of metals from ores or concentrates, using certain

naturally occurring microorganisms. Many bacterial species have been identified as having

bioleaching capabilities and those of commercial interest include species of Thiobacillus,

Leptospirillum, Sulfobacillus, and Sulfolobus. Thiobacillus ferrooxidans is the most

commercially useful species.

Commercial applications of bioleaching have been developed for the solution mining of

copper and uranium from low-grade ores and waste products. Uranium minerals are often

found associated with pyrite. Thiobacillus ferrooxidans is used to oxidize pyrite and release

the uranium. The ferric sulfate and sulfuric acid generated in this reaction then dissolve the

uranium.

2.3 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

3

The advantages associated with bioleaching are:

• Economical: bioleaching is generally simpler, cheaper to operate and maintain than

traditional processes.

• Eco-friendly: The process is more environmentally friendly than conventional

extraction methods. It results in less landscape damage, less SO2 emissions

The disadvantages associated with bioleaching are:

• The bacterial leaching process is very slow compared to smelting.

• Toxic chemicals are sometimes produced in the process, which can leak into the

ground and surface water turning it acidic, causing environmental damage.

2.4 FACTORS AFFECTING BIOLEACHING

1. Physicochemical parameters Temperature, pH, redox potential, water potential,

oxygen content and availability, carbon dioxide

content, nutrient availability, light, pressure,

surface tension

2. Microbiological parameters Microbial diversity, population density, microbial

activities, spatial distribution of microorganisms,

metal tolerance, adaptation abilities of

microorganisms

3. Processing leaching mode - (in situ, heap, dump, or tank

leaching) pulp density and stirring rate

4. Properties of the minerals to be leached Mineral type, mineral composition, mineral

dissemination, grain size, surface area, porosity,

4

hydrophobicity, galvanic interactions, formation

of secondary minerals

2.5 MECHANISMS OF LEACHING

The mineral dissolution effects of microbes (bacteria and fungi) is based on three methods:

acidolysis, complexolysis and redoxolysis. Microbes mobilize metals by the formation of

organic or inorganic acids, oxidation /reduction reactions and the excretion of complexing

agents. Sulfuric acid is the main inorganic acid found in leaching environments formed by

microorganism Thiobacilli. A series of organic acids are formed by microbial metabolism

resulting in organic acidolysis and chelates. Bacterial dissolution of sulfide minerals involves

two mechanisms: the direct and the indirect process.

Direct leaching –In direct leaching, the bacteria attach themselves to the metal

sulphide crystals within the rock. Through (a biochemical reaction) oxidation, the

bacteria change the metal sulphide into soluble sulfates, therby dissolving the metals.

Indirect leaching –In this case, the bacteria need not be in contact with the mineral

surface. Bacteria re-oxidize the ferrous iron back to the ferric form as well as

oxidizing the elemental suphur. The ferric iron then chemically oxidises the sulphide

minerals producing ferrous iron. The bacteria here only have a catalytic function

because they accelerate the re-oxidation of ferrous iron to ferric iron which takes place

very slowly in the absence of bacteria.

2.6 TYPES OF BIOLEACHING

There are presently two methods of bioleaching - tank bioleaching and heap bioleaching.

2.6.1 TANK BIOLEACHING

5

Bioleaching occurs rapidly, over 500,000 times faster as compared to the oxidation by natural

exposure to air and water in the absence of bacteria. Use of controlled conditions (such as

agitated, aerated tanks) results in rapid and highly effective oxidation of metal sulphides. For

example, an enhancement in gold recovery from 30% to 90% may be achieved with 3 to 5

days of bioleaching oxidation prior to cyanidation. The first step for bioleaching in tanks

involves feeding a continuous stream of slurried concentrate into primary reactors containing

a suspension of bacteria in a mildly acidic environment and most of the leaching occurs in

these primary reactors. As concentrate is added to the primary reactor partially oxidized

material flows into secondary stage reactors where the final oxidation occurs. The leached

material then flows from the secondary reactors into thickening tanks for solid / liquid

separation. Typically, separation of the solution and residue is carried out through a counter

current decantation circuit using thickeners. The solution is treated either for the recovery of

base metals or for disposal in an environmentally acceptable form. The residue is also treated,

either for the recovery of precious metals or for disposal as tailings. Bioleaching in tanks has

to date been used to treat high value concentrates. The cost of tank oxidation is influenced by

the following factors: The rate of reaction, the level of sulphide oxidation required for

acceptable metal recovery, the size and number of tanks and the aeration and agitation

requirements. The reagent usage for pH control and solution neutralization also affects the

operating costs. The salinity of site water and the requirement for acid resistant materials also

affects the capital costs.

2.6.2 HEAP BIOLEACHING

Heap bioleaching involves crushing ore, stacking it on plastic lined pads and spraying it with

a dilute sulphuric acid solution containing bacteria and nutrients. The solution drains through

the heap and is recovered and resprayed over the heap. Where the ore contains base metal

sulphides, the base metals are released into the solution and recovered by conventional

processes prior to the return of the solution to the heap. In case of gold-bearing ores, the

6

solution is recycled until sufficient sulphide has been oxidized to expose the gold. The ore is

washed with water to remove acid and metals, treated with lime to neutralize any remaining

acid and then sprayed with cyanide to recover the gold. If the ore contains sufficient gold,

better recoveries can be achieved by processing the oxidized ore through a conventional

milling and cyanidation circuit. As the ore in a heap leach configuration is quite coarse,

usually larger than 6.5 millimetres, the recovery is less than would be achieved in agitated and

aerated tanks. Bacterial heap leaching is, therefore, generally considered when the economics

cannot sustain the cost of making a concentrate or the mineralogy is such that the ore cannot

be concentrated.

2.6.3 BIOLEACHING WITH FUNGI

Several species of fungi can be used for bioleaching. They can be grown on electronic scrap

and fly ash from municipal waste incineration.

2.7 COMPARISION OF BIOLEACHING TECHNOLOGIES TO OTHER

PROCESSING TECHNOLOGIES

Crushing and/or grinding the ore and subjecting it to a hydrometallurgical treatment to

recover the metal of interest generally carry out-processing of precious and base metal oxide

ores. Gold ores are treated with cyanide to dissolve the gold which is recovered on activated

carbon, while base metal ores are leached with acid and the soluble metal is then recovered by

methods such as solvent extraction and electro winning. Due to the relative ease of

processing these materials, much of the world's metals have been produced from these ores.

As oxide resources are reduced, the remaining ores tend to be refractory in nature. Ores are

considered to be refractory when a significant portion contained metal cannot be recovered by

simple grinding and extraction and if the metal of interest is locked within other minerals or

elements such as sulphide, sulphur, or when elemental carbon is present which may interfere

7

with the extraction process. There are three principal pre-treatment processes for refractory

ores:

2.7.1 ROASTING (SMELTING)

Roasting involves heating to 600°C - 800°C and can be capital and operating cost intensive.

Roasting of ores and concentrates has conventionally been used to breakdown sulphide

minerals. In case arsenopyrite is present, a two-stage roaster is often required to drive off the

arsenic (as arsenic trioxide) and then oxidize the remaining sulphide. Gas scrubbers are

essential to contain sulphur dioxide and arsenic trioxide emissions, which are both of

environmental concern. Two-stage roasters and emission control devices greatly increase

capital costs. The only disposal alternative for recovered arsenic may be hazardous waste land

fills, because the purity standard of the arsenic and the existing global market surplus might

preclude sale. Land fill disposal increases operating costs and may result in perpetual liability

for the then current landowner. Roasting of arsenopyrite ores and concentrates also raises

health and safety issues that must be addressed with increased vigilance.

2.7.2 PRESSURE OXIDATION

If the grade is high enough, an autoclave process involving steam and oxygen injection under

pressure can be used to oxidize the sulphide minerals. Autoclaves are capital and maintenance

intensive because of the advanced materials needed for their construction and the need for an

oxygen plant. Autoclaves require long lead times for fabrication and installation. The high

level of operator training and skill which are necessary because of the complexity of operation

and maintenance required, and increased safety requirements required handling the high

pressures and temperatures, increasing the operating costs of this process.

2.8 CASE STUDY

The Home stake gold mine in South Dakota provides an interesting example of the

application of biotechnology to clean up the environment degraded by mining activity. The

8

objective of Home stake study is to test the use of bacterial bio oxidation to convert

contaminants in water to substances that are environmentally safe. The mining operation at

Home stake discharges water from the gold mine to a nearby stream, and the untreated

wastewater contains cyanide in concentrations harmful to the trout. The treatment process

developed at the Home stake mine uses bacteria that have a natural capacity to oxidize the

cyanide to harmless nitrates. The bacteria were collected from mine tailing ponds and cultured

to allow biological activity at higher cyanide concentrations. They were then colonized on

special rotating surfaces through which the contaminated water flowed before being

discharged to stream. The bacteria also extracted, precious metals from the wastewater that

could be recovered by further processing. The system at Home stake reduced the level of

cyanide in the wastewater from about l0 ppm to less than 0.2 ppm, which is below the level

required by water quality standards for discharge into the trout stream. Because the process of

reducing the cyanide produced excess ammonia in the water, a secondary bacteria treatment

was designed that converts the ammonia to nitrate compounds, so that the discharged water

now meets stream water quality criteria.

2.9 HARVESTING MINERALS FROM THE SEA

Mineral resources in seawater or on the bottom of the ocean are vast and, in some cases, such

as magnesium, nearly unlimited. For example, in the United States, magnesium was first

extracted from seawater in 1940. By 1972, one company in Texas produced 80 percent of

domestic magnesium, using seawater as its raw material source. In 1992, three companies in

Texas, Utah, and Washington extracted magnesium, respectively, from seawater, lake brines,

and dolomite (mineral composed of calcium and magnesium carbonate). The deep-ocean floor

may eventually be the site of a next mineral rush. Identified deposits include massive sulfide

deposits associated with hydrothermal vents, manganese oxide nodules, and cobalt-enriched

manganese crusts.

9

2.9.1 SULFIDE DEPOSITS

Massive sulfide deposits containing zinc, copper, iron and trace amounts of silver are

produced at oceanic ridges by the plate tectonic activity. Pressure created by several thousand

meters of water at ridges forces cold seawater deep into numerous rock fractures, where it is

heated by upwelling magma to temperatures of about 350°C. The pressure of the heated water

produced vents known as black smokers, from which the hot, dark colored, mineral-rich water

emerges as hot springs. Circulating seawater leaches the surrounding rocks, removing metals

that are deposited when the mineral-rich water is ejected into the cold sea. Sulfide minerals

precipitate near the vents, forming massive tower like formations rich in metals. The hot vents

are of immense biological significance because they support a unique assemblage of animals,

including tube worms, and white crabs. Ecosystems including these animals base their

existence of sulfide compounds extruded from black smokers, existing through a process

called chemosynthesis, as opposed to photosynthesis, which supports all other known

ecosystems on earth. The extent of sulfide mineral deposits along oceanic ridges is poorly

known, and although leases to some possible deposits are being considered, it seems unlikely

that such deposits will be extracted at a profit in the near future. Certainly potential

environmental degradation, such as decreased water quality and sediment pollution, will have

to be carefully evaluated prior to any mining activity. Study of the formation of massive

sulfide deposits at oceanic ridges is also helping geologists understand some of the mineral

deposits on land. For example, massive sulfide deposits being mined in Cyprus are believed to

have formed at an oceanic ridge and to have been later uplifted to the surface.

2.9.2 MANGANESE OXIDE NODULES

Mn-nodules cover vast areas of the deep-ocean floor and contain manganese (24%) and iron

(14%), with secondary copper, nickel, and cobalt. Nodules are found in the Atlantic Ocean of

10

Florida, but the richest and most extensive accumulations occur in large areas of the north-

eastern, central, and southern Pacific, where they cover 20 to 50 percent of the ocean floor.

Manganese oxide nodules are usually discrete, but are welded together locally to form a

continuous pavement. Although they are occasionally found buried in sediment, nodules are

usually surficial deposits on the seabed. Their size varies from a few millimeters to a few tens

of centimeter in diameter (many are marble to baseball sized). Composed primarily of

concentric layers of manganese and iron oxides mixed with a variety of other materials, each

nodule is formed around a nucleus of a broken nodule, a fragment of volcanic rock, or

sometimes a fossil. The estimated rate of nodular growth is 1 to 4 mm per million years. The

nodules are most abundant in those parts of the ocean where sediment accumulation is at a

minimum, generally at depths of 5 to 7 km. The origin of the nodules is not well understood.

The most probable theory is that they form from material weathered from the continents and

transported by rivers to the oceans where ocean currents carry the material to the deposition

site in the deep-ocean basins. The minerals from which the nodules form may also derive

from submarine volcanism, or may be released during physical and biochemical process and

reactions that occur near the water-sediment interface during and after deposition of the

sediments. Mining of manganese oxide nodules involves lifting the nodules off the bottom

and up to the mining ship; this may be done by suction or scraper equipment. Although

mining of the nodules appears to be technologically feasible, production would be expensive

compared to mining manganese on land. In addition, there are uncertainties concerning

ownership of the nodules, and nodule mining would cause significant damage to the seafloor

and local water quality, raising environmental concerns.

2.9.3 COBALT-ENRICHED MANGANESE CRUSTS

Oceanic crusts rich in cobalt and manganese are present in the mid-and southwest Pacific, on

flanks of seamounts, volcanic ridges, and islands. Cobalt concentration varies with water

depth; the maximum concentration of about 2.5 percent is found at water depths of 1 to 2.5

11

km. Thickness of the crust averages about 2 cm. The process of formation of cobalt-enriched

manganese crusts is not well understood. Geologists are studying both the nature and the

content of the crusts, which also contain nickel, platinum, copper, and molybdenum.

2.10 RECYCLING OF MINERAL RESOURCES: RESPONSES TO LIMITED

AVAILABILITY

The basic problem with availability of mineral resources is not actual exhaustion or

extinction, but the cost of maintaining an adequate reserve, or stock, within an economy

through mining and recycling. At some point, the costs of mining exceed the worth of the

material. When the availability of a particular mineral becomes a limitation, several solutions

are possible like

• Find more sources

• Find a substitute

• Recycle what has already been obtained

• Use less and make more efficient use of what we have

• Do without

Which choice or combination of choices is made depends on social, economic, and

environmental factors. We can use a particular mineral resource in several ways: rapid

consumption, consumption with conservation, or consumption and conservation with

recycling. Which option is selected depends in part on economic, political, and social

conditions. Historically, resources have been consumed rapidly, with the exception of

precious metals. However, as more resources become limited, increased conservation and

recycling are expected. Certainly the trend toward recycling is well established for such

metals as copper, lead, and aluminum.

2.10.1 RECYCLING SCRAP METAL

The practice of recycling metal is not new. Metals such as iron, aluminium, copper, and lead

have been recycled for many years. Of the million of motor vehicles discarded annually,

12

nearly all are dismantled by auto wreckers and scrap processors for metals to be recycled.

Recycling metals from discarded autos is a sound conservation practice, considering that 90

percent by weight of the average discarded vehicle is metal. Recycling of metals in 1977 was

a $22 billion business in the United States. About 90 percent of all secondary (recycled) metal

is iron (including steel). Aluminium is second, followed by copper, lead, and zinc. Large

amount of iron is recycled because the market is huge, allowing for a large scrap collection

and processing industry.

2.10.2 URBAN ORE

Materials (especially metals) that end up in landfills and other waste management facilities

are sometimes designated as urban ore because of the useful materials they may contain. The

concept of "urban ore" originated when it was discovered that ash from the incineration of

sewage in Palo Alto, California, contain large concentrations of gold (30ppm), silver

(660ppm), copper (8000 ppm), and phosphorus (6.6%) Each metric ton of the ash contained

approximately 1 ounce of gold and 20 ounces of silver. The gold was concentrated above

natural abundance by a factor of 75,000 making the "deposit" double the average grade that is

mined today. Silver in the ash had a concentration factor of 9400, similar to that of rich ore

deposits in Idaho, and copper had a concentration factor of 145, similar to that of a common

ore grade. Commercial phosphorous deposits vary from 2 to 16 percent, so the ash with 6.6

percent phosphorus had the potential of a high-value resource. The ash in the Palo Alto dump

represented a silver and gold deposit with a value of about $10 million, and gold and silver

worth approximately $2 million were being concentrated and delivered to the dump each year.

The sources of the metals in the Palo Alto sewage were the large electronics industry and the

photographic industry located in the area. Gold in significant amounts has been found in the

sewage of only one other city, and silver is usually present in much smaller concentrations

that at Palo Alto. Thus, Palo Alto's unique urban ore presented an unusual opportunity to

13

study and develop methods to recycle valuable materials concentrated in urban waste. The

city employed a private company to extract the gold and silver. By the early 1990s Palo alto's

industrial companies treated their wastewater to recover the gold and silver. Sludge that

contains high concentrations of heavy metals such as cadmium is a toxic material and

precludes the application of the sludge for uses such as land reclamation. More efficient

pretreatment of industrial wastewater and strict regulations are necessary to avoid production

of toxic sewage sludge from urban areas. Recycling may be one way to delay or partially

alleviate a possible resource crisis caused by the convergence of a rapidly rising population

and a finite resource base. However, the problem of integrated waste management is complex,

and before recycling can become more widespread, improved technology and ore economic

incentives is needed. Nevertheless, the trends are set and the volume of resources recycled

will continue to grow.

2.11 SUMMARY

Bioleaching, an efficient and environmentally safe method is used when there are lower

concentrations of metal in the ore as an alternative to smelting or roasting. The sea is a rich

source of manganese oxide nodules.

2.12 Key words:

Bio-leaching - Bioleaching uses microorganisms to extract metals from ores in which they are

embedded.

Manganese oxide nodules - Mn-nodules cover vast areas of the deep-ocean floor and contain

manganese (24%) and iron (14%), with secondary copper, nickel, and cobalt.

2.13 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. Discuss the various minerals found in the oceans.

2. Explain how recycling of mineral resources would help in optimum utilization of

available metals.

14

3. Compare the bioleaching of minerals to other mineral processing technologies.

2.14 SUGGESTED READING

Brandl H. (2001) Microbial leaching of metals. In: Rehm H.J. (ed.) Biotechnology, Vol. 10.

Wiley-VCH, Weinheim, pp. 191-224

15

UNIT-III PGDEM-02

WILDLIFE AND BIODIVERSITY

Narsi R Bishnoi

STRUCTURE

1.0 OBJECTIVES

1.1 INTRODUCTION

1.2 LEVELS OF BIODIVERSITY

1.3 RED DATA BOOK

1.3.1 Vulnerable Species

1.3.2 Endangered Species

1.3.3 Rare Species

1.3.4 Extinct Species

1.3.5 Threatened Species

1.4. PROBLEMS OF BIODIVERSITY LOSS

1.4.1 Causes of biodiversity loss

1.4.2 Effects of biodiversity loss

1.5 SUMMARY

1.6 KEYWORDS

1.7 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1.8 SUGGESTED READINGS

1.0 OBJECTIVES

After studying this unit, you will be able to understand:

• About genetic, species and ecosystem levels of biodiversity.

• Problems, causes and effects of biodiversity.

• About the threatened plants and animal species.

1.1 INTRODUCTION

Wildlife is a collective term embracing several thousands of different

species of non-domesticated biota growing under wild conditions indifferent

habitats around the globe. It is important to say that India's biodiversity is one of

the most significant in the world. As many as 45,000 species of wild plants and

over 77,000 species of Wild animals have been recorded, which comprise about

6.5 per cent of the world's known wildlife.

Biodiversity refers to the variety and variability among living organisms

and the ecosystem complexes in which they occur. It includes diversity of forms

right from the molecular unit to the individual organism and then on to the

population, community, ecosystem, landscape and biospheric levels. In the

simplest sense, biodiversity may be defined as the sum total of species richness,

i.e. the number of species of plants, animals and micro-organisms occurring in a

given habitat.

According to the Convention of Biological Diversity, the definition of

biodiversity is given as under:

The variability among living organisms from all sources including, inter

alia, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological

complexes of which they are a part. This includes diversity within species,

between species and of ecosystems.

The traditional diversity was bred to meet diverse human needs of

nutrition, test, colour, ritual, smell, and to resist drought, flood and pests. It

provided several kinds of insurance against crop failure to the farmer. Modern

hybrids, on the other hand, while substantially increasing the grain yield and

monetary profits, have forced the farmer to look elsewhere for their other daily

needs, especially fodder, medicine and other non timber forest products.

1.2 LEVELS OF BIODIVERSITY

Scientists usually distinguish 3 levels of biodiversity:

• Genetic diversity: This is the diversity of basic units of hereditary

information which are passed down the generations, found within a

species (e.g. different varieties of the same rice species). This diversity is

expressed through terms like subspecies, breeds, races, varieties, and

forms.

• Species diversity: This is the population diversity of organisms that

interbreed, or are reproductively isolated from other such populations (e.g.

different crops like rice, wheat, tomato, maize …). Species diversity is the

most commonly discussed type of diversity found in different countries or

ecosystems. It represents the species richness which is based on species

number and their population. Some 1.7 million species have so far been

described worldwide, but there may be anywhere between 5 to 30 million,

the rest still awaiting discovery.

• Ecosystem diversity: This the diversity of ecological complexes, or biotic

communities, found in a given area (e.g. forests, waterbodies,

grasslands). Ecosystems comprise a biotic community (an inter-related

community of plants, animals, and microorganisms), along with its abiotic

(soil, water, air) habitat, with some identifiable boundary. These can

include very broad categories, e.g. a, forest is an ecosystem dominated by

trees; or they can be more specific categories, e.g. a wet evergreen

tropical forest is an ecosystem dominated by evergreen tree species and

high rainfall.

Some species may be commonly found in a wide variety of ecosystems,

others are highly specialized and restricted to a particular ecosystem. Another

way to analyse distribution is to assess whether a species belongs to a particular

area or ecosystem or is alien to it i.e., whether it is indigenous or exotic. For

instance, rice is indigenous to India, while chillies are exotic, having been brought

in from South America. However, even after such introduction, such exotic

species may diversify further; there are several varieties of chillies, which have

been developed in India and are not found in South America.

Also of critical conservation importance is endemism. It represents the

degree to which biodiversity components belong exclusively to a particular

geographical area. For instance, two-thirds of the frogs and toads found in India

are endemic. Such species are naturally more vulnerable to extinction, since their

disappearance from a single area could mean their disappearance from the

entire world. The phenomenon of endemism amongst India's biodiversity is high.

According to the Botanical Survey of India, about 33 per cent of the flowering

species, and 18 per cent of the total, are considered to be found only within our

boundaries. These are concentrated in the floristically rich areas of North-East

India, the Western ghats, North-West Himalayas, and the Andaman and Nicobar

Islands. Amongst animals, nearly two-thirds of amphibians (frogs. toads) are

confined to India; of these, a majority occur in the Western ghats. Amongst

reptiles, nearly half of the 153 species of lizards found in India are endemic, with

a large number being restricted, once again, in the Western ghats.

1.3 RED DATA BOOK

Red Data Book is the name given to the books dealing with threatened

plants or animals of any region. Many countries have prepared their own Red

Data Book (e.g. Britain, New Zealand, etc.). On the global level, the International

Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) published Red

Data Book in two volumes. Its opposite is the Green Data Book, which lists rare

plants growing in protected areas like botanic gardens. It deals with about a

hundred rare plant species growing in garden of Botanical Survey of India (BSI).

The BSI has also compiled 3 volumes of Red Data Book having information on

endangered plant species. The IUCN has defined the following categories of

species in Red Data Book which specify the state of extinction process of these

species:

1.3.1 Vulnerable species: These are the species whose population numbers

are decreasing and are likely to become more severally threatened with time and

in near future, they may represent the category of endangered species, if

unfavourable conditions in the environment continue to operate.

1.3.2 Endangered species: The species with fewer individual because of

unfavourable environmental or human factors and that its natural regeneration is

not able to keep pace with exploitation or destruction by natural and unnatural

means. If the same factors continue to operate as before, the species would

become extinct soon, e.g. Indian Rhinoceros, Asiatic lion, and the great Indian

Bustard.

IUCN Red data book includes Bengal florican and cheer pheasant as

endangered bird species.

1.3.3 Rare species: The species (or taxa) small world population that are not at

present endangered or vulnerable, but are at risk are called rare. Such species

are usually localized within restricted geographical areas or habitats or are thinly

scattered over a more extensive range. Rare species have a population of less

than 20,000 individuals. Some species are naturally rare and have never

occurred in greater numbers, yet they are able to maintain these numbers. Other

species become rare through man’s action or other unnatural forces.

1.3.4 Extinct species: Species that are no longer known to exist in the wild but

survive in cultivation. Generally, the term Extinct is used for the species that are

no longer known to exist in the wild.

The cheetah, Indian rhinoceros have been extinct according to IUCN’s

Red Data Book. Other animals that appear on the list are: Asiatic lion, snow

leopard, swamp deer, elephant and tiger.

1.3.5 Threatened: It is a broader term that is used for species that fall into any

of the above categories. In any discussion on the status of species, those falling

in the ‘threatened’ category attract maximum concern. This category is a broad

one encompassing species which are at various stages of actual or potential

threat (extinct, critical, endangered, vulnerable, susceptible).

Indian wild ass, buffalo and Manipur brown antlered deer are among the

threatened mammals.

1.4 PROBLEMS OF BIODIVERSITY LOSS

The loss of biological diversity is a global crisis. There is hardly any region

on the earth that is not facing ecological catastrophes. Of the 1.5 million species

known to inhabit the earth (humans are one of them), one fourth to one third is

likely to extinct within the next few decades. Biological extinction has been a

natural phenomenon in geological history. But the rate of extinction was perhaps

one species every 1000 year. But man's intervention has speeded up extinction

rates all the more. Between 1600 and 1950, the rate of extinction went up to one

species every 10 years. Currently it is perhaps one species every year.

World's tropical forests, disappearing at an alarming rate have become is

one of today's most urgent global environmental issues. Tropical forests are

estimated to contain 50 to 90 percent of the world's biodiversity. According to the

report "People and Environmental” released recently by the US based WRI, the

current rate of biodiversity loss is faster than ever known. The report based on

studies carried out by FAO and WCS found that the tropical forests are shrinking

at the rate of 0.8 percent each year.

An assessment of wildlife habitat loss in tropical Asia in 1986 showed that

it had only 6,15,095 km2 wildlife habitat area out of its original of 30,17,009 km2

area i.e. there is a loss of about 20 per cent. In the last few decades, India has

lost at least half of its forests, polluted over 70 per cent of its water bodies, built

on or cultivated much of its grasslands, and degraded most of its coasts. Under

such circumstances, none can say how many species have already been lost.

1.4.1 Causes of biodiversity loss

The country has several problems such as overpopulation, large number

of cattleheads, growing demand for land, energy, and water supply. Unplanned

developmental works and overexploitation of resources have made its living

resources most vulnerable. Of the world's 12 top priority biodiversity hot spots,

India has two within its boundaries. Overexploitation has not only resulted in

shortages of various materials but also left our biodiversity exposed to various

ecological threats. Over emphasis on timber logging has affected many animal

species. Faunal losses have been mainly because of over-exploitation of certain

species for trading purposes; habitat alteration and destruction; and pollution of

streams, lakes and coastal zones.

1.4.2 Effects of biodiversity loss

Poverty and starvation, and several other ills facing humans, are often the

result of the destruction of biodiversity. Though we seldom realize it, biological

diversity and its components are the very basis of human survival providing food,

medicine, energy, ecosystem functions, scientific insights, and cultural

sustenance to over six billion people over the world.

1. Plants, animals, and even the invisible micro-organisms around us,

sustain and recreate the quality of the water we drink, the air we breathe,

and the soil on which we grow food. It is our forests, lakes, rivers,

grasslands, coasts, seas, and agricultural lands that provide us with

oxygen, water, and fertile soil, with food, medicine, clothing, housing,

energy, and other material needs. Most of the oxygen we breathe comes

form marine algae, whose existence is dependent on a complex chain of

diverse life forms and inanimate matter. Where would we be without all

this?

2. Wild plants and animals still constitute a substantial part of the diet of the

majority of the world's rural population. In case of people living near

forests and coastal regions, more than fifty per cent food resources are

wild plants or animals. These species are especially critical as ‘famine

foods’, available at times when crops fail or cannot be grown.

3. Three-fourths of the world's population is directly dependent on plants

animals for its medicinal needs. Even modem medicine continues to

depend on extracts from living organisms. In the United States, about 4.5

per cent of GDP is made up to economic benefits derived from wild

species, and one-fourth of all medicines contain active ingredients from

plants. The struggle against malaria was greatly aided by the Cinchona

tree of South America, which yielded quinine. Likewise, one insignificant

looking plant from Madagascar, the rosy periwinkle, has yielded cures for

certain forms of cancer.

4. Agriculture, which provides 32 percent of the gross domestic product in

low-income countries, may have of late become technologically

sophisticated, but it still depends on traditional crop varieties, and on wild

plant relatives of crops. In the 1970s, a wild rice species found in India

was found to be resistant to one to the most dangerous pests (a species

of plant hopper); genes from this plant were used to save millions of

hectares of cultivated rice in South and South-East Asia from being

destroyed by a major epidemic. Diversity within agricultural systems is

also crucial to the stability of farming systems.

5. Fisheries, which are heavily dependent on the maintenance of aquatic

biodiversity, contribute about 100 million tons of food worldwide (86 per

cent of this from marine areas), which is greater than the contribution

made by livestock or poultry.

Over centuries, knowledge and materials from wild plants and animals

have revolutionized agriculture (the cross-breeding of crops with wild relatives

which have resistance or other desired characteristics), industry (rubber, cotton

medicine (quinine), and other fields of human endeavour. Since the great

majority of the world's species remain unexplored for their potential, there is no

doubt that further revolutionary discoveries, such as cures for various kinds of

cancer, are in store. But we will be able to tap this potential only if we are able to

save these species.

1.5 SUMMARY

Indian’s biodiversity is one of the most significant in the world. It comprises

of about 45,000 species of wild plants and 77,000 species of wild animals, which

contribute about 6.5 percent of the world’s known wild life. The Phenomenon of

endemism amongst India’s biodiversity is high. According to the BSI, about 33%

of the flowering species, and 18% of the total are considered to be found only

within our boundaries. Amongst animals, nearly two-third of amphibians (frogs &

toads) are confined to India of these a majority occur in the Western ghats.

Amongst reptiles, nearly half of the 153 species of lizards found in India are

endemic, with a large number being restricted to Western ghats. Man’s

intervention has speed up extinction rates of the species. Between 1600 and

1950 the rate of extinction went upto one species every 10 year. Currently it is

perhaps one species every year. In tropical Asia, as assessment of wild life

habitat loss about 20 percent in 1986 over population, poverty and starvation are

the result of the destruction of biodiversity. Though we seldom realize it,

biological diversity and its components are the very basis of human survival

providing food, medicine, energy, ecosystem, scientific insights, and cultural

sustenance to over six billion people over the world.

1.6 KEYWORDS

Biodiversity: It may be defined as the sum total of species richness i.e. the

number of species of plants, animals and micro-organisms occurring in a given

habitat.

Endemism: It represents the degree to which biodiversity components belong

exclusively to a particular geographical area.

Red Data Book: It is name given to the books dealing with threatened plants or

animals of any region.

Extinct Species: Species that are no longer known to exist in the wild but

survive in cultivation.

Threatened species: Wild species that is still abundant in its natural range but is

likely to become endangered because of a decline in numbers.

1.7 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

(1) What is Red data book ? Discuss various categories of wild life depending

upon their status of extinction process.

(2) Why is it important to conserve biodiversity. Discuss with suitable

examples.

(3) What are the causes and effects of biodiversity loss ?

(4) Define biodiversity environment. Discuss the various levels of biodiversity.

(5) Write down short note on following

a. Vulnerable Species

b. Endangered Species

c. Rare Species

d. Extinct Species

e. Threatened Species

1.8 SUGGESTED READINGS

Agrawal, K.C. 1996. Biodiversity. Agro Botanical Pub. New Delhi.

Agrawal, K.C. 2000. Wild Life of India – Conservation and Management. Nidhi

Publishers, New Delhi.

Dutt, A. 2001. Biodiversity and Ecosystem Conservation. Kalpaz Publications,

New Delhi.

Gaston, K.J. and Spicer, J.I. 2004. Biodiversity: An Introduction, Blackwell

Publishers, USA.

Hosett, B.B. and Venkatesh Warlu, M. 2001. Trends in Wildlife Biodiversity,

Conservation and Management, Daya Publishing House, New Delhi.

Khothari, A. 1997. Understanding Biodiversity. Orient Longman Limited. New

Delhi.

Singh, B.K. 2004. Biodiversity, Conservation and Management, Mangaldeep

Publishers, Jaipur.

Tondon, P. 2005. Biodiversity status and prospectus, Narosa Publication, New

Delhi.

Wilson, E.O. 1993. The Diversity of Life. W,W. Norton and Company, New York.

UNIT-III PGDEM-02

FORESTS Written by Dr. O.P.Toky

Sim conversion by Prof. Anubha Kaushik

STRUCTURE

2.0 OBJECTIVES

2.1 INTRODUCTION

2.2.1 DEFINITION

2.2.2 IMPORTANCE

2.2.2.1 Moderating effect on climatic conditions

2.2.2.2 Role in stabilizing soil conditions

2.2.2.3 Role in soil conservation

2.2.2.4 Environmental significance

2.2.2.5 Economically useful forest products

2.2.2.6 Recreational Importance

2.2.3 FOREST TYPES

2.2.4 FOREST RESOURCES

2.2.5 FOREST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES

2.3 SUMMARY

2.4 KEY WORDS

2.5 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

2.6 SUGGESTED READINGS

2.0 OBJECTIVES

After studying this unit, you should be able to :

• Define a forest

• Understand the economic and ecological importance of forests.

• Know different forest resources.

• Know about various types of forests in India.

• Understand the practices used for management of forests.

1

2.1 INTRODUCTION

Nature has endowed India with rich forests which cover about 20

per cent of total geographic area of the country. These range from the

alpine meadows of Kashmir in the north to the rain forests of Kerala in

the south; the dry thorny forests of Rajasthan and evergreen forests of

north-east India. Over 40,000 species of plants are found in these forests

of which over 7,000 are endemic and not found anywhere in the world.

This represents about 12 per cent of the total global plant wealth. India

has about 3000 tree species.

2.2.1 DEFINITION

Generally, forest is defined as an area of land set aside for the

production of timber and other forest produce or maintained under

woody vegetation for certain indirect benefits such as climatic or

productive or both.

In terms of forestry, we define forest as an aggregation of trees

occupying a specific area sufficiently uniform in composition, age

gradation and distinguished from the vegetation of the surrounding

areas.

Ecologically forests may be defined as a plant community

comprised mainly of trees and associated woody vegetation, usually with

a closed canopy.

Legally forest may be defined as an area of land proclaimed to be a

forest under a forest law or act (According to Indian Forests Act, 1972).

2.2.2 IMPORTANCE

Other than forming a conspicuous part of the landscape, forests

have a profound impact on the lives of human beings. They have a

moderating effect on the local climatic conditions, regulate the water

2

cycle particularly in mountainous areas such as Himalayas, reduce soil

erosion and also form the source of many commercial and non-

commercial products such as fuelwood, fodder and industrial wood. The

major importance of forests are discussed below :

• Climatic Conditions

The broad climatic conditions prevailing in a region or locality in

primarily determined by its geographical location, altitude and the

meteorological forces that operate over the region. However, within the

broad limits of climatic conditions of a particular region or locality, there

may be local modifications known as microclimate. This is brought about

by a combination of the influence of the forest vegetation and the

topographic factors or a combination of both. The influence of forests on

climatic factors such as temperature, wind velocity, humidity and

precipitation are as under:

• Temperature

The tree leaves lose water through transpiration which has a

cooling effect. The moderating effect of forests on prevailing temperatures

is more in denser vegetation. It is cooler inside a dense forest as

compared to open areas in summer season, the difference may be as high

as 3°C.

• Prevailing winds

Forest vegetation have considerable effects on prevailing winds and

their movements due to physical obstacle offered by tree canopies. The

impact of forest in reducing wind speeds is seen not only inside a forest

but also upto a considerable distance on the leeward side. That is the

reason why rows of trees are often raised as shelterbelt against the

direction of prevailing winds along side crop fields. These shelter belts

serve to reduce the velocity of the prevailing winds, particularly in open,

arid and semi-arid areas prone to wind erosion.

3

• Humidity

In natural mixed forest, the relative humidity which varies with

temperature and amount of water vapour present in the air may be upto

10 percent more as compared to that in open areas.

• Precipitation

Forests have profound influence on rainfall. They increase rainfall

due to the fact that trees transpire large quantities of water into the

atmosphere and also serve as an obstacle for moisture laden winds, thus

causing precipitation in their vicinity.

2.2.2.2. Soil Conservation

• Soil temperature

In summer, the mean maximum temperature of the soil surface

may be lowered by up to 8°C due to the forest cover. The influence of

forest cover on soil temperature is due to reduction of insolation and

radiation within the forest, primarily as a result of the overhead cover

and also due to insulating effect of the litter and humus lying on the

forest floor.

There is a less pronounced increase in the minimum soil

temperature due to the effect of forest vegetation. This is seen more in the

winter season. In the sub-arctic tracts forest soils may remain unfrozen

though the soils in the adjoining open areas are frozen to a considerable

depth. The influence of forest cover varies inversely with depth. This

influence is recognizable up to a depth of 5 to 8 m.

• Soil composition and structure

Every year a considerable quantity of organic matter is added to

soil in the form of raw humus viz. leaves, twigs and branches most of

which gradually forms a part of soil and also supplies essential nutrients

to the layers down below which percolate with water.

4

• Evaporation

The quantity of water that evaporates from the soil is lowered by

the presence of a forest cover and up to a certain distance on the leeward

side of the forest belt. This is primarily due to the influence of forest on

movement of winds, air temperatures and relative humidity.

• Physical and chemical conditions of the soil

The roots of trees also help to improve the soil condition. As they

grow they tend to loosen up new parts of the soil. Forests also help to

improve the physical and chemical conditions of soil by adding significant

quantities of elements such as nitrogen, calcium, phosphorus and

potassium.

• Erosion and run-off

Reduction of soil erosion

In tracts devoid of a forest cover, erosion proceeds at an

increasingly faster rate as the upper and more absorptive layers of the

topsoil are successively removed. The upper layers of the top soil

containing humus are eroded at a slower rate than the layers below and

as erosion proceeds, the rate of erosion of the lower layers of the soil

increases.

All types of vegetation serve as a check against soil erosion though

well stocked forests are the most effective. This beneficial effect is due to

the ability of forest to reduce the amount and velocity of surface run-off

and to decrease the material being carried by the surface run-off.

Reduction of surface run-off

Surface run-off is that part of the total rainfall which flows on the

surface from an area or watershed after a part of the precipitation has

5

seeped into the soil; evaporated or transpired back into the atmosphere

by the vegetation. Forests also exert an influence on reducing the volume

of rainwater that flows as surface run-off.

Forest help to safely distribute the rainfall received in an area due

to the fact that there is an increase in the interception of rain water due

to the forest cover and more portion of the rainfall tends to seep into the

soil rather than flow on the surface. Also due to decrease in evaporation

of moisture from soil and increasing transpiration effect, forest tends to

reduce the surface run-off.

2.2.2.3 Floods

According to the National Floods Commission about 175 million

hectares of land area are prone to floods in India. The Commission has

emphasized that deforestation is a major cause of degradation of lands.

Forests are generally regarded as regulators of stream flow or in other

words they maintain low flows thus helping to reduce floods. However,

large floods are directly associated with saturated ground water

conditions and the forest cover may not directly prevent floods, rather it

will help to reduce erosion and retard the flow of debris into the rivers

and streams. In such situations the forest cover reduces the choking of

stream and river channels, thus preventing the water from over-flowing

the banks and flooding the low lying areas.

2.2.2.4 Environmental conservation

Forests also play a vital role in environmental conservation both at

local and region level. The major roles are as follows :

• Mitigation of air and noise pollution by absorbing various toxic

gases and by attenuating sound waves.

• Sequestering of carbons, as carbon dioxide is used up by forests

as a raw material for photosynthesis, thus reducing global

warming effect.

6

• Maintenance of hydrogical cycle

• Control of soil erosion by various agencies such as water, wind

and gravity by firmly holding the soil articles and acting as

shelter belts, thus reducing velocity of wind.

• Conservation of biological and genetic diversity by acting as

natural habitat for flora and fauna.

• Check against desertification and conditions of drought by

maintaining water sheds and checking soil erosion.

• Food and Ecological security by providing a variety of edible

products.

• Increasing the productivity of adjoining croplands.

2.2.2.5 Forest products

Forests also provide human beings with a wide variety of products

of everyday and commercial use. These include fuelwood, fodder, sandal

wood, grasses, tannins, resins, gums, mucilages, medicines and drugs,

food, fibre, commercial timber and raw material for many different end

products such as paper and matches. Thus they have a direct and

indirect influence on the lives of all human beings; irrespective of

whether they are living in the rural or urban areas.

2.2.2.6 Recreational and aesthetic importance

Forests also have many recreational and aesthetic influences

particularly for the people living in the urban and semi-urban areas. The

recreational and asthetic influence of forests has come to the fore in

recent decades with more and more people developing a liking for visiting

forest for recreation and relaxation. This influence is more profound in

larger cities and towns, where natural surroundings are scarce or absent.

2.2.3 FOREST TYPES

The principal forest types found in different parts of India have

been discussed as under :

7

a) GROUP 1 : TROPICAL WET EVERGREEN FOREST

Sub-group 1 : Southern tropical wet evergreen forests

The mean annual temperature is about 27°C and total annual

rainfall varies from 200 to 300 cm. This sub-group is comprised of the

following forest types :

Type : Giant evergreen forest

Type : Andaman tropical forest

Type : Southern hilltop evergreen forest

Type : West coast tropical evergreen forest

b) Sub-group 2 : Northern tropical wet evergreen forest

This forest group is distributed to entire north-east India, and in

parts of West Bengal and Orissa in tracts where the total annual rainfall

is over 250 cm. The main species found in this forest group are

Dipterocarpus, Mesua, Michelia and Shorea in the overwood; Bambusa,

Melocanna, Dendrocalamus hamiltonii, Vatica and Garcinia in the middle

storey and Clerodendron, Isora and Laportea as the undergrowth.

Type : Assam valley tropical evergreen forest

Type : Upper Assam valley tropical evergreen forest

Type : Cacher tropical evergreen forest

c) GROUP II : TROPICAL SEMI-EVERGREEN FORESTS

2.4.2.2 Sub-group I : Southern tropical evergreen forest

It is found along the Western ghats near Goa, Wynaad and Palghat,

Kerala adjoining the evergreen forests. Mean annual rainfall is between

200 to 300 cm.

The overwood is comprised mainly of Dipterocarpus, Balanocarus,

Hopea and Xylia. The Underwood is made up to Diospyros melanoxylon

and Schleichera oleosa. The undergrowth is made up to Clerodendron

arborium, Strabilanthes etc.

8

Type : Andamans semi-evergreen forest

Type : West coast semi-evergreen forest

Type : Tirnelveli semi-evergreen forest

Type : Secondary semi-evergreen Dipterocarp forest

Sub-group 2 : Northern tropical semi-evergreen forest

The forests of this sub-group occur in the heavy rainfall of north-

east India, West Bengal and Orissa. The average annual rainfall varies

from 150 to 300 cm.

The overwood is composed of Artocarpus, Dipterocarpus,

Cinnamomum, Michelia champaca, Shorea robusta and Syzygium cuminii.

The middle storey made up of Actinodaphne, Bambusa arundinaceae,

Dendrocalamus hamiltonii, Machilus, Melocanna bambusiodes, Mesua and

Phoebe lanceolata.

Type : Assam valley semi-evergreen forest

Type : Assam alluvial plain semi-evergreen forest

Type : Eastern sub-montane semi-evergreen forest

Type : Cachar tropical semi-evergreen forest

Type: Orissa tropical semi-evergreen forest

d) GROUP III : TROPICAL MOIST DECIDUOUS FORESTS

The forests of this group are found over a fairly wide tract in the

tropical parts in India. They are rich in species diversity and extent.

These forests may inturn be placed in the following sub-groups.

Sub-group I : Andamans moist deciduous forest

The forests of this sub-group are found in the Andaman and

Nicobar group of islands. The total annual precipitation is about 300 cm

and mean annual temperature is about 26°C. The main species found in

this forest are Adenanthera sp., Canarium sp., Cinnamomum sp.,

Pteracarpus dalbergioides, Terminalia sp.

9

Sub-group 2 : South Indian moist deciduous forest

These are teak bearing forests occurring in the central Indian belt

mainly in part of Gujarat, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka,

Kerala and Tamil Nadu. The mean annual temperature in this tract

varies from 24 to 27°C and mean annual rainfall is between 120 and 300

cm.

Type : Very moist teak forest

Type : Moist teak forest

Type : Slightly moist teak forest

Type : Southern moist deciduous forest

Sub-group 3 : North Indian moist deciduous forest

The forests of this sub-group are found in many parts of northern

India viz. in parts of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Orissa and West Bengal. The

mean annual temperatures ranges from 21 to 26°C. Mean annual rainfall

is between 100 to 200 cm.

Type : Very moist sal bearing forests

Type : Peninsular (Coastal) sal forest

Type : Moist peninsular sal forest

Type : Moist sal bearing forest

Type : Moist mixed deciduous forests

e) GROUP IV : LITTORAL AND SWAMP FORESTS

Sub-group 1 : Littoral forests

This forest is developed in many coastal tracts of the country. The

main annual temperature in the tract in which it occurs varies from 26 to

29°C. Rainfall is fairly heavy in this tract with the average annual rainfall

varying from 76 cm to 500 cm.

Type : Littoral forest Type : Mangrove scrub Type : Mangrove forest Type : Brackish water mixed forest

10

Sub-group 2 : Tropical freshwater swamp forest

The forests of this sub-group occur in swampy areas. They are

dominated by hydrophytes, as the locality conditions are typified by

excess of moisture.

Type : Tropical freshwater swamp forest

Sub-group 3 : Tropical seasonal swamp forest

The forest belonging to the sub-group occur in areas which

experience swampy conditions for only a part of the year. They in the

tropical parts of India and also in the sub-tropical foothill tract. They may

further be sub-divided into the following types :

Type : Low swamp forest

Type : Eastern seasonal swamp forest

Type : Eastern Dillenia swamp forest

f) GROUP V : TROPICAL DRY DECIDUOUS FORESTS

Sub-group 1 : Southern tropical dry deciduous forests

These forests occur in different parts of peninsular India with the

exception of the western ghats, where the rainfall is more than 190 cm. It

is thus found in the states of Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Andhra

Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. The annual rainfall ranges from

100 to 130 cm.

Type : Dry teak bearing forest

Type : Red sanders bearing forest

Type : Southern dry mixed deciduous forest

Sub-group 2 : Northern dry deciduous forests

This is a dry deciduous forest in which the upper canopy is light

but probably fairly even. The forests of this sub-group are well

distributed all over northern India, mainly in parts of Bihar, Orissa, Uttar

Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh.

11

Type : Dry sal bearing forest

Type : Northern dry mixed deciduous forest

g) GROUP VI : TROPICAL THORN FORESTS

Sub-group 1 : South tropical thorn forests

The forests of this sub-group are found in central, western and

southern India, mainly in parts of Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Tamil

Nadu and Karnataka.

Type : Southern thorn forest

Type : Carnatic umbrella thorn forest

Type : Southern thorn scrub

Type : Southern Euphorbia scrub

Sub-group 2 : Northern tropical thorn forests

These are open thorny forests found extensively in Rajasthan and

Gujarat and also to a lesser extent in the semi-arid regions of Uttar

Pradesh, Punjab and Haryana.

Type : Desert thorn forest

Type : Ravine thorn forest

Type : Zizyphus scrub

Type : Tropical Euphorbia scrub

h) GROUP VII : TROPICAL DRY EVERGREEN FORESTS

This forest type is found along the east coast where unusual

climatic conditions prevail. These are near the coast from Tiruneleveli

northwards to Nellore under similar climatic conditions.

Type : Tropical dry evergreen forest

Type : Tropical dry evergreen scrub

12

i) GROUP VIII: SUBTROPICAL BROAD-LEAVED HILL FORESTS

Sub-group 1 : Southern sub tropical broad-lived hill forests

These are broad-leaved subtropical forests occurring between

elevation of 1000 and 1700 m in the hills of south India and 1000 m in

the higher tracts of central India including the outliers such as Mount

Abu though only in vestigial form :

Type : Southern sub-tropical hill forest

Type : South Indian subtropical hill savannah

Type : Ochlandra reed hill forests

Type : Western subtropical hill forest

Type : Central Indian subtropical hill forest

Sub-group : Northern Subtropical broad-leaved hill forests

Type : East Himalayan subtropical wet hill forests

Type : Khasi subtropical wet hill forests

j) GROUP IX : SUBTROPICAL PINE-FORESTS

This is primarily a forest dominated by chir pine (Pinus roxburghit).

Chir pine forests are found in the western and central Himalaya from the

Jammu hills in the west to Sikkim in the east between elevations of 1000

and 1800 m extending on ridges to 600 m and up to 2300 m in some

southern aspects.

Type : Lower of siwalik chir pine forest

Type : Upper Himalayan chir pine forest

Type : Assam subtropical pine forests

k) GROUP X : SUBTROPICAL DRY EVERGREEN FORESTS

These forests are found in the bhabar tracts, siwalik hills and

foothills of the western Himalaya up to an elevation of about 1000m.

13

Type : Olea caspidata scrub forest

Type : Acacia modesta scrub forest

Type : Dodoaea scrub

l) GROUP XI : MOTANE WET TEMPERATE FOREST

These forests occur in the temperate areas of India.

Type : East Himalayan wet temperate forests

Type : Naga hills wet temperate forest

m) GROUP XII : HIMALAYAN MOIST TEMPERATE FORESTS

These forests extend along the whole length of the Himalaya above

the subtropical forests and towards higher elevations. The altitudinal

range is from 1500 to 3300 m depending on the latitude, aspect and

configuration of the ground.

Type : Ban oak forest

Type : Moru oak forest

Type : Moist deodar forest

Type : Western mixed coniferous forest

Type : Moist temperate deciduous forest

Type : Low level blue pine forest

Type : Kharsu oak forest

Type : East Himalayan mixed coniferous forest

Type : Abies delayayi forest

n) GROUP XIII : HIMALAYAN DRY TEMPERATE FORESTS

These forests are found in the cold deserts of Ladakh, Lahaul, Spiti

and Pooh and in the inner dry valleys within the main Himalayan ranges

such as Bharmour, Kinnaur and Upper Darama tracts.

Type : Dry broad-leaved coniferous forests

14

Type : Chilgoza pine forest

Type : Dry deodar forest

Type : High level dry blue pine forest

Type : West Himalayan dry juniper forest

Type : East Himalayan dry temperate coniferous forest

Type : Larch forest

o) GROUP XIV : SUB-ALPINE FORESTS

These forests are the topmost tree forests of the Himalaya forming

the tree line at elevations of more than 2900 m and extending the over

3500 m.

Type : West Himalayan sub-alpine birch/fir forests

Type : East Himalayan sub-alpine birch/fir forest

p) GROUP XV : MOIST ALPINE SCRUB

This consists of the alpine zone vegetation found just below the

snowline and usually above the tree line in the moister tracts of the

Himalaya.

Type : Birch-Rhododendron scrub forest

Type : Deciduous alpine scrub

Type : Dwarf Rhododendron scrub

Type : Alpine pastures

q) GROUP XVI : DRY ALPINE SCRUB

This is the alpine vegetation of the cold and dry tracts of the trans-

Himalaya and the inner dry valleys of the main Himalayan ranges.

Type : Dry alpine scrub

Type : Dwarf Juniper scrub

15

2.2.4 FOREST RESOURCES

Area under forests : out of total 326,809 thousand hectares of

geographical area in India, forests cover 75,351 thousand hectares, just a

23 percent of the total. While the norm for forests varies according to the

terrain, 33 percent is recommended by the 1951 Forest Policy Resolution

for the country as a whole. The suggested norm for hill areas is 60 per

cent and for plains 20 per cent. It is seen that a little less than one-fourth

924.6 per cent) of the country’s forest area is in Madhya Pradesh. Next

are Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra and Uttar Pradesh with about 10 per

cent, 9 per cent and 6.4 per cent forest cover, respectively. The shares of

Jammu and Kashmir and Kerala, which otherwise grow better species,

are 4.5 per cent and 1.8 per cent, respectively.

Even more important than the area under forest is the type of wood

they have. And the next consideration is of economic accessibility of

forests, i.e., in the context of present prices of wood and the cost of

extraction, in the area that is exploitable. In India, coniferous species

cover 3,765 thousand hectares and the remaining area is stocked with

broad-leaved species. By economic accessibility, the currently exploitable

area is 63.34 per cent.

Teak, Sal and Conifers

Madhya Pradesh has the maximum area (3119 thousand hectares)

under teak, followed by Maharashtra (1404 thousand hectares), Gujarat

(1176 thousand hectares) and Mysore (1000 hectares). These four states

account for about 92 per cent of the area under teak in the country. Sal

is predominantly found in Madhya Pradesh and Bihar. These two states

account for 80 per cent of the total area under sal. Conifers grow largely

in higher altitudes of Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir and Uttar

Pradesh.

16

Value of forest products

About 79 per cent of the value of forest produce in the country

comes from major forest produce, and the remaining from minor

produces. The five states Madhya Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir,

Himachal Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh contribute as

much as 64 per cent of total value of forest produce in the country.

Industrial wood

About 42 per cent of the annual recorded wood production from

the country’s forests is put to industrial uses, 58 per cent is used as fuel

including wood for charcoal. Except for Himachal Pradesh and Jammu &

Kashmir, where 80 per cent of the annual production consists of the

industrial variety of wood, in other states large tracts are used for fuel

wood.

Other commercial uses of forest wood include timber for various

purposes, mainly for building, furniture etc. Wood pulp is another

resource on which paper industry is dependent. A large variety of

medicines and drugs, rubber, gum, lac, fruits, fodder, condiments,

beverages, fibres etc. are also produced by forests.

Man made forests

Man made forests comprise just about 2 per cent of the total forest

area in the country. And out of this area a good deal is concentrated in

southern and south-eastern states of Karnataka and Tamilnadu. The

main species are teak and eucalyptus. Bamboo and sheesham

plantations have been taken up largely in the northern region. In north-

western parts of India among other varieties poplar is most popular.

2.2.5 FOREST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES

Forest management is defined as “that branch of forestry whose

17

function is the organization of a forest property for management and

maintenance, by ordering in time and place the various operations

necessary for the conservation, protection and improvement of the forest

on the one hand, and the controlled exploitation of the forest, on the

other hand. Since the discussion of forest management is beyond the

scope of this chapter, hence we are discussing some important terms –

Clear felling system : Also termed as the clear cutting system,

successive clearfelling and regeneration (artificial or natural) are carried

out in a particular area under this system. As a general rule, the coupe

or felling area should be completely cleared although pre-existing pole

and sapling crop which occurs in groups may be retained as a part of

the future crop.

Uniform Shelterwood system : It means a uniform opening of the

canopy for the purpose of obtaining regeneration and also the uniform or

evenaged condition of the young crop produced subsequently.

Selection system : Felling and regeneration operations are not confined

to any particular area. But are distributed all over it. Fellings comprises

of the removal of tree either singly or in small groups scattered all over

the forest. They form an unevenaged type of forest, in which all the age

classes occur. Such a forest has been termed as selection forest.

Irregular shelterwood system : It has been described as a system of

successive regeneration with a long and indefinite period of regeneration.

The aim being to produce crops of a somewhat evenaged type.

Strip system and the wedge system : A number of silvicultural system

differing in detail, but having one common character i.e. coupes are in

narrow strip; are classified under this heading. These system are :

1. Shelterwood strip system

2. Wagners’ blendersaumschlag

18

3. Strip and group system

4. Progressive clear strip system

5. Alternate clear strop system

Coppice systems : The forests worked under this system depend upon

coppice shoots for regeneration. These shoots come up from the

adventitious buds on the stumps of freshly felled trees.

2.3 SUMMARY

Forests are plant communities comprising mainly of trees,

associated with woody vegetation, usually with a closed canopy. They are

of immense commercial as well as environmental importance. Although

33 per cent of our geographic area should be covered under forests

according to our forest policy, but we have 28.8 per cent under forest

cover in our country. Besides providing timber, fuel wood, fodder, fruits,

fibres, drugs and medicines, beverages, rubber, lac, gums, resins etc. as

economically useful products, forests have tremendous ecological and

environmental value. They help in regulating hydrological cycle, reduce

atmospheric pollution and noise pollution, help prevent soil erosion and

floods, help conserve soil and water-sheds, provide natural habitat for a

large number of species and help to conserve genetic diversity. India has

a wide range of soil and climate variations. Thus, there are a number of

types of forests in our country ranging from Tropical wet evergreen

forests to dry alien scrubs, with several forest types in between having

sub-tropical, moist and dry conditions. In order to exploit the forest

resources in a sustainable manner forest management practices

including clear felling, shelterwood cutting, selection system, strip system

and coppice system are adopted.

2.4 KEY WORDS

Forest - Vegetation dominated by trees and woody

species

19

Precipitation - Rainfall, snow, dew etc.

Transpiration - Loss of water from plant leaves

Canopy - cover formed by leaves of trees

Soil erosion - Loss of top fertile soil layer

Evergreen forests - where trees bear leaf throughout

Deciduous forests - where trees shed their leaves seasonally

Littoral forests - which grow near coastal areas

Swamp forests - which grow in swampy, marshy areas

2.5 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. Discuss the economic and ecological significance of forests.

2. What are the major forest types of India?

3. What are the major forest management practices?

2.6 SUGGESTED READINGS

Negi, S.S. 1996. Mannual of Indian Forestry. Vol. I. M/S Bishen Singh

Mohender Singh Pub. Co. Dehradun.

Negi, S.S. 1996. Mannual of Indian Forestry, Vol. II. M/S Bishen Singh

Mohender Singh Pub. Co. Dehradun.

Thapar, S.D. 1975. India’s Forest Resources. McMillan Co. New Delhi.

20

UNIT-IV PGDEM-02

WILD LIFE : CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT STRATEGY

Narsi Ram Bishnoi

STRUCTURE 1.0. OBJECTIVES 1.1. INTRODUCTION 1.2. NEED FOR WILDLIFE CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT 1.3. CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT STRATEGY 1.4. ACTION PLAN FOR THE CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT OF

WILDLIFE IN THE COUNTRY 1.5. LEGISLATION FOR PROTECTION OF WILDLIFE 1.6. CROCODILE PROJECT

1.6.1. Reason for decline 1.6.2. Objectives of the project 1.6.3. Project implementation 1.6.4. Sanctuary development 1.6.5. Crocodile husbandry 1.6.7. Sanctuary declaration

1.7. SUMMARY 1.8. KEY WORDS 1.9. SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS 1.8. SUGGESTED READING 1.0. OBJECTIVES

After studying this unit, you should be able to :

• Understand conservation and management strategies and their action

plan for the protection of wildlife.

• Know about the various Govt., Non-Govt., Voluntary, National and

International organizations actively dedicated to wildlife preservation.

2

• Crocodile breeding and management programme.

1.1. INTRODUCTION

Man because of his vanity and greed has become one of the greatest

enemies of the wildlife. He has tried to control all the adverse factors for his

survival without any concern for the other living forms around him. Increasing

human population with its increasing food requirements has resulted in

reduction of area under forest cover because large tracts of forest area have

been put under intensive agriculture. River valley projects, draining of marshes

for agriculture and urbanisation, over exploitation, excessive hunting of animals

for game, skin, ivory or horn have caused a great reduction in wildlife

population.

Besides, natural enemies like parasites and predators, various climatic

and accidental factors like floods, droughts, earthquakes and pollution

contributed greatly in limiting the wildlife population. A quarter of the earth’s total

wildlife resources which might be useful to mankind in one way or the other

would be in serious risk of extinction over the next 2-3 decades. The erosion of

wildlife resources that may threaten the very existence of human life has

awakened man to conserve it.

1.2. NEED FOR WILDLIFE CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT

i. Maintaining ecosystem stability. Each biotic component by virtue of

its position in food chain maintains the delicate balance of an

ecosystem. If a species is lost, in long run, it may upset the natural

balance and as a consequence makes the system vulnerable.

ii. Economic benefit. Wildlife is a source of income to recreation and

tourism industry. The most popular tourist attractions are the wildlife

sanctuaries and the National parks. Many plants have medicinal value.

For example, penicillin is obtained from Penicillium, quinine from

Cinchona, morphine from opium poppy and so on. A chemical obtained

from the skeleton of shrimps and crabs may serve as a preventive

medicine against the fungal infection.

3

iii. Tourism. Wildlife of the country may attract people from abroad and

cam foreign exchange. Trade in live as well as dead animals not only

supports thousands of people but also earn foreign exchange. For

example, the market price of rhino horn was 20,000 US $ per kg in

1990. Today, a 20 year-old crocodile easily fetches 1 lakh while even a

5 year-old has a value of nearly Rs. 30,000. Similarly, the ivory of

elephants, the glands of musk deer, the antlers of deer, etc., all

command high prices.

iv. Scientific value: Study of wildlife in biology and medicine are of direct

value for humans. For example, sea urchins have helped greatly in

understanding of human embryology, a desert toad in early

determination of pregnancy. Rhesus monkeys in presenting knowledge

of human blood groups and antlers of deer in determining the degree of

radioactive contamination of natural environment.

v. Aesthetic value. Aesthetic values such as the taste of wild berries,

softness of moss bed and refreshing fragrance of wild flowers compel us

to preserve them. A world without melodious birds, graceful beasts and

thick forest would be poorer place for humans to live in. People feel

pleasure and happiness in the presence of wildlife.

1.3. CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT STRATEGY Objectives for conservation and management of wildlife :

1. Maintenance of the ecological equilibrium between biotic and abiotic

components of the ecosystem.

2. Preservation of the total gene pools of the different species at the

global level.

3. Ensuring the optimum utilization of the present animal and plant

species.

To meet the aforementioned objectives the following important steps have been

proposed:

• Habitat destruction should be avoided by careful planning of urban and

other development activities.

4

• Special attention should be given to conserve the species which fall

under the category of endangered, vulnerable or rare.

• Attempts should be made at country level to identify natural habitats for

specific wildlife to be preserved.

• Proper planning of land and water utilization should be done to ensure

the protection of wildlife in their natural habitats or in man-made habitats.

• The ecosystem having endangered or vulnerable species should be

given priority with regard to their protection. The use of only such species

should be allowed which will not disturb the equilibrium of the ecosystem.

• The genetic diversity should be safeguarded keeping in mind the

international protection programmes e.g., MAB project of UNESCO and

setting up of national parks and protected areas as suggested by IUCN.

• Alternative measures should be adopted to allow the survival of a

species being exploited by a country or a community or an industry.

• Breeding programmes in captivity to raise endangered species, should

be initiated.

• Careful predator and pest control management programmes should be

designed to prevent indiscriminate elimination of non-target species.

• Public should be made aware of the value of wildlife and of the factors

that cause extinction. Stringent legal measures should be taken to

prevent the unnecessary and wasteful killing of animals.

Any conservation and management strategy, to be meaningful, should include

the following management measures:

• Protecting natural habitats through controlled exploitation of species.

• Maintaining their viable numbers in national parks, sanctuaries, game

reserves, botanical gardens, arboreta, etc.

• Survival of the most endangered species through maintenance of breed

stock in zoological parks. • Establishment of flora reserves and ecosystem reserves in the country.

• Protection through coordinated legislative measures.

Several development schemes can also be adopted simultaneously for

protection and enhancement of wildlife population:

5

1. The betterment of existing sanctuaries;

2. To create the buffer belts around the sanctuaries;

3. Imposition of restriction on export of rare animals and important plant

species;

4. Use of scientific methods of rearing for the enhancement of population

size, and;

5. Inclusion of "wildlife conservation and its benefit to the society", in

school and college/university curricula.

In order to manage natural wildlife populations successfully ecological data

pertaining to food habits, reproduction, habitat requirements, population-size

fluctuations and relationship with other species is essential.

1.4. ACTION PLAN FOR THE CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT OF

WILDLIFE IN THE COUNTRY

Realising the importance of wildlife resource and in order to prevent gene

erosion the steps taken for conservation and management are:

1. Formation of Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS, 1883)

2. Setting up of an Indian Board of wildlife (1952)

3. Institution of Trade Record Analysis of Flora and Fauna in Commerce

(TRAFFIC-India, 1991)

4. Enactments of various wildlife Protection Acts including the Wildlife

(Protection) Act of 1972.

5. Launching a national component of the UNESCO's Man and Biosphere

Programme (1971).

6. Becoming the Party to the CITES.

7. Starting conservation projects for individual endangered species like

Barasinga (1969), Hangul (1970), Lion (1972), Tiger (1973), Crocodile

(1975), Brow-antlered deer (1981), Rhino (1984), and Elephant (1992) .

8. Creation of National Parks, Wildlife Sanctuaries and Biosphere

Reserves.

6

WWF-International, IUCN, UNEP, ICBR IWRB, etc. arc closely concerned with

the problems of wildlife conservation at global level.

Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS). Founded in 1883. BNHS is

recognised as one of the foremost conservation research organisation in the

world. Efforts of naturalists of the organisation culminated in the establishment

of Indian Board of Wildlife (IBWL) and a network of National parks and

sanctuaries in the country.

BNHS is engaged in collection of information and specimen of flora and

fauna. It has undertaken a wide range of projects in conjunction with both local

and overseas counterpart organisations on birds, reptiles, mammals and their

natural history, and on the impact of development programmes on wildlife. The

organisation is represented on the IBWL, and on many State Wildlife Advisory

Boards.

Indian Board for Wildlife (IBWL). The Indian Board for Wildlife was first

constituted in 1952 as an advisory body under the name Central Board for

Wildlife. Later it was renamed as Indian Board for Wildlife. It works in close

cooperation with WWF and is mainly responsible for wildlife conservation with

the assistance of the central and state government. The functions of the IBWL,

among others are:

1. To devise ways and means for the preservation and control of wildlife

through coordinated legislative and practical measures;

2. To sponsor the setting up of national parks, wildlife sanctuaries and

zoological gardens;

3. To promote public interest in wildlife and the need for its preservation in

harmony with natural and human environments;

4. To advise the Government on policy in respect of export of plants and

animals;

5. To prevent cruelty to birds and beasts caught alive with or without injury.

IBWL is the main advisory body of the Government of India. At its first

meeting, the Board made a recommendation for unified legislation for wildlife

7

conservation in India. The enactment of Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 was the

result of this recommendation.

World Wildlife Fund-India (WWF-India). Now known as World Wide Fund for

Nature was established in India in 1969 at the XII General Assembly of the

IUCN, held at Delhi. It was founded as a branch of WWF-International formed in

1961 with its headquarters at Switzerland and is controlled by a Board of

International Trustees. It initiated specific conservation programmes in 24

countries with the important and endangered flora. Particular emphasis was on

a conservation strategy in India and protection of fragile islands.

WWF-India was founded with a Board of 8 Trustees and has its

headquarters in Bombay. With a network of 18 state and divisional offices, it is

the largest NGO of the country. WWF-India started as a wildlife conservation

�rganization and has, over the years, broadened the scope of its policy work

and field programmes to encompass conservation of ecosystems and support

the management of the country’s protected areas network.

Trade Record Analysis of Flora and Fauna in Commerce-India (TRAFFIC-India). This was instituted in 1991 as a part of TRAFFIC-International to be

based in the WWF-I headquarters, New Delhi. This division will monitor trade in

wildlife and its derivatives in the Indian context.

1.5. LEGISLATION FOR PROTECTION OF WILDLIFE

Realising the importance of wildlife resources and to prevent gene erosion

India has, from time to time, taken steps by way of enactment of various wildlife

acts. The important ones are:

• The Madras Wild Elephants Preservation Act. 1873 (State Act).

• The Nilgiris Games and Fish Preservation Act, 1879 (State Act).

• The U. P. Wild Birds and Animals Protection Act, 1912 (State Act).

• The Wild Birds and Animals Protection (Central Provinces and Berar

Amendment) Act, 1935 (State Act)

• The Jammu and Kashmir Game Preservation Act, 1941 (State Act).

• The Bombay Animals and Wild Birds Protection Act, 1951 (State Act).

8

• The Rajasthan Wild Animals and Birds Protection Act, 1951 (State Act).

• The Assam Rhinoceros Preservation Act, 1954 (State Act).

• The Assam Elephant's Preservation (Amendment) Act, 1959 (State Act).

• The West Bengal Wildlife Preservation Act, 1959 (State Act).

• The Gujarat Wild Birds and Animals Act, 1963 (State Act).

• The Punjab Wild Birds and Wild Animals Protection Act, 1963 (Delhi,

Punjab and Haryana).

• The Mysore Wild Animals and Birds Act, 1963 (State Act).

• The Goa, Daman & Diu Wild Animals and Wild Birds Protection Act,

1965 (State Act).

• Crocodile Breeding Project, 1975.

• The Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972 (Central Act), amended in

1982.1986,1991 and 1993.

1.6. CROCODILE PROJECT Concerned over the very survival of salt water crocodile (Crocodylus

porosus) along with that of gharial (Gavialis gangeticus) and the marsh

crocodile (Crocodylus palustris). The Government of India launched “Project

Crocodile” the crocodile breeding and management project in 1975 with the

assistance of FAO/UNDP: The salt water crocodile, which grows to more than

7 metres and is restricted to coastal mangrove areas. The fresh water, swamp

crocodile, or mugger (Crocodylus palustris) is 3.5 metres, inhabits rivers, pools,

ponds, village tanks, lakes and reservoirs. The gharial (Gavialis gangeticus), an

unique long snouted fish-eating crocodilian is a riverine species of the North

Indian Himalayan fed river systems. It also occurs in Mahanandi river of Orissa.

The gharial attains a large size of more than 7 metres, and individuals of 6 to 7

metres were formerly common.

1.6.1. Reason for decline

The population of all three species has catastrophically declined as a

result of uncontrolled and all season hunting for skin, flash and sport. Loss of

9

habitats due to construction of dams, diversion of rivers and human interference

were some other factors that declined the crocodile population. The crocodile

hunting is now legally banned in India. The wild life (protection) Act, 1972 lists

both species of crocodile and the gharial under schedule 1 which affords total

protection at all times; Export 1 instruction No.46/73 forbids the export of

crocodiles and gharials, their hides, or products there from.

1.6.2. Objectives of the project The work-plan for project implementation’ comprised the following

objectives:

i) to locate the best crocodile areas within the country.

ii) collection of eggs as soon after laying as possible and transporting

them to a central protected area for hatchery incubation and rearing

the resultant young until they were of a size for release and back into

the wild.

iii) build up the required levels of technical competence in order to

achieve (ii) objective

iv) locate, set up, and manage a net work of sanctuaries in ideal habitat

for all three crocodilian species.

v) build up additional expertise not only in the operation of crocodile

sanctuaries but in the management of wild life sanctuaries throughout

the country.

1.6.3. Project implementation The project was brought into action on April 1, 1975 with the setting up of

three crocodile rearing centers. The one for the salt crocodile at Dangamal is

set on the fringe of the Bhitarkanika sanctuary in Orissa. The centers for gharial

and mugger have been set at Tikarpada, close to Similipal National Park in

Orissa and at Kukrail, Lucknow in Uttar Pradesh.

1.6.4. Sanctuary development Concurrent with the development of the husbandry centers, steps have

been taken to gazette and manage sanctuaries in ideal habitat area for all the

10

three Crocodian species into which individuals reared in and could be released

when they attain a length of 1.2 m. The first sanctuary to be gazetted in the

country were Satkoshia Gorge Sanctuary and Bhitar Kanika Sanctuary, both in

Orissa, Tristate Chambal Sanctuary of Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan , Uttar

Pradesh and the Katernighat Sanctuary in northern Uttar Pradesh. With the

exception of Bhitar Kanika, declared for the salt water crocodile, these

sanctuaries were all for gharial, which due to its critically endangered status

was given prime attention during the early stages of the project.

An attempt was made not only to locate the best possible remaining

habitat areas, but also to demarcate biological boundaries which would ensure

that animals were protected throughout the course of any seasonal monuments

and also to apply modern management principles to these sanctuaries.

1.6.5. Crocodile husbandry A total of 23 crocodiles rearing centers have been developed in the

country in association with the project in 13 states, which have produced over

15,000 crocodiles and have reintroduced over 3,500 Indian crocodile species in

30 protected areas of the country by 1992 (H.T. 12.12.1992).

1.6.7. Sanctuary declaration Crocodilians are being managed by sanctuaries which have come up

under the project and also in existing sanctuaries and national park (such as

National Park in Gujarat). Eleven sanctuaries have been specially declared

under the project, few of which among the largest sanctuaries in the entire

country (Krishna Sanctuary in Andhra Pradesh – 3600 sq. kms and Tri-state

National Chambal Sanctuary in Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan

– 5400 sq. kms). Among the various projects launched to prevent gharial, the

Chambal rearing project proved a major success. The center for herpetology,

popularly known as Madras crocodile bank is the largest in Asia started in 1976.

Andhra Pradesh has declared five sanctuaries under this project. The project

has thus secured conservation of crocodiles on a long term basis.

11

SCHEMES OF THE GOVERNMENT OF INDIA PROJECT. CROCODILE BREEDING

AND MANAGEMENT, OPERATING WITH FAOIUNDP TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE Name of Project

Nature of Project

Species

Location

Date of commence-ment

Satkoshia Gorge Gharial Scheme

Husbandry/rehabilitation

Gharial

Satkoshia Gorge Wildlife Sanctuary, Orissa

April 1975

Bhitarkanika Saltwater Crocodile Scheme

Husbandry/rehabilitation

Saltwater Crocodile

Bhitarkanika Wildlife Sanctuary, Orissa

May 1975

Kukrail National Scheme

Husbandry/rehabilitation

Gharial (extended to mugger)

Kukrail, Lucknow

1975

Chambal Sanctuary Gharial Scheme, Rajasthan

Husbandry/rehabilitation

Gharial

Kotah, Chambal River

1975

Nandankanan Captive Breeding Project

Captive breeding & husbandry

all three species

Nandankanan Biological Park, Orissa

1976

Katerniaghat Gharial Scheme

Husbandry/rehabilitation

Gharial

Katernia Ghat Wildlife Sanctuary, Bahraich.

1976

Sunderbans Saltwater Crocodile Scheme

Husbandry/rehabilitation in association with Tiger Project

Saltwater Crocodile

Sunderbans, West Bengal

March 1976

Madras Project

Husbandry/rehabilitation for release elsewhere

Mugger

Guindy Park, Madras

1976

1.7. SUMMARY

In this unit, strategy to maintain the ecological equilibrium between biotic

and abiotic components of the ecosystem and to preserve the total gene pools

of the different species at the global level and to ensure the optimum utilization

of the present animals and plant species as well as action plan for the

conservation and management of wildlife in the country are covered. Various

legislation for protection of wild life are listed The Government of India launched

12

"Project Crocodile" the Crocodile breeding and management in 1975 with the

assistance of FAO/UNDP is discussed.

1.8. KEY WORDS Wild life

Plants, animals and microbes that live independently of humans; plants,

animals and microbes that are not domesticated.

Wild life sanctuary It is dedicated to protect the wildlife, but it considers the conservation

only and also its boundary is not limited by state legislation.

Endangered species Those species that are present in such small numbers that they are in

immediate jeopardy of becoming extinct.

Protected area A geographically defined area which is designed or regulated and

managed to achieve specific conservation objectives.

Vulnerable species That’s may become endangered in the near future because populations

of the species are decreasing in size throughout its range.

CITES Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of wild flora

and fauna. A convention which seeks to provide protection for certain species

(e.g. the peregrine against over exploitation through international trade.

BNHS Bombay Natural History Society (BMHS) founded in 1883. BNHS to

recognized as one of the foremost conservation research organization in the

world.

TRAFFIC India Trade Record Analysis of Flora and Fauna in commerce India. This was

instituted in 1991 to monitor trade in wild life and its denvatives in the Indian

context.

13

1.9. SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. What are the objectives for conservation and management of wildlife?

2. What managemental measures should be taken for conservation of

wildlife.

3. What are the schemes to be adopted to protect and enhance the

wildlife population?

4. Write down the action plan for conservation and management of

wildlife.

5. Write down the role of BNHS, IBWL, WWF-India. When these

organisations were established?

6. What are the objectives of Crocodile Project?

7. What is Crocodile Project and when it was implemented?

8. What were the reasons to start Crocodile Project?

9. Name the Crocodile Sanctuaries in India.

1.10. SUGGESTED READINGS

1. Aggarwal, K.C. (2000). Wildlife of India – conservation and

management. Nidhi Publishers, India.

2. Hosett, B.B. and Venkateshwarlu, M. (2001). Trends in wildlife

biodiversity, conservation and management. Daya Publishing

House, New Delhi.

3. Khoshov, T.N. (1991). Biological diversity – a case for conservation.

The Hindu Survey of Environment, Madras.

4. Tandon, P. (2005). Biodiversity-Status and Prospects. Narosa

Publications, New Delhi.

5. Saharia, V.B. (1998). Wildlife in India. Natraj Publishers, Dehradun,

India.

UNIT-IV PGDEM-02

NATIONAL PARKS, WILDLIFE SANCTUARIES AND BIOSPHERE RESERVES

Narsi Ram Bishnoi

STRUCTURE 2.0. OBJECTIVES 2.1. INTRODUCTION 2.2. NATIONAL PARKS AND SANCTUARIES 2.3. WILDLIFE SANCTURY 2.4. BIOSPHERE RESERVES 2.5. PROJECT TIGER

2.5.1. Project and its objectives 2.6. SUMMARY 2.7. KEY WORDS 2.8. SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS 2.9. SUGGESTED READINGS 2.0. OBJECTIVES

After studying this unit, you will be able to understand :

• About the importance of National Parks, wildlife sanctuaries and biosphere

reserve.

• The opportunity for environmental educations training to provide

sustainable management of the available resources.

• The maintenance of viable populations of tigers for scientific, economic,

aesthetic cultural and ecological values.

2.1. INTRODUCTION

The creation of National Parks, Wildlife Sanctuaries and Biosphere Reserves

is an attempt to manage wildlife by defining protected areas. Wildlife therein is

regularly monitored and necessary management strategies for their perpetuation and

2

preservation are formulated and implemented. The Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972

provides for setting up National Parks and Sanctuaries for protection of wildlife in

their natural environment. The basic idea for creation of such protected areas is to

provide natural habitats for the wildlife. These protected areas not only benefit

wildlife, but indirectly humans too. Their protection means the protection of entire

ecosystem which is necessary to continue to enjoy the benefits that we may now

receive from it.

2.2. NATIONAL PARKS AND SANCTUARIES

A National Park is an area dedicated to conserve the scenery (or

environment) and natural objects and the wildlife therein. In National parks, all

private rights are non-existent and all forestry operations and other usages such as

grazing of domestic animals are prohibited. However, the general public may enter it

for the purpose of observation and study. Certain parts of the park are developed for

tourism in such a way that enjoyment will not disturb or scare the animals.

The definition for National Park adopted by IUCN (1975) is as follows:

A national park is a relatively large area (a) where one or several ecosystems

are not materially altered by human exploitation and occupation, where plant

and animal species, geomorphological sites and habitats are of special

scientific, educative and recreative interest or which contains a natural

landscape of great beauty and (b) where the highest competent authority of

the country has taken steps to prevent or eliminate as soon as possible

exploitation or occupation in the whole area and to enforce effectively the

aspect of ecological, geomorphological or aesthetic features which have led to

its establishment and (c) where visitors are allowed to enter, under special

conditions, for inspirational, cultural and recreative purposes.

2.3. WILDLIFE SANCTURY

A Wildlife Sanctuary is dedicated to protect the wildlife, but it considers the

conservation of species only and also the boundary of it is not limited by state

legislation. Further, in the sanctuary, killing hunting or capturing of any species of

birds and mammals is prohibited except by or under the control of highest authority

3

in the department responsible for management of the sanctuary. Private ownership

may be allowed to continue in a sanctuary, and forestry and other usages permitted

to the extent that they do not adversely affect wildlife. The State Government may,

by notification, declare its intention to constitute any area other than area comprised

with any reserve forest or the territorial waters as a sanctuary if it considers that such

area is of adequate ecological, faunal, floral, geomorphological, natural or zoological

significance, for the purpose of protecting, propagating or developing wildlife or its

environment.

The number of National Parks (NP) and Wildlife Sanctuaries (WS) has

increased from 33 in 1952 to a total of 521 by 1997. covering an area of 148849.11

km2, i.e. 4.5 percent of the total geographical area, and around 19% of all forest

areas of the country (Table 2.1). It is proposed to increase the number of national

parks and sanctuaries to 600 covering 5 per cent of the total geographical area of

the country. Some of the important National parks and sanctuaries are listed in Table

2.2.

2.4. BIOSPHERE RESERVES

Biosphere reserves have been described as undisturbed natural areas for

scientific study as well as areas in which conditions of disturbance are under control.

They have been set aside for ecological research and habitat preservation. Ramade

(1984) described them "as the means to protect ecosystems, whether natural or

modified by human activity, in order to preserve ecological evidence for the purpose

of scientific research". Indeed, biosphere reserves are very good means for

implementation of the WCE, 1980)

Biosphere Reserve Network Programme was launched by UNESCO in 1971. The

objectives of the programme are:

• Conserve biotic diversity for ecological evidence.

• Safeguard genetic diversity for the process of evolution to act upon.

• Provide natural areas for basic and applied research in ecology and

environmental biology

• Provide opportunity for environmental education and training.

• Promote international cooperation.

4

TABLE 2.1. NATIONAL PARKS AND WILDLIFE SANCTUARIES OF INDIA

State/Union Territory National Parks Wildlife Sancturies

Number Area (sq. km) Number Area (sq. km)1. Andhra Pradesh 1 352.62 20 12084.59 2. Arunachal Pradesh 2 2468.23 9 6777.75 3. Assam 2 930.00 9 1381.58 4. Bihar 2 567.32 19 4624.30 5. Goa 1 107.00 4 335.43 6. Gujarat 4 479.67 21 16744.27 7. Haryana 1 1.43 9 229.18 8. Himachal Pradesh 2 1295.00 29 4567.92 9. Jammu & Kashmir 4 3810.07 16 10163.67 10. Karnataka 5 2472.18 20 4229.21 H Kerala 3 536.52 12 1810.36 12. Madhya Pradesh 11 6143.12 32 10847.29 13. Maharashtra 5 956.45 24 14309.51 14. Manipur 2 81.80 1 184.85 15. Meghalaya 2 386.70 3 34.21 16. Mizoram 2 250.00 3 720.00 17. Nagaland 1 202.02 3 34.35 18. Orissa 2 1212.70 17 6175.49 19. Punjab Nil Nil 6 294.82 20. Rajasthan 4 3856.53 22 5694.02 21. Sikkim 1 850.00 4 161.10 22. Tamil Nadu 5 307.86 13 2527.29 23. Tripura Nil Nil 4 603.62 24. Uttar Pradesh 7 5409.05 28 8078.52 25. West Bengal 5 1692.65 16 1064.29 26. Andaman & Nicobar 6 315.61 94 437.16 27. Chandigarh Nil Nil 1 25.42 28. Dadra & Nagar Haveli Nil Nil Nil Nil 29. Daman & Diu Nil Nil I 2.18 30. Delhi Nil Nil 1 13.20 31. Lakshadweep Nil Nil Nil Nil 32. Pondicherry Nil Nil Nil Nil

Total 80 34684.53 441 114164.58

Source: Forest Survey of India: The State of Forest Report 1995

5

TABLE 2.2. IMPORTANT NATIONAL PARKS AND WILDLIFE SANCTURIES IN

INDIA

State Name of National Park/Wildlife Sanctuary

Andhra Pradesh Arunachal Pradesh Assam Bihar Goa Gujarat Haryana Himachal Pradesh Jammu & Kashmir Karnataka Kerala Madhya Pradesh Maharashtra Manipur Meghalaya Mizoram Nagaland Orissa Punjab Rajasthan Sikkim Tamil Nadu Uttar Pradesh West Bengal

Pakhal Wildlife Sanctuary. Pocharam Wildlife Sanctuary Kawal Wildlife Sanctuary, Kolleru Pelicanary Namdapha Wildlife Sanctuary Kaziranga National Park , Manas Wildlife Sanctuary Hazaribagh National Park, Bella National Park Mollen Wildlife Sanctuary Gir National Park, Velavadar National Park, Wild Ass Sanctuary, Nal Sarovar Bird Sanctuary Sultanpur Lake Bird Sanctuary Sechu-tun-Nallah Sanctuary Dechigam Wildlife Sanctuary Bandipur National Park , Nagarhole National Park, Ranganthitto Bird Sanctuary, Silent Valley National Park Periyar Wildlife Sanctuary, Wynad Wildlife Sanctuary Kanha National Park , Shivpuri National Park, Bandhavgarh National Park , Panna National Park Tadoda National Park, Yawal Wildlife Sanctuary Keibul Lamjao National Park Balpakram Sanctuary Dhampha Wildlife Sanctuary Intangki Wildlife Sanctuary Similipal National Park*, Chilka Lake Bird Sanctuary Abohar Wildlife sanctuary Ranthambore National Park , Sariska Wildlife Sanctuary, Ghana Bird Sanctuary Kanchenjuga National Park Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary, Vedanthangal Water Bird Sanctuary Corbett National Park*, Rajaji National Park, Dudhwa National Park Jaldapara Wildlife Sanctuary

*Taken under Project Tiger

6

• Promote appropriate sustainable management of the available biotic

resources.

• Disseminate the experience so as to promote sustainable development

elsewhere.

A protected area that can be declared as a biosphere should satisfy the following

essential criteria :

• Provides a network of protected terrestrial and coastal environments which

form a coherent system on a world scale;

• Occurs in each of the 193 biogeographical provinces of the world

distinguished in the classification of Udvardy (1975), so as to exhibit the

maximum genetic diversity;

• Shows a complete range of the different types of human interference, from

ecosystems untouched to those which have been degraded by humans;

• Structure and size should ensure the efficient conservation of the desired

ecosystems;

• Has sufficient resources available for ecological education, training and.

research to be carried on in respect to conservation of nature. If possible,

should have geographical continuity with other types of protected areas; and

• Has an adequate long-term legal protection.

As of January 1989, 274 biosphere reserves have been established in 68

countries. The list includes the 14 sites proposed as biosphere reserves in India.

These sites are; Nilgiris, Namdapha, Nanda Devi, Uttarakhand (Valley of Flowers),

North Islands of Andamans, Gulf of Mannar, Kaziranga, Sunderbans, Thar Desert,

Manas, Kanha, Nokrek, Little Rann of Kutch and Great Nicobar Island (Fig. 2.1). The

first 13 sites were identified by the National MAB Committee in 1973, the fourteenth

one, the Great Nicobar Island was added to the list in 1989. From the biospheric

point of view each of the 14 sites proposed/set up as biosphere reserves falls into

anyone of the 9 Indian biogeographical provinces: Ladakh, Himalayan highlands,

Malabar rain forest, Bengal rain forest, Indus-Ganga monsoon forest, Assam-Burma

monsoon forest, Mahanadian, Coromandel Deccan thorn forest, Thar Desert,

Lakshadweep Islands, and Andman and Nicobar Islands. The first two provinces

7

belong to the Palaearctic realm while the remaining to the Indo-Malayan (Khoshoo,

1991).

The country's first biosphere reserve came into being in 1986 in Nilgiri,

covering 5520 km2 in Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Karnataka. Table 2.3 list the biosphere

reserves set-up up-to 1997 in the country.

TABLE 2.3. BIOSHPERE RESERVES OF INDIA (Out of 14 proposed only 9 have

been declared as Biosphere Reserves)

Name of the biosphere reserve and states

Biographic zone Year of setting up

Area (million h t )Nilgiri (Karnataka, Kerala and

Tamil Nadu) Western Ghats

1986

5.520

Nandadevi (Uttar Pradesh) West Himalaya 1988 0.016 Nokrek (Meghalaya) Northeast India 1988 0.008 Manas (Assam) Northeast India 1989 0.284 Sundarbans (West Bengal) Gongetic plains 1989 0.963 Gulf of Mannar (Tamil Nadu) Coastal 1989 1.050 Great Nicobar Islands 1989 0.086 Similipal (Orissa) Deccan Peninsular 1994 0.437 Dibru Saikhowa (Assam)

Northeast India 1997 NA

Note : NA : Not available.

Source: State of India’s Environment : The Citizen’s Fifth Report. Pt. II CSE, 1999, New Delhi.

Biosphere reserves of the country qualify the essential criteria i.e. they:

• represent an ecological protectorate,

• occur in a definite biogeographic province (biosphere reserves cover 9 out of

the 12 biogeographical provinces),

• contain abundant genetic diversity (India harbours nearly 45,000 plant and

65,000 animal species),

• have complete range of human interference,

• have structure and size sufficient to ensure efficient conservation,

8

• have ample opportunities for research in ecology/environment, population,

genetics, evolutionary biology, plant-animal interaction, eco-development,

etc.,

• receive adequate long-term legal protection.

Fig. 2.1. Map showing the sites of proposed/set up Biosphere Reserves in the

country.

Basically the Biosphere Reserve consists of two zones- (i) Core zone forming

the sanctum sanctorum, and (ii) Buffer zone that concentrically surrounds the core

zone (Fig 2.2). The core zone invariably encompasses watershed areas along with

specific habitats to be conserved in its original form and therefore to be protected

from non-native or exotic plants and animals. The entry is opened only for scientists,

researchers and conservation authorities to supervise and carry on research work.

Buffer zone bears the necessary as well as inevitable

9

human stress and also meets the research, education and where possible aesthetic

needs of society too. In this zone controlled exploitation of natural resources is

possible. Besides these two zones there could be some more zones depending upon

the geographical, ecological and cultural situations, such as Forestry zone, Tourism

zone, Agriculture zone and Restoration or Reclamation zone. Sometimes, two or

more core areas are to be protected forming cluster type of biosphere reserve (Fig.

2.3)

A COMPARISON OF NATIONAL PARKS, WILDLIFE SANCTUARIES AND BIOSPHERE RESERVES

National Park (NP) Sancturay (WS) Biosphere Reserve (BR) Attention is not given on biotic community as a whole, i.e. conservation being hitched to habitat for particular wild animal species like tiger, lion, rhino, etc. The approach is not based on scientific principles. The size of NP ranges from 0.04 to 3162 km2: the usual size being between 100 and 500 km2 (in about 39%) and between 500 and 1000 km2 (in about 16%). Boundaries circumscribed by state legislation. No biotic interference except in buffer zone. Tourism is not only permissible, but often encouraged. Research and scientific management lacking. Due attention to gene pool and conservation of economic species, particularly of plants, has not been given.

Attention on biotic community not given; conservation, being species oriented, e.g. citrus, pitcher plant. Great Indian Bustard. Not based on scientific principles. Size of WS ranges from 0.61 to 7818 km2; usual size being between 100 and 500 km2 (in about 39%, between 500 and 1000 km2 (in about 24%) Limits are not sacrosanct Limited biotic interference. Permissible Lacking. Lacking

Attention is focused on biotic community as a whole, i.e. conservation being ecosystem oriented. Based on sound scientific principles. Size of BR well over 5670 km2

Boundaries circumscribed by state legislation

No biotic interference, except in buffer zone. Normally not permissible. Carried on Due attention being given to conservation of plants as well as animal species

10

Figure 2.2. Simple Biosphere Reserve

Figure 2.3. Cluster Biosphere Reserve

2.5. PROJECT TIGER

Organised poaching, trading in tiger skins and bones, pressure of growing

human population and the subsequent need for housing and agricultural expansion,

unregulated tourism and pockets of insurgency in tiger habitats are posing a serious

threat to the majestic tiger, which once roamed from Turkey to Asia's Pacific shore

and from Siberia to the island of Ball. Today, there are only 4,600 to 7,700 tigers left

in the wild.

According to World Conservation Union report, the Bali tiger disappeared in

the 1940s; there has been no sign of Caspian tiger since the early 1970s; no

confirmation of survival of the Javan tiser since 1980; the South China tiger has

become virtually extinct with scattered individuals numbering fewer than 50; almost

11

all the 250 to 400 Siberian tigers found in the Russian far East are facing severe

threat from poachers; the 400 to 500 Sumatran tigers are threatened by loss of

habitat and poaching; the status of Indo-Chinese tiger is unclear but may number

900 to 1,500 and the 3,100 to 4,300 Bengal tigers mostly found in India are also

threatened by poaching and habitat loss. During the last five years, as many as

1,000 tigers have been killed in India.

After decimating the tiger population in most parts of Asia, poachers have now

stepped up their activities in India, which alone accounts for about 3750 (1993

estimate) out of around 7,200 tigers in the continent. According to tiger conservation

cell of WWF-India, the tiger in India is threatened by a combination of several

factors, including habitat destruction and poaching for commercial gains and

medicinal purposes, specially in the neighbouring country of China. Traditional

Chinese medicine is made out of several ingredients that are present in tiger hair,

whiskers, testes, penis, brain, eyeballs, blood, bile and bones.

Seizure of large quantities of contraband bones and skins are a clear

indication that India has lost more than 600 tigers during 1989-1993. Skins and

bones and other parts are displayed in markets throughout southern Asia providing

evidence of the vast extent of illegal killing and trade.

2.5.1. Project and its objectives

Indian Tiger (Panthera tigris) is an endangered species and is listed in Red

Data Book. The population of wild tigers in the country reduced from 40,000 at the

turn of the century to 1827 in 1972. This decline was mainly due to hunting, habitat

destruction by .deforestation and taming the rivers for human needs. In response to

alarming decrease, a long-strategy. Project Tiger was proposed to keep the tigers

with us in perpetuity. The scheme was launched by the Government of India with a

grant of Rs. 50 million in co-operation with WWF-India and IUCN who together

pledged one million dollars for equipments and experts.

Launching the Project, Mrs. Indira Gandhi, the then Prime minister said, the

tiger cannot be preserved in isolation. It is at the apex of a large and complex

biotype. Its habitat, threatened by human intrusion, commercial forestry and cattle

grazing, must first be made inviolate. The project was launched on April 1,1973

following the recommendations of a special task force of the Indian Board of Wildlife.

12

Fig 2.4. Map showing locations of 23 Tiger Reserves in India.

Initially 9 Tiger Reserves were created in nine different states with a total area

of 13,017 km2 and tiger population of 268. These were Bandipur, Corbett, Kanha,

Manas, Melghat, Palmau, Ranthambore, Similipal and Sunderbans. Two more were

added in 1978-1979 viz., Periyar and Sariska, and subsequently four additional

reserves were created in 1982-1983 viz., Namdapha, Indravati, Nagarjunasagar and

Buxa. Three more were added later By 1993 with the addition of five more (viz.

Pench, Bandhavagarh, Tadoba-Andheri, Panna and Dampha), 23 tiger reserves

have been established in the country. The locations of tiger reserve in the country is

shown in Fig 2.4 and the estimated tiger population as per 1997 census is shown in

Table 2.4. They cover around 31,000 km2 forest area, the largest area in the world.

In effect, the entire home range of tiger in the country has been covered, viz. from

Corbett in the foothills of the Himalayas; in the north to Periyar in the southern State

13

of Karnataka; the eastern most tiger reserve is the Namdapha in Arunachal Pradesh;

and the westernmost tiger reserve is Melghat in Maharashtra. So far as the

population of tiger in reserves is concerned, there is continuous increase in tiger

population from 268 in 1973 to 1458 in 1997 as is given in Table 2.4.

TABLE 2.4. TIGER POPULATON IN 23 TIGER RESERVES OF THE COUNTRY

Name of the Reserve Tiger Population 1973 1979 1984 1989 1994 19971. Bandipur (Orissa) 10 39 53 50 66 752. Corbett (UP) 44 84 90 91 123 1383. Kanha (MP) 43 71 109 97 100 1144. Manas (Assam) 31 69 123 92 81 1255. Melghat (Maharashtra) 27 63 80 77 72 736. Palamau (Bihar) 22 37 62 55 44 447. Ranthambore (Raj.) 14 25 38 44 36 448. Similipal (Orissa) 17 65 71 93 95 989. Sunderbans (WB) 60 205 264 269 251 26310. Periyar (Kerala) - 34 44 45 30 -11. Sariska (Raj.) . 19 26 19 24 2412. Buxa (WB) - - 15 33 29 3213. Indravati (MP) - - 38 28 18 1514. NagarJunasagar (AP) - - 65 94 44 3915. Namdapha - - 43 47 47 57 (Arunachal Pradesh) 16. Dudhwa (UP) - - 80 90 94 10417. Kalakad-Mundanthurai (TN) - - 20 22 17 2818. Valmiki (Bihar) - - - 81 49 5319. Pench (MP) - - - - 39 2920. Tadoba Andheri - - - - 34 42 (Maharashtra) 21. Panna (MP) - - - - 25 2222. Dampha (Mizoram) - - - - 7 523. Bandhavgarh (MP) ' - - 41 41 46 Total 268 711 1223 1327 1366 1458

Source: The State of India’s Environment : Forestry Statistics of India, 1995, T.1. 16.11.98

More than half of the world's population, that is 3750 (1993-estimate) out of

around 7,200 tigers, resides in India (Table 2.5). The State of Madhya Pradesh alone accounts for 912 (Census 1993), which is the home of big cats. Being the largest in the population of the tigers in the world the Slate government declared itself the Tiger State. Out of the total 23 tiger reserves, 5 are located in this state.

14

The main objectives of the Project Tiger were:

(i) To ensure the maintenance of viable population of tigers for scientific,

economic, aesthetic, cultural and ecological values; and

(ii) To preserve the habitats of biological importance as a national heritage for

the benefits, education and enjoyment of the people.

The project tiger, therefore, concentrates its activities on protecting good tiger

habitats, by creating new ones and extending the existing ones. Indirectly, the

Project helps to preserve and multiply some other animal species too, such as

swamp deer, elephant, rhino, wild buffalo, hispid hare, pigmy hog, Bengal florican

and gharial. The floral diversity of the tiger reserves has also shown a significant

improvement. The Project Tiger programme has thus had a direct impact on conser-

vation of biodiversity. The tiger is super-predator and is at the apex of food chain,

and so its growth symbolises the health of natural ecosystem. Project Tiger has also

opened a control room with a site on Internet to improve the thrust of the project. The

latest tiger update of the WWF stated that the population of big cats in reserves as

well as in forests outside, in 1997, to be 3232 in 16 states. Out of these 16 states,

Madhya Pradesh recorded a maximum of 927 followed by Uttar Pradesh with 475

and Assam listing 458 (Hindustan Times 15.12.98)

The Ministry of Environment and Forest is planning to create the largest tiger

habitat in the country covering more than 5,000 km2 in central India. The Mega Tiger

Reserve is to be built by creating three new tiger reserves- Satpura, Bori and

Pachmarhi which has already been declared as tiger reserves. These new tiger

reserves would provide an important link between Melghat TR in Maharashtra and

the Kanha TR in Madhya Pradesh. With the addition of three new tiger reserves, the

country would have 26 TRs covering more than 35,000 km2 area under the Project

Tiger. Plans are also afoot to link Nagarhole NP in Karnataka to Bandipur TR to

create a bigger domain for the big cat. Pakhuri and Nameri wildlife sanctuaries in

Assam were also upgraded to the status of TRs (Times of India, 25.11.99).

However, experts feel that if we want to have about 4,000 tigers in the country

(at present we have about 3500 of which around 1600 are within TRs). then we

should have at least 60,000 km2 area under the project tiger. In the Ninth Plan, Rs.

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75 crore (Rs. 15 crore per year) have been allocated for the project tiger (Hindustan

Times, 11.8.1999).

TABLE 2.5. STATE-WISE TIGER POPULATION IN THE COUNTRY Name of State Years % change in tiger 1989 1993 population 1. Andhra Pradesh 235 197 - 16.17 2. Arunachal Pradesh 135 180 • + 33.33 3. Assam 376 325 - 13.56 4. Bihar 157 137 - 12.74 5. Goa 2 3 + 50.00 6. Gujarat 9 5 - 44.44 7. Karnataka 257 305 + 18.68 8. Kerala 45 57 + 26.67 9. .Madhya Pradesh 985 912 - 7.41 10. Maharashtra 417 276 - 33.81 11. Manipur 31 @ 12. Meghalaya 34 53 + 55.88 13. Mizoram 18 28 + 55.56 14. Nagaland 104 83 - 20.19 15. Orissa 243 226 - 7.00 16. Rajasthan 99 64 - 35:35 17. Sikkim 4 2 - 50.00 18.l Tamil Nadu 95 97 + 2.11 19. Unar Pradesh 735 465 - 36.73 20. West Bengal 353 335 - 5.10 Total 4334 3750* - 13.47*

Source: Forestry Statistics India, 1995 @ Census could not be concluded in 1993. * Does not include tiger population in Manipur.

A Steering Committee (Project Tiger) under the Chairmanship of the Prime

Minister provides guidelines for the management of the Tiger Reserves. The Project is reviewed biannually by non-official members of the Committee and the four scientific institutions nominated for the purpose.

The Second Phase of the Project Tiger is being launched to refocus, restructure

and reformulate its strategies to save not only the tiger and its habitat but also

conserve the entire biodiversity, rich in flora and fauna. The enhanced programme

introduced in the second phase of Project Tiger includes:

(i) Establishment of guidelines for tourism in the tiger reserves;

(ii) Management of buffer areas to ensure availability of adequate firewood and

fodder for the people around the reserve.

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(iii) Integration of the local population through ecological developmental

programmes and

(iv) Establishment of Natural Interpretation Centres.

2.6. SUMMARY

The basic idea for creation of national park, wildlife sanctuaries and

biosphere reserve is to provide natural habitats for the wildlife. In protected areas,

killing, hunting or capturing of any species of birds and mammals are prohibited.

These protected areas are used to protect ecosystems, to preserve ecological

evidence for basic and applied research in ecology and environmental biology.

The number of national parks and wildlife sanctuaries has increased from 33 in

1952 to a total of 521 by 1997. Area covered by these is 4.5 per cent of the total

geographical area.

2.7. KEY WORDS National parks

A National park is an area dedicated to conserve the environment and natural

objects and wildlife there in.

Biodiversity The variety of types of organisms, habitats, and ecosystems on earth or in a

particular place.

Biological Resources Include genetic resources, organisms or part these of, populations, or any

other biotic component of ecosystems with actual or potential use or value for

humanity.

Biosphere The planet earth along with its living organisms and atmosphere which

sustains life.

Biosphere Reserve There are described as undisturbed natural or modified by human activity

areas; in order to preserve ecological evidence for the purpose of scientific research.

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2.8. SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. Define National Parks. How many National Parks are in India and what are

its area?

2. What is wild life sanctuary? How many wild life sanctuaries are in India

and which Indian State has maximum number of wild life sanctuaries?

3. Define Biosphere Reserve. What are the objectives of Biosphere

Reserve?

4. Write down the names of Biosphere Reserves in India.

5. What are the essential criteria for Biosphere Reserves?

6. Write down a comparison on National Parks, Sanctuaries and Biosphere

Reserves.

7. What are the objectives of the Tiger Project?

8. Write down the reasons for determining the tiger population.

9. Discuss in brief the Tiger Project Scheme.

10. Write down the names of Tiger Project in India.

11. Write down the state-wise population of tiger reserve in India.

12. Write down the total population both in the tiger reserve and other areas

of wildlife.

2.9. FURTHER READINGS

1. Aggarwal, K.C. (2000). Environmental laws - Indian perspective. Nidhi

Publishers, India.

2. Hosett, B.B. and Venkateshwarlu, M. (2001). Trends in wildlife

biodiversity, conservation and management. Daya Publishing House,

New Delhi.

3. Khoshov, T.N. (1991). Biological diversity – a case for conservation. The

Hindu Survey of Environment, Madras.

4. Saharia, V.B. (1998). Wildlife in India. Natraj Publishers, Dehradun,

India.