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Nationalist RevolutionsSweep the West, 1789–1900
Inspired by Enlightenment ideas, the people of Latin America
rebelled against Spanish and Portuguese rule in the early 19th
century. Rebels in the Spanish colonies waged a series of hard-
fought military campaigns to gain their independence, while Brazil
carried out a peaceful revolution to free itself from Portugal. The
map at the right shows the countries of Latin America and their
dates of independence. Use the map to answer the questions below.
1. What were the first two countries in Latin America and theCaribbean to win their independence?
2. How do the independence dates for Mexico and CentralAmerica differ?
3. Which colonies were still under Spanish rule in 1841?
Connect History and Geography
1804Haiti wins freedom from France.
1810 Padre Hidalgo issuesGrito de Dolores, calling forMexican independence.
For more information about nationalism,romanticism, realism, and related topics . . .
CLASSZONE.COM
In 1810, Padre Miguel Hidalgo issued his Gritode Dolores (Cry of Dolores). In it, he called forthe poor of Mexico to revolt against Spanishrule. In this 20th-century mural by Mexicanartist Juan O’Gorman, Mexicans of all classesrevolt—which was not the case. O’Gorman alsoslips in his own politics: he inserts a Communistsymbol (the sickle) next to the religious banner.
600
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PA C I F I CO C E A N
A T L A N T I CO C E A NCaribbean Sea
Par
an
a Riv er
Sao
Fra
ncis
coRi
ver
Am azon River
ARGENTINA1816
CHILE1818
COLOMBIA1830
VENEZUELA1830
ECUADOR1830
COSTA RICA1838
PANAMA1903
PARAGUAY1811
URUGUAY1828
PERU1824
PUERTO RICO
EL SALVADOR1838
GUATEMALA1838
MEXICO1821
DOMINICAN REPUBLIC1844
HAITI1804CUBA
1898
JAMAICA
BOLIVIA1825
BRAZIL1822
BRITISH GUIANA
DUTCH GUIANA
FRENCH GUIANA
BRITISHHONDURAS
HONDURAS1838
NICARAGUA1838
30°S
0° Equator
Tropic of Capricorn
0°
30°S
30°N
90°W 60°W
60°W
30°W
30°W
Tropic of Cancer
N0 1000 Miles500
0 1000 Kilometers500Robinson Projection
Portuguese
Spanish
Other
Gran Colombia, 1819-1830
United Provinces ofCentral America, 1823-1838
Date of Independenceas a nation-state
Former Colonies
1824
Regions of Nationalist Revolutions, 1789–1900
1830Greece gainsindependence.
1848Revolts shakeEurope.
1861Russia frees serfs.
1870Italyunites.
1871Wilhelm I crowned kaiserof united Germany.
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Interact with History
You are an artist in a nation that has just freed itself fromforeign rule. The new government is asking you to design
a symbol that will show what your country stands for. It’s up toyou to design the symbol that best suits the spirit of yourpeople. Will your symbol be peaceful or warlike, dignified orjoyful? Or will it be a combination of these and other qualities?
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BOTSWANA
Industry and livestock are connected bywater, the key to the country’s prosperity.Pula in the Setswana language means“rain,” “water,” “wealth.”
URUGUAY
The shield features symbols ofjustice, strength, freedom, andprosperity.
AUSTRIA
The hammer and sickle symbolizeagriculture and industry. Thebroken chains celebrate Austria’sliberation from Germany at theend of World War II.
PERU
The country’s wealth is shown bythe vicuña (with its silky fur), thequinine tree (which helps to curemalaria), and a horn of plenty.
Your country isfree. What kindof national symbolwill you design?
EXAMINING the ISSUES
• What values and goals of yournew country do you want toshow?
• What symbol will you use?
• Will your symbol represent yourcountry’s past or future? Its land?Its goals?
• Will your design have words thatalso express values?
As a class, discuss these questions.During the discussion, think of the roleplayed by symbols in expressing acountry’s view of itself and the world.
As you read about the rise of newnations in Latin America and Europe,think of how artists encourage nationalpride.
UNITED STATES
The olive branch and arrowssymbolize a desire for peace buta readiness for war. The Latinphrase E pluribus unum means“Out of many, one,” expressingunity in diversity.
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SETTING THE STAGE By the late 1700s, the Americas, already troubled byEnlightenment ideas, were electrified by the news of the French Revolution. TheFrench ideals of liberty, equality, and fraternity inspired many Latin Americans to riseup against their French, Spanish, and Portuguese masters.
Revolution in HaitiThe French colony called Saint Domingue was the first Latin American territory tofree itself from European rule. Saint Domingue, now known as Haiti, occupied thewestern third of the island of Hispaniola in the Caribbean Sea.
Nearly 500,000 enslaved Africans—the vastmajority of Saint Domingue’s population—livedat the bottom of the social system. Most slavesworked on plantations, and they outnumberedtheir masters dramatically. White masters thusused brutal methods to terrorize slaves and keepthem powerless.
The Fight for Freedom The slaves soon showed that, in fact, they were not powerless.In August 1791, an African priest named Boukman raised a call for revolution. Within afew days, 100,000 slaves rose in revolt. A leader soon emerged, Toussaint L’Ouverture(too•SAN loo•vair•TOOR), an ex-slave. Toussaint was untrained in the military and indiplomacy. Even so, he rose to become a skilled general and diplomat. It is said that hegot the name L’Ouverture (“opening” in French) because he was so skilled at findingopenings in the enemy lines. By 1801, Toussaint had moved intoSpanish Santo Domingo (the eastern two-thirds of Hispaniola).He took control of the territory and freed the slaves.
In January 1802, 16,000 French troops landed in SaintDomingue to depose Toussaint. In May, Toussaint agreed tohalt the revolution if the French would end slavery. Despitethe agreement, the French soon accused him of planninganother uprising. They seized him and sent him to a prison inthe French Alps. In that cold mountain jail, he died 10 monthslater, in April 1803.
Haiti’s Independence Toussaint’s general, Jean-JacquesDessalines (zhahn•ZHAHK day•sah•LEEN), took up the fight forfreedom where Toussaint had left off. On January 1, 1804, GeneralDessalines declared the colony an independent country. It was thefirst black colony to free itself from European control. He calledthe country Haiti, which meant “mountainous land” in the lan-guage of the native Arawak inhabitants of the island.
BackgroundAbout 35,000Europeans stood atthe top of the socialladder in Haiti in thelate 1700s. They weremainly French.
Latin American PeoplesWin Independence
1TERMS & NAMES
• peninsulares• creoles• mulattos• Simón Bolívar• José de San
Martín• Miguel Hidalgo• José MorelosMAIN IDEA
Spurred by discontent andEnlightenment ideas, peoples in LatinAmerica fought colonial rule.
WHY IT MATTERS NOW
Sixteen of today’s Latin Americannations gained their independence atthis time.
This statue, calledThe UnknownMaroon of SaintDomingue, standsin front of Haiti’sNational Palace.Maroon was aname for runawayslaves. Using ashell as a trumpet,the maroon issounding the call tofreedom.
BackgroundBy 1600, almost theentire Arawak popula-tion had disappearedbecause of Europeanconquest, warfare,disease, or slavery.
HAITI
HISPANIOLA
Caribbean Sea
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Latin America Sweeps to FreedomLatin American colonial society was sharply divided into classes based on birth. At thetop of Spanish American society were the peninsulares (peh•neen•soo•LAH•rehs),men who had been born in Spain. Only peninsulares could hold high office in Spanish
colonial government. In this way, Spainkept the loyalty of its colonial leaders.Creoles, Spaniards born in LatinAmerica, ranked after the peninsulares.Creoles could not hold high-level politicaloffice. But they could rise as officers inSpanish colonial armies. Together thesetwo minority groups controlled wealth andpower in the Spanish colonies.
Below the peninsulares and creolescame the mestizos (persons of mixedEuropean and Indian ancestry) Next werethe mulattos (persons of mixed Europeanand African ancestry) and Africans. At thebottom of the social ladder stood Indians.Unlike enslaved Africans, Indians were oflittle economic value to the Spaniards. Asa result, they were more severelyoppressed than any other group.
Creoles Spearhead Independence Even though they could not hold high publicoffice, creoles were the least oppressed of those born in Latin America. They werealso the best educated. In fact, many wealthy young creoles traveled to Europe fortheir education. In Europe, they read about and adopted Enlightenment ideas. Whenthey returned to Latin America, they brought ideas of revolution with them.
Creoles not only held revolutionary ideas. They also felt that Spain had inflictedserious injustices on them. A creole aristocrat wrote this complaint to the king of Spain:
A V O I C E F R O M T H E P A S T[T]he Viceroys here and their retainers . . . mock, humiliate and oppress us. . . . The moredistinguished the unhappy Americans are, the more they suffer. . . . Their honor andreputations are attacked, insulting them by depriving them of any honorific office ofconsequence.MARQUÉS DE SAN JORGE, quoted in Americas: The Changing Face of Latin America and the Caribbean
Spanish royal officials suppressed actions and ideas that might fuel creole discon-tent. For example, Colombian patriot Antonio Nariño published a translation of theFrench Declaration of the Rights of Man. He was quickly sentenced to exile in Africa.
This 18th-centurypainting shows alower-classmestizo family inMexico. Like manyof the poor, this is afamily of vendors.They are setting uptheir stand formarket day.
THINK THROUGH HISTORYA. RecognizingEffects How mightcreole officers servingin colonial armiesbecome a threat toSpanish rule?A. Possible AnswerSince they receivedtraining in war, cre-oles might use itagainst the Spanish ina revolution.
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BackgroundOf the 170 Spanishviceroys (colonial gov-ernors) between 1492and 1810, 166 werepeninsulares; onlyfour were creoles.
BackgroundThe peninsulares gottheir name becausethey came from theIberian Peninsula,where Spain islocated.
SKILLBU ILDER : Interpreting Charts1. Which two groups made up the
vast majority of the populationin Spanish America?
2. Looking at the chart, what wasone possible reason thatcreoles felt resentful of theprivileges of the peninsulares?
The Divisions in Spanish Colonial Society in 1789
Mulattos (7.6%) 1,070,000
Indians (55.8%) 7,860,000
Mestizos (7.3%) 1,030,000
Africans (6.4%) 900,000
Peninsulares (0.1%) 15,000
Creoles (22.8%)3,070,000
EUROPEANS{
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Nationalist Revolutions Sweep the West 605
Events in Europe Trigger Latin American Revolutions Napoleon’s conquest ofSpain in 1808 finally triggered revolts in the Spanish colonies. After he had removedSpain’s King Ferdinand VII, Napoleon made his brother Joseph king of Spain. Manycreoles might have supported a Spanish king. However, they felt no loyalty to a kingimposed by the French. Creoles argued that when the real king was removed, powershifted to the people.
In 1810, rebellion broke out in several parts of Latin America. In 1814, with thedefeat of Napoleon, King Ferdinand VII returned to Spain. But the creoles hadalready begun their drive for independence. And they would continue until victory.
The Libertadores End Spanish RuleThe South American wars of independence produced two brilliant generals. Theirleadership largely achieved victory for the rebels. One was SimónBolívar (see•MAWN boh•LEE•vahr), a wealthy Venezuelan creole.Called Libertador (Liberator), Bolívar was at the same timeromantic and practical, a writer and a fighter.
The other great liberator was José de San Martín (hoh•SAYday san mahr•TEEN). Unlike the dashing Bolívar, San Martínwas a simple, modest man. But he too displayed greatcourage in battle. Though born in Argentina, he spent muchof his youth in Spain as a career military officer. San Martínbelieved in strict military discipline. However, he alsoshowed concern for the well-being of his troops.
Bolívar’s Route to Victory Simón Bolívar’s nativeVenezuela declared its independence from Spain in 1811. Butthe struggle for independence had only begun. Bolívar’s volun-teer army of revolutionaries suffered numerous defeats. Twicehe had to go into exile. A turning point came in August 1819.Bolívar led over 2,000 soldiers on a daring march through theAndes into what is now Colombia. (See the 1830 map on page 608.)Coming from this direction, Bolívar took the Spanish army in Bogotá com-pletely by surprise. There he won a decisive victory.
By 1821, Bolívar had won Venezuela’s independence. He then marched south intoEcuador. In Ecuador, Bolívar would finally meet with José de San Martín. Togetherthey would decide the future of the Latin American revolutionary movement.
San Martín Triumphs and Withdraws San Martín’s Argentina had declared itsindependence in 1816. However, Spanish forces in nearby Chile and Peru still posed athreat. In 1817, San Martín led his army on a grueling march across the Andes toChile. He was joined there by forces led by Bernardo O’Higgins, son of a formerviceroy of Peru. With O’Higgins’s help, San Martín finally freed Chile.
Next, in 1821 San Martín took his army north by sea to Lima, Peru. His plan was todrive out the remaining Spanish forces there. However, he needed a much largerforce to accomplish this. This was the problem that faced both San Martín and Bolívaras they met at Guayaquil, Ecuador, in 1822.
No one knows how the two men reached an agreement. But San Martín left hisarmy for Bolívar to command. Soon after, San Martín sailed for Europe. He died,almost forgotten, on French soil in 1850.
With unified revolutionary forces, Bolívar’s army went on to defeat the Spanish atthe Battle of Ayacucho (Peru) on December 9, 1824. In this last major battle of thewar for independence, the Spanish colonies in Latin America won their freedom.
Educated in Spainfrom the age of six,José de San Martínreturned to LatinAmerica as a manin his early 30s.Fighting for 10years, he becamethe liberator ofArgentina, Chile,and Peru.
THINK THROUGH HISTORYB. SummarizingWhat factors causedthe revolutions inSpanish America?B. Possible AnswerCreole discontent overthe privileges of thepeninsulares;Enlightenment ideasfrom Europe; theNapoleonic Wars;Ferdinand VII deposedfrom the Spanishthrone.
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Ideas and RevolutionRevolutions are as much a matter of ideas as they are of weapons. AndSimón Bolívar, the hero of Latin American independence, was both athinker and a fighter. Through his education, readings, travels, andfriendships, Bolívar was able to combine Enlightenment political ideas,ideas from Greece and Rome, and his own original thinking. The resultwas a system of democratic ideas that would help spark revolutionsthroughout Latin America.
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Bolívar admired Napoleon. But later,he was disappointed by Napoleon’sbetrayal of democracy.
Besides being a military leader, Bolívar was also asuperb speaker and statesman. He is shown herepresenting his plans for a new government.
Making Inferences How isEnlightenment thought reflected inBolívar’s ideas on Latin Americanindependence and government?
SEE SKILLBUILDER HANDBOOK, PAGE R16
Comparing What recent eventsin today’s world could becompared to Simón Bolívar’smovement for Latin Americanindependence?
Connect to Today
Connect to HistoryPatterns of InteractionThe Latin American independence movement is justone example of how the Enlightenment spreaddemocratic ideals throughout the world. In countriesfacing oppressive conditions, a leader frequentlyemerges to establish a popular government. Eventoday, as can be seen in South Africa, democratic idealsinspire people to struggle for political independenceand to overthrow oppressive governments.
VIDEO Struggling Toward Democracy: Revolutionsin Latin America and South Africa
“I will not rest until I havebroken the chains that bindus to the will of Spain.”Bolívar, after watching the crowning of Napoleon
“I will not rest until I havebroken the chains that bindus to the will of Spain.”Bolívar, after watching the crowning of Napoleon
GlobalImpact : Struggling Toward Democracy
After winning independence in 1819, SimónBolívar organized the Republic of Venezuela andwrote the Constitution of Bolivia. Like manysuccessful revolutionaries, Simón Bolívar becamedisillusioned with Latin America’s chaos after independence. Before his death in 1830, he com-mented bitterly: “Those who worked for SouthAmerican independence have plowed the sea.”
NORTH
AMERICA
SOUTH
AMERICA
AFRICA
EUROPE
Thomas Jefferson,
Benjamin Franklin
John
Lock
e, Th
omas
Pai
ne
Volta
ire, B
aron
de M
onte
squi
eu
Jean
-Jac
ques
Rou
ssea
u
Washington
Mexico City
Caracas
Lima
Bogotá
La Paz
Santiago
Buenos AiresMontevideo
Asunción
LondonParis
Madrid
ATLANTIC
OCEAN
PACIFIC
OCEAN
Enlightenment Ideas Spreadto Latin America: 1789–1810
Bolívar’s 1807 return fromEurope by way of the UnitedStates allowed him to studythe American system ofgovernment.
In 1810, Bolívar went to London to seeksupport for the revolution in LatinAmerica. At the same time, he studiedBritish institutions of government.
By 1800, the writings of Enlightenment authors were widelyread throughout the Spanish American colonies.
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Nationalist Revolutions Sweep the West 607
Mexico Ends Spanish Rule In most Latin American countries, creoles led the revolutionary movements. InMexico, ethnic and racial groups mixed more freely. There Indians and mestizosplayed the leading role.
A Cry for Freedom In 1810, Padre Miguel Hidalgo (mee•GEHL ee•THAHL•goh),a priest in the small village of Dolores, took the first step toward independence.Hidalgo was a poor but well-educated man. He firmly believed in Enlightenment ideals.On September 16, 1810, he rang the bells of his village church. When the peasantsgathered in the church, he issued a call for rebellion against the Spanish. Today, thatcall is known as the grito de Dolores (the cry of Dolores).
The very next day, Hidalgo’s Indian and mestizo followers began amarch toward Mexico City. This unruly army soon numbered 60,000men. The Spanish army and creoles were alarmed by this uprising ofthe lower classes. In reaction, they joined forces against Hidalgo’sarmy. Hidalgo was defeated in 1811. The rebels then rallied aroundanother strong leader, Padre José María Morelos (moh•RAY•lohs).Morelos led the revolution for four years. However, in 1815, he wasdefeated by a creole officer, Agustín de Iturbide (ah•goos•TEEN dayee•toor•BEE•day).
Mexico’s Independence Events in Mexico took yet another turn in1820 when a revolution in Spain put a liberal group in power there.Mexico’s creoles feared the loss of their privileges. So they united insupport of Mexico’s independence from Spain. Ironically, Agustín deIturbide—the man who had defeated Padre Morelos—made peacewith the last rebel leader. He proclaimed independence in 1821.
Before the Mexican revolution, Central America had been gov-erned from Mexico. In 1821, several Central American statesdeclared their independence from Spain and thus from Mexico aswell. Iturbide, however, refused to recognize those declarations.
Iturbide (who had declared himself emperor) was finally over-thrown in 1823. Central America then pulled together. The regiondeclared its absolute independence from Mexico. It took the namethe United Provinces of Central America.
Brazil’s Royal LiberatorWith no violent upheavals or bloody atrocities, Brazil’s quest forindependence was unique in this period of Latin American history.In fact, a member of the Portuguese royal family actually played akey role in freeing Brazil from Portugal.
The Portuguese Royal Family in Brazil In 1807, Napoleon’sarmies swarmed across the Pyrenees mountains to invade both Spainand Portugal. Napoleon’s aim was to close the ports of these coun-tries to British shipping. As French troops approached Lisbon, thePortuguese capital, Prince John (later King John VI) and the royalfamily boarded ships to escape capture. They also took their court and royal treasurywith them. The royal family then sailed to Portugal’s largest colony, Brazil. For 14years, Brazil was the center of the Portuguese empire. During that time, Brazilianshad developed a sense of their own uniqueness. Many of them could not imaginetheir country becoming a colony again. However, after Napoleon’s defeat in 1815, thePortuguese government wanted exactly that.
By 1822, creoles demanded Brazil’s independence from Portugal. Eight thousandBrazilians signed a petition asking Dom Pedro, King John’s son, to rule. He agreed.
BackgroundSoon after his grito,Father Hidalgodeclared an end toslavery and called forother sweeping socialand economicreforms.
Padre José Morelos1765–1815
Born into poverty, José Morelos did not begin to study for thepriesthood until he was 25. In hisparish work, he mainly served poorIndians and mestizos. In 1811, hejoined Padre Hidalgo, along with hisparishioners. After Hidalgo’s death,the skillful Morelos took commandof the peasant army.
By 1813, his army controlled allof southern Mexico except for thelargest cities. Morelos then calleda Mexican congress to set up ademocratic government. Thesupporters of Spain, however,finally caught up with the congress.As the rebels fled, Morelos stayedbehind to fight. The Spanish finallycaptured and shot Morelos in 1815.Napoleon knew of this priest-revolutionary and said: “Give methree generals like him and I canconquer the world.”
■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■
■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■HISTORY MAKERS
C. PossibleAnswers The royalfamily might spendmore money there,since Brazil was nowtheir home. Theymight take more inter-est in their Braziliansubjects and improveeducation, health,roads, etc. They mightbuild palaces, libraries,museums, universities,etc., to improve thequality of life.THINK THROUGH HISTORYC. MakingInferences How doyou think the royalfamily’s living in Brazilmight have helpedPortugal’s largestcolony?
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On September 7, 1822, he officially declared Brazil’s independence. Brazil had wonits independence through a bloodless revolution.
Independence Brings DisunityThroughout Latin America, independence actually brought an increase in poverty.The wars had disrupted trade and devastated cities and countryside. After all thedestruction, the dream of a united Latin America quickly fell apart. In South America,Bolívar’s united Gran Colombia divided into Colombia, Ecuador, and Venezuela inearly 1830. And by 1841, the United Provinces of Central America had split into therepublics of El Salvador, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Guatemala, and Honduras.
Meanwhile, the ideas of the French Revolution and the aftermath of theNapoleonic Wars were causing upheaval in Europe, as you will learn in Section 2.
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P A C I F I CO C E A N
A T L A N T I CO C E A N
Gulf ofMexico
Caribbean Sea
A T L A N T I CO C E A N
P A C I F I CO C E A N
Gulf ofMexico
Caribbean Sea
Caracas
BogotáQuito
LimaLa Paz
Asunción
Rio deJaneiro
Santiago
Mendoza
MontevideoBuenos
Aires
Guayaquil
Pichincha(1822)
Boyacá(1819)
Ayacucho(1824)
Maipú(1818)
Chacabuco(1817)
Mexico CityDolores
Caracas
BogotáQuito
LimaLa Paz
Potosí
Asunción Rio deJaneiro
SantiagoMendoza
MontevideoBuenos
Aires
Guayaquil
MexicoCity
MEXICO
UNITEDSTATES
CUBA (Sp)
JAMAICA (Br)
GRAN COLOMBIA
BRAZILPERU
BOLIVIA
PARAGUAY
URUGUAY
FALKLANDISLANDS (Br)
UNITEDPROVINCESOF LA PLATA
CHILE
BRITISHGUIANA
FRENCHGUIANA
DUTCH GUIANA
HAITI
BRITISH HONDURAS
PUERTO RICO (Sp)
UNITED PROVINCES OFCENTRAL AMERICA
VICEROYALTY OFNEW SPAIN
UNITEDSTATES
JAMAICA
VICEROYALTY OFNEW GRANADA
CAPTAINCY-GENERALOF VENEZUELA
VICEROYALTYOF PERU
VICEROYALTYOF
BRAZIL
VICEROYALTY OFRIO DE LA PLATA
FRENCH GUIANA
DUTCH GUIANA
SANTODOMINGO
SAINTDOMINGUE
BR. HONDURAS
SANTODOMINGO (Sp)
40°W
80°W120°W40°N
0° Equator
40°S
Tropic of Cancer
Tropic of Capricorn
40°W
80°W
120°W40°N
0° Equator
40°S
Tropic of Cancer
Tropic of Capricorn
0
0
2,000 Miles
4,000 Kilometers
British coloniesDutch coloniesFrench coloniesPortuguese coloniesSpanish colonies
European coloniesSan MartínBolívarMajor battleSpanishBritish(Br)
(Sp)
Latin America, 1800 Latin America, 1830
GEOGRAPHY SKILLBU ILDER : Interpreting Maps 1. Region What two European countries held the largest colonial empires in
Latin America in 1800?2. Region Comparing the two maps, which independent countries had
emerged by 1830 from Spanish territory in the Americas?
2. TAKING NOTES
Using a chart like the one below,compare independencemovements in Latin America.
3. FORMING ANDSUPPORTING OPINIONS
Think about the background ofmany creole revolutionaries. Whatdo you think might have been theirtendencies as government lead-ers: toward democracy or authori-tarianism? Explain your answer.
THINK ABOUT• their education• their professions• their economic interests
4. ANALYZING THEMES
Power and AuthorityConsider the following statement:“Through its policies, Spain gaveup its right to rule in SouthAmerica.” Do you agree ordisagree? Explain. Did Spain everhave the right to rule?
THINK ABOUT• Spanish colonial society• why independence movements
arose• who gained the power that
Spain lost
1. TERMS & NAMES
Identify• peninsulares• creoles• mulattos• Simón Bolívar• José de San Martín• Miguel Hidalgo• José Morelos
Section Assessment1
Where?
Haiti
SpanishSouthAmerica
Mexico
Brazil
Whorebelled? Why?
What happened?
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SETTING THE STAGE As revolutions shook the colonies in Latin America, Europewas also undergoing dramatic changes. Under the leadership of Austrian PrinceMetternich, the Congress of Vienna tried to restore the old monarchies and territorialdivisions that had existed before the French Revolution. On an international level, thisattempt to turn back history succeeded. For the next century, Europeans seldomturned to war to solve their differences. Within these countries, however, the effortfailed. Revolutions erupted across Europe between 1815 and 1848.
Nationalism Changes Europe In the first half of the 1800s, three forces struggled for supremacy in European soci-eties. Conservatives—usually wealthy property owners and nobility—argued forprotecting the traditional monarchies of Europe. In certain cases, as in France, con-servatives approved of constitutional monarchies. Liberals—mostly middle-classbusiness leaders and merchants—wanted to give more power to elected parliaments,but only to parliaments in which the educated and the landowners could vote.Radicals favored drastic change to extend democracy to the people as a whole. Theybelieved that governments should practice the ideals of the French Revolution. Thiswas still a radical idea, even 30 years after the Revolution.
The Idea of the Nation-State As conservatives, liberals, and radicals debated issuesof government, a new movement called nationalism was emerging. This move-ment would blur the lines that separated these political theories. Nationalism isthe belief that one’s greatest loyalty should not be to a king or an empire but to anation of people who share a common culture and history. When thenation also had its own independent government, it became anation-state.
Modern nationalism and the nation-state grew out of theFrench Revolution. Revolutionary leaders stressed theequality of all French people. The idea of equalityfostered a sense of national pride in the French. Thatpride, in turn, helped French citizens’ armies winstunning victories for the Revolution.
Nationalism Sparks Revolts in the Balkans The firstpeople to win self-rule during this period were theGreeks. For centuries, Greece had been part of theOttoman Empire. The Ottomans controlled most ofthe Balkans. That region includes all or part of present-day Greece, Albania, Bulgaria, Romania, and Turkey, andthe former Yugoslavia. Greeks, however, had kept alive thememory of their ancient history and culture. Spurred onby the nationalist spirit, Greeks demanded that their
BackgroundIn 1815, only France,England, and Spaincould be callednation-states. Ethnicunrest would soonchange that.
RevolutionsDisrupt Europe
2TERMS & NAMES
• conservatives• liberals• radicals• nationalism • nation-state• the Balkans• Louis-Napoleon• Alexander IIMAIN IDEA
Liberal and nationalist uprisingschallenged the old conservative orderof Europe.
WHY IT MATTERS NOW
The system of nation-states establishedin Europe during this period continuestoday.
BackgroundSerbs revolted againstthe Ottomans in 1804and 1815, winningself-rule within theOttoman Empire in1829. Full indepen-dence for Serbia camein 1878.
Carved onNapoleon’s Arc deTriomphe, a fiercegoddess of warleads Frenchrevolutionaryvolunteers intobattle.
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country take its place among the nation-states of Europe. Because of this movement,a major Greek revolt broke out against the Ottoman Turks in 1821.
The most powerful governments opposed revolution in all its forms. However, thecause of Greek independence was popular with people around the world. Russians, for
example, felt a connection to Greek Orthodox Christians, who wereruled by the Muslim Ottomans. Educated Europeans and Americansloved and respected ancient Greek culture, which they spent yearsstudying in school. In his poetry, British romantic poet Lord Byroncompared modern Greek nationalists to the ancient Spartans:
A V O I C E F R O M T H E P A S TThe sword, the banner, and the field,Glory and Greece, around us see!The Spartan, borne upon his shield,Was not more free.LORD BYRON, from the poem “On this day I complete my thirty-sixth year”
In 1823, Byron made a large personal gift of £4,000 tothe Greek fleet. After that, he went to Greece. There, hevolunteered as a soldier for the Greek cause. He soon com-manded a group of Greek soldiers. Unfortunately, he would notlive to see the victory of the cause he fought for. In February of1824, a cold Greek rain drenched the poet. Soon afterward, hecaught a fever. He died from his illness in April.
Eventually, with growing popular sympathy for Greece, the power-ful nations of Europe took the side of the Greeks. In 1827, a combinedBritish, French, and Russian fleet destroyed the Ottoman fleet at theBattle of Navarino. By 1830, Britain, France, and Russia signed atreaty recognizing the full independence of Greece.
The Tide of Reform in Western EuropeBy the 1830s, the return to the old order—carefully arranged at the Congress ofVienna—was breaking down. Liberals and nationalists throughout Europe wereopenly revolting against conservative governments. In most cases, the liberal middleclass—teachers, lawyers, and businesspeople—led the struggle for constitutional gov-ernment and the formation of nation-states.
Waves of Failed Revolutions Revolutionary zeal swept across Europe. Nationalistriots broke out against Dutch rule in the Belgian city of Brussels. In November 1830,Belgians finally declared their independence from Dutch control. In Italy, nationalists
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This 1839 lithographshows Greeks inblue coats battlingOttoman Turksduring the war for Greekindependence.
Greeks and Turks on Cyprus
The hostility between Greeks andTurks continues to this day—with theisland nation of Cyprus as its focalpoint. In 1974, Turkish troops invadedthis island off the coast of Turkeywith its majority Greek population.The Turks justified their invasion bysaying that they were defending therights of the minority of TurkishCypriots. They captured the northernthird of the island and declared theregion an independent state.
The United Nations laterestablished a “green line” onCyprus—separating the Turkishnorth and the Greek south.However, the arrangement satisfiesno one today. The Greek Cypriotgovernment accuses the Turks ofillegally seizing its territory. TheTurks, in turn, maintain that theyhave the right to defend TurkishCypriots from harm. The situationcurrently remains deadlocked.
CONNECT to TODAY
Lord Byron wearsthe uniform of aGreek freedomfighter.
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worked to unite the many separate states on the Italian peninsula. Some were inde-pendent. Others were ruled by Austria, others by the pope. Eventually, PrimeMinister Metternich sent Austrian troops to restore order in Italy. The Poles livingunder the rule of Russia staged a revolt in Warsaw late in 1830. Russian armies tookan entire year to crush the Polish uprising. By the mid-1830s, it seemed as if the oldorder had reestablished itself. But with the political instability of the period, thatimpression did not last long.
In 1848, ethnic uprisings erupted throughout Europe. In Budapest, nationalistleader Louis Kossuth called for a parliament and self-government for Hungary. InPrague, Czech liberals demanded Bohemian independence. An unruly mob in Viennaitself clashed with police. That forced Metternich to resign and set off liberal upris-ings throughout the German states.
But European politics continued to seesaw. Many of these liberal gains were lost toconservatives within a year. In one country after another, the revolutionaries failed tounite themselves or their nation. And conservatives regained their nerve and theirpower. By 1849, Europe had practically returned to the conservatism that had con-trolled governments before 1848.
Reform and Revolution in France Radicals participated in many of the 1848revolts. Only in France, however, was the radical demand for democratic governmentthe main goal of revolution. In 1830, France’s King Charles X tried to stage a return toabsolute monarchy. The attempt sparked riots that forced Charles to flee to GreatBritain. He was replaced by Louis-Philippe, who had long supported liberal reforms inFrance. One French noble looked down on Louis. The aristocrat thought the king had“the manners of a citizen and the plainness of dress and demeanor very suitable to anAmerican president, but unbecoming a descendant of Louis XIV [the Sun King].”
However, in 1848, after a lengthy reign of almost 18 years, Louis-Philippe fell frompopular favor. Once again, a Paris mob overturned a monarchy and established arepublic. Alphonse de Lamartine (lah•mahr•TEEN), one of France’s leading poets, ledthe temporary government. After the victory of the Revolution of 1848, Lamartineproclaimed: “We are making together the most sublime of poems.”
Far from being inspiring, the new republican government began to fall apartalmost immediately. The radicals soon split into factions. One side, led by Lamartine,wanted only political reform. The other, led by Louis Blanc, also wanted social andeconomic reform. The differences set off bloody battles in Parisian streets. Theviolence turned French citizens away from the radicals. As a result, a moderate consti-tution was drawn up later in 1848. It called for a parliament and a strong president tobe elected by the people.
France Accepts a Strong Ruler In December 1848,Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte, the nephew of NapoleonBonaparte, won the presidential election. Four yearslater, Louis-Napoleon took the title of EmperorNapoleon III, which a large majority of Frenchvoters surprisingly accepted. The French wereweary of instability and welcomed a strongruler who would bring peace to France.
As France’s emperor, Louis-Napoleonbuilt railroads, encouraged industrializa-tion, and promoted an ambitious programof public works. Gradually, because ofLouis-Napoleon’s policies, unemploymentdecreased in France, and the countryexperienced real prosperity.
A. Possible AnswerAbsolute monarchy(Charles X) to liberalmonarchy (Louis-Philippe) to radicalrepublic (1848 revolu-tion) to constitutionalgovernment (Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte)to monarchy (EmperorNapoleon III).THINK THROUGH HISTORYA. SummarizingHow would you out-line the politicalswings occurring inFrance between 1830and 1852?
This color engrav-ing of the timeshows Parisianrevolutionariesfighting and dyingbehind the barri-cades in theRevolution of 1848.
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Reform in Russia Unlike France, Russia in the1800s had yet to make its leap into the modernindustrialized world. Under Russia’s feudal system,serfs were bound to the nobles whose land theyworked. And nobles enjoyed almost unlimitedpower over them. By the 1820s, many Russiansbelieved that serfdom must end. In their eyes, thesystem was morally wrong. It also prevented theempire from advancing economically. The czars,however, were reluctant to free the serfs. Freeingthem would anger the landowners, whose supportthe czars needed.
Defeat Brings Change Eventually, Russia’s lackof development became obvious to Russians and to
the whole world. In 1853, Czar Nicholas I threatened to take overpart of the Ottoman Empire in the Crimean War. However, Russia’sindustries and transportation system failed to provide adequate sup-plies for the country’s troops. As a result, in 1856, Russia lost the waragainst the combined forces of France, Great Britain, Sardinia, andthe Ottoman Empire. This was a humiliating defeat for the czar.
After the war, Nicholas’s son, Alexander II, decided to moveRussia toward modernization and social change. Through hisreforms, Alexander and his advisers believed that Russia would com-pete with western Europe for world power.
Reform and Reaction The first and boldest of Alexander’s reformswas a decree freeing the serfs in 1861. The abolition of serfdom,however, went only halfway. Peasant communities—rather than indi-vidual peasants—received about half the farmland in the country.Nobles kept the other half. The government paid the nobles for theirland. Each peasant community, on the other hand, had 49 years topay the government for the land it had received. So, while the serfswere legally free, the debt still tied them to the land.
Political and social reforms ground to a halt when terrorists assas-sinated Alexander II in 1881. His successor, Alexander III, tightened
czarist control on the country. Alexander III and his ministers, however, encouragedindustrial development to expand Russia’s power. A major force behind Russia’s drivetoward industrial expansion was nationalism. Nationalism also stirred other ethnicgroups. During the 1800s, such groups were uniting into nations and building indus-tries to survive among other nation-states.
B. Possible AnswerThe czars needed toreform Russia to bringits power up to thelevel of WesternEuropean powers.Nonetheless, czaristpower rested onauthoritarianism, aswell as on the supportof landowners whowanted to keep thefeudal system.
THINK THROUGH HISTORYB. Analyzing IssuesWhy were czars tornbetween social andeconomic reforms intheir country?
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Emancipation
On March 3, 1861, Czar Alexander IIissued the Edict of Emancipation,freeing 20 million serfs with thestroke of a pen. Alexander, in fact,signed his edict one day beforeAbraham Lincoln became presidentof the United States. Less than twoyears later, President Lincoln issuedthe Emancipation Proclamation,freeing slaves in the United States.Lincoln's proclamation, likeAlexander's edict, was issued onhis authority alone.
Nonetheless, emancipation didnot entirely fulfill the hopes ofRussian serfs or former slaves inthe United States. The peasantcommunities, like the one picturedabove, still bound many Russianserfs to the land, while othersearned poor livings as laborers inthe cities. And Lincoln did not freeall slaves—only those living underthe Confederacy.
SPOTLIGHTON
2. TAKING NOTES
Using a chart like the one below,list the major uprisings that chal-lenged the old order of Europe inthe first half of the 1800s. Groupthem under the year they occurred.
What ideal sparked most of theserevolts? Explain.
3. DRAWING CONCLUSIONS
Why do you think some liberalsmight disapprove of the wayLouis-Napoleon ruled France afterthe uprisings of 1848?
THINK ABOUT• who the liberals were and what
they believed in• conditions in France in 1848• Louis-Napoleon’s actions and
policies
4. THEME ACTIVITY
Cultural Interaction Imaginethat you are a conservative,liberal, or radical in 1848. You havejust heard that revolts havebroken out in Europe. Write aletter to a friend, stating yourpolitical position and expressingyour feelings about the uprisings.Then, express your thoughts aboutthe future of Europe.
1. TERMS & NAMES
Identify• conservatives• liberals• radicals• nationalism• nation-state• the Balkans• Louis-Napoleon• Alexander II
Section Assessment2
Revolts Againstthe Old Order
1848
1821 1830
BackgroundIn December 1825,when Nicholasbecame czar, a groupof army officers (the“Decembrists”)demanded liberalreforms. Nicholascrushed theDecembrists and thenruled with an iron fist.
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SETTING THE STAGE Nationalism was the most powerful ideal of the 1800s. Itsinfluence stretched throughout Europe. Nationalism shaped countries. It also upsetthe balance of power set up at the Congress of Vienna in 1815, and affected the livesof millions.
The Ideal of NationalismNationalism during the 1800s fueled efforts to build nation-states. Nationalists werenot loyal to kings, but to their people—to those who shared common bonds. Thesebonds might include a common history, culture, world-view, or language. Nationalistsbelieved that people of a single “nationality,” or ancestry, should unite under a singlegovernment. People would then identify with their government to create a unitednation-state.
Romantic nationalists preached that a nation, like a person, has the right to inde-pendence. Independence would allow a nation’s identity to develop.
As nationalists saw it, a number of links bound a people together as a nation.Some—though not all—had to exist before a nation-state would evolve and survive.The chart below summarizes those nationalist links.
BackgroundNationalists oftenspoke of a “nationalcharacter.” Thus, theysaw the French as“civilized”; theGermans as “scien-tific”; the English as“practical.”
NationalismCASE STUDIES: Italy and Germany
3TERMS & NAMES
• Camillo di Cavour• Giuseppe Garibaldi• Red Shirts• Otto von Bismarck• realpolitik• kaiser
MAIN IDEA
The force of nationalism contributed tothe formation of two new nations and anew political order in Europe.
WHY IT MATTERS NOW
Nationalism is the basis of worldpolitics today and has often causedconflicts and wars.
PATTERNS OF CHANGE: Nationalism
SKILLBU ILDER : Interpreting Charts1. Besides food, dress, behavior, and ideals, what are two other elements that could fall under
the category of “culture”?2. Which factors listed in the upper part of the chart are absolutely necessary to form a
nation-state?
NationalityLanguage
CultureHistoryReligionTerritory
Nation-State
• A belief in a common ethnic ancestry—a belief that may or may not be true
• Different dialects (forms) of one language; one dialect chosen as the“national language”
• A shared way of life (food, dress, behavior, ideals)
• A common past; common experiences
• A religion shared by all or most of the people
• A certain territory that belongs to the ethnic group; its “land”
• Defends the nation’s territory and its way of life• Represents the nation to the rest of the world• Embodies the people and its ideals
Bonds That Create a Nation-State
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Nationalism Shakes Aging Empires Three aging empires—the Austro-Hungarian Empire of the Hapsburgs, the RussianEmpire of the Romanovs, and the Ottoman Empire of the Turks—were a jumble ofethnic groups. After all, territory and peoples had for centuries been pawns in a politicalchess game for these empires. Land and ethnic groups moved back and forth, depend-ing on victories or defeats in war and on royal marriages. When nationalism emerged inthe 19th century, ethnic unrest threatened and eventually toppled these empires.
A Force for Disunity or Unity? Nationalist movements were capable of tearingapart long-established empires. They could also create new, unified nation-states.Those who wanted to restore the old order from before the French Revolution sawnationalism as a force for disunity. The kingdoms and empires of the old order oftenruled over a variety of ethnic groups. Conservatives of the old order reasoned that ifeach ethnic group wanted its own state, empires would split and crumble.
Gradually, however, rulers began to see that nationalism could also unify masses ofpeople. The rulers of Europe had seen how the nationalist spirit inspired French citi-zen armies to conquer the armies of other European powers. Authoritarian rulerssoon began to use nationalist feelings for their own purposes. They built nation-statesin areas where they remained firmly in control. Nationalism worked as a force for dis-unity, shaking centuries-old empires. But it also worked as a force for unity. It gaverise to the nation-state that is basic to our world today.
The Breakup of the Austro-Hungarian Empire The Austro-Hungarian Empirebrought together Hungarians, Germans, Czechs, Slovaks, Croats, Poles, Serbs, andItalians. In 1866, Prussia defeated Austria in the Austro-Prussian War. With its victory,Prussia gained control of the new North German Federation. Then, pressured by theHungarians, Emperor Francis Joseph of Austria split his empire in half, declaringAustria and Hungary independent states—with himself as ruler of both.
Nevertheless, nationalist disputes continued to plague the empire for more than 40years. Finally, after World War I, Austria-Hungary crumbled into separate nation-states.
The Russian Empire Crumbles Nationalism also helped breakup the 400-year-old empire of the czars in Russia. In addition tothe Russians themselves, the czar ruled over 22 millionUkrainians, 8 million Poles, and smaller numbers of Lithuanians,Latvians, Estonians, Finns, Jews, Romanians, Georgians,Armenians, and Turks. Each group had its own culture.
The ruling Romanov dynasty of Russia was determined tomaintain iron control over this diversity. However, their severepolicy of Russification—imposing Russian culture on all the eth-nic groups in the empire—strengthened nationalist feelings. Therise in nationalism then helped to disunify Russia. The weakenedczarist empire finally could not withstand the double shock ofWorld War I and the communist revolution. The last Romanovczar gave up his power in 1917.
The Ottoman Empire Weakens The Ottomans controlledGreeks, Slavs, Arabs, Bulgarians, and Armenians, in addition to theruling Turks. In 1856, under pressure from the British and theFrench, the Ottomans issued reforms to grant equal citizenship to allthe people under their rule. That measure, however, angered con-servative Turks, who wanted no change in the situation, and causedtensions in the empire. For example, in response to nationalism inArmenia, the Ottomans carried out massacres and deportations ofArmenians in 1894 to 1896 and in 1915. Like Austria-Hungary, theOttoman Empire broke apart soon after World War I.
In 1903, Ottomantroops movedagainst rebellioussubjects inSalonika, Greece.A drawing of theperiod illustratesthe event.
THINK THROUGH HISTORYA. MakingInferences Whywould a policy likeRussification tend toproduce results thatare the opposite ofthose intended?A. Possible AnswerTrying to force a cul-ture or language on agroup of people willprobably createresentment. As areaction, the groupwill probably takeeven greater pride inits own language andculture.
BackgroundIn 1867, the Czechsdemanded self-rule inthe empire, like theAustrians andHungarians. Ethnicgroups in Hungarydemanded their ownstates.
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Cavour Unites ItalyWhile nationalism destroyed empires, italso built nations. Italy was one of thecountries to form from the territory ofcrumbling empires. After the Congressof Vienna in 1815, Austria ruled theItalian provinces of Venetia andLombardy in the north, and severalsmall states. In the south, the SpanishBourbon family ruled the Kingdom ofthe Two Sicilies.
Nevertheless, between 1815 and1848, increasing numbers of Italianswere no longer content to live underforeign rulers. Amid growing discon-tent, two leaders appeared—one wasidealistic, the other practical. They haddifferent personalities and pursued dif-ferent goals. But each contributed tothe unification of Italy.
The Movement for Unity BeginsIn 1832, an idealistic 26-year-oldItalian named Giuseppe Mazzini(maht•TSEE•nee) organized a nationalist groupcalled Young Italy. No one older than 40 wasallowed to join.
During the violent year of 1848, revolts broke out in eight states on the Italianpeninsula. Mazzini briefly headed a republican government at Rome. He believed thatnation-states were the best hope for social justice, democracy, and peace in Europe.However, the 1848 rebellions failed in Italy as they did elsewhere in Europe. The for-mer rulers of the Italian states drove Mazzini and other nationalist leaders into exile.
Sardinia Leads Italian Unification After 1848, Italian nationalists looked to theKingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia for leadership. Piedmont-Sardinia was the largest andmost powerful of the Italian states.The kingdom had also adopted a liberal constitu-tion in 1848. So, to the Italian middle classes, unification under Piedmont-Sardiniaseemed a sensible alternative to Mazzini’s democratic idealism.
In 1852, Sardinia’s King Victor Emmanuel II named Count Camillo di Cavour(kuh•VOOR) as his prime minister. Cavour was a wealthy, middle-aged aristocrat, whoworked tirelessly to expand Piedmont-Sardinia’s power. With careful diplomacy andwell-chosen alliances, he achieved that expansion. Almost as a coincidence, he alsoachieved the unification of Italy. Mazzini distrusted Cavour. He believed correctly thatCavour wanted to strengthen Sardinia’s power, not to unite Italy.
At first, Cavour’s major goal was to get control of northern Italy for Sardinia. Hecarefully went about achieving this territorial goal through diplomacy and cunning.Cavour realized that the greatest roadblock to annexing northern Italy was Austria. Tohelp him expel the Austrians from the north, Cavour found an ally in France. In 1858,the French emperor Napoleon III agreed to help drive Austria out of the northernprovinces of Lombardy and Venetia. Cavour soon after provoked a war with Austria. Acombined French-Sardinian army won two quick victories against Austria. Sardiniasucceeded in taking over all of northern Italy, except Venetia, from the Austrians.
CASE STUDY: Italy
Kingdom of Sardinia, 1858Added to Sardinia, 1859–1860
Added to Italy, 1870Kingdom of Italy
Added to Italy, 1866
Papal States
Naples
Rome
Milan
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ube
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neR
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Po R.T
iberR
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TyrrhenianSea
MediterraneanSea
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A L P S
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ToFrance,
1860
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The Unification of Italy,1858–1870
GEOGRAPHY SKILLBU ILDER : Interpreting Maps 1. Region During what time period was the greatest
amount of territory unified in Italy?2. Region What territory did the Italians actually lose
during their process of unification?
PATTERNS OF CHANGE 615
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Cavour Looks South As Cavour was uniting the north of Italy, he began to considerthe possibility of controlling the south. He secretly started helping nationalist rebels in
southern Italy. In May 1860, a small army of Italian nationalists led by abold and romantic soldier, Giuseppe Garibaldi (gar•uh• BAWL•dee),captured Sicily. In battle, Garibaldi always wore a bright red shirt, asdid his followers. As a result, they became known as the Red Shirts.
From Sicily, Garibaldi crossed to the Italian mainland andmarched north. Volunteers flocked to his banner. In an election, vot-ers gave Garibaldi permission to unite the southern areas he con-quered with the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia. Cavour arrangedfor King Victor Emmanuel II to meet Garibaldi in Naples. “The RedOne” willingly agreed to step aside and let the Sardinian king rule.
Challenges After Unification In 1866, the Austrian province ofVenetia, which included the city of Venice, became part of Italy. In1870, Italian forces took over the last part of a territory known as thePapal States. The Roman Catholic popes had governed the territoryas both its spiritual and earthly rulers. With this victory, the city ofRome came under Italian control. Soon after, Rome became the cap-ital of the united Kingdom of Italy. The pope, however, would con-tinue to govern a section of Rome known as Vatican City.
Despite unification, Italy suffered from many unsolved problems.Centuries of separation had bred fierce rivalries among the differentItalian provinces. The greatest tension arose between the industrial-ized north and the agricultural south. The people of these tworegions had very different ways of life, and they scarcely understoodeach other’s versions of the Italian language. In the Italian parlia-ment, disorganized parties with vague policies constantly squabbled.As a result, prime ministers and cabinets changed frequently.
In addition to its political instability, Italy also faced severe eco-nomic problems. Bloody peasant revolts broke out in the south. At thesame time, strikes and riots troubled the northern cities. Meanwhile,the Italian government could not deal with the country’s economicproblems. As a result, Italy entered the 20th century as a poor country.
The Rise of PrussiaLike Italy, Germany also achieved national unity in the mid-1800s.Since 1815, 39 German states had formed a loose grouping called
the German Confederation. The two largest states, the Austro-Hungarian Empire andPrussia, dominated the confederation.
Prussia enjoyed several advantages that would eventually help it forge a strongGerman state. First of all, unlike the Austro-Hungarian Empire, Prussia had a mainlyGerman population. As a result, nationalism actually unified Prussia, while ethnic groupsin Austria-Hungary tore it apart. Moreover, Prussia’s army was by far the most powerfulin central Europe. Finally, Prussia industrialized more quickly than other German states.
Prussia Leads German Unification Like many other European powers, Prussiaexperienced the disorder of the revolutions of 1848. In that year, Berlin rioters forcedthe frightened and unstable Prussian king, Frederick William IV, to call a constitu-tional convention. The convention then drew up a liberal constitution for the kingdom.
In 1861, Wilhelm I succeeded Frederick William to the throne. The strong-mindedWilhelm first moved to reform the army and double the already powerful Prussian
CASE STUDY: Germany
THINK THROUGH HISTORYB. AnalyzingCauses Besides theirold rivalries, what isanother reason whythe Italian provincesmight have a hardtime cooperating?B. PossibleAnswers Theprovinces had noexperience in workingtogether. In fact, somehad been independentand were used to act-ing alone.
Giuseppe Garibaldi
1807–1882
Giuseppe Garibaldi might have beena character out of a romantic novel.Fisherman, trader, naval comman-der, guerrilla fighter, poet, rancher,teacher, idealistic revolutionary inEurope and South America—Garibaldi captured the imaginationof Europe. The red shirts of his sol-diers helped spread his fame, butthey started out simply as thecheapest way to clothe his soldiers.
The independence of Italy wasGaribaldi’s great dream. The Frenchwriter Alexandre Dumas wrote ofhim: “Once mention the word inde-pendence, or that of Italy, and hebecomes a volcano in eruption.”
Garibaldi’s bravery attracted theattention of U.S. President AbrahamLincoln. In 1861, Lincoln offered hima command in the Civil War.Garibaldi declined for two reasons:he felt Lincoln did not condemnslavery strongly enough, and he toldLincoln that he wanted to commandthe entire Union Army!
■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■
■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■HISTORY MAKERS
616 PATTERNS OF CHANGE
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military. However, his liberal parliamentrefused him the money for his reforms.
Wilhelm saw the parliament’s refusal as amajor challenge to his authority. He wassupported in his view by the Junkers(YUNG•kuhrz), members of Prussia’swealthy landowning class. The Junkers werestrongly conservative and opposed liberalideas. For that reason, Wilhelm drew all hisministers and army officers from the Junkerclass. In 1862, to help solve his problemwith parliament, Wilhelm chose a conserva-tive Junker named Otto von Bismarck ashis prime minister. Bismarck was a master ofwhat came to be known as realpolitik. ThisGerman term means “the politics of reality.”The word described tough power politicswith no room for idealism. With realpolitikas his style, Bismarck would become one ofthe commanding figures of German history.
Unable to persuade parliament to grantWilhelm’s desires, Bismarck took a dramaticstep. With the king’s approval, he declaredthat he would rule without the consent ofparliament and without a legal budget.Those actions were in direct violation of theconstitution. In his first speech as primeminister, he defiantly told members of thePrussian parliament, “The great questions of theday will not be settled by speeches or by major-ity decisions—that was the great mistake of 1848 and 1849—but by blood and iron.”
Germany Expands Though he was devoted to country and king, Bismarck was alsoambitious. One contemporary described him as a man “who is striving after supremepower, including military power.” By working to expand Prussia, he could satisfy bothhis patriotism and his desire for power. In 1864, Bismarck took the first step towardmolding an empire. He formed an alliance between Prussia and Austria. They thenwent to war against Denmark to win two border provinces, Schleswig and Holstein.
A quick victory increased national pride among Prussians. It also won new respectfrom other Germans and lent support for Prussia as head of a unified Germany. Afterthe victory, Prussia governed Schleswig, while Austria controlled Holstein. Bismarcksuspected that this arrangement would soon lead to friction between the two powers.And such tensions would suit his plans perfectly.
Bismarck Eliminates Austria To disable his powerful rival, Bismarck purposelystirred up border conflicts with Austria over Schleswig and Holstein. The tensionsprovoked Austria into declaring war on Prussia in 1866. This conflict became knownas the Seven Weeks’ War. As the name suggests, the war was over quickly. ThePrussians used their superior training and equipment to win a smashing victory. Theyhumiliated Austria. The Austrians lost the region of Venetia, which was given to Italy.They also had to accept Prussian annexation of yet more German territory.
With its victory in the Seven Weeks’ War, Prussia took control of northernGermany. For the first time, the eastern and western parts of the Prussian kingdomwere joined. In 1867, the remaining states of the north joined a North GermanConfederation, which Prussia dominated completely.
BackgroundMany Germans lookedon Austria as theirnatural leader. Viennahad been capital ofthe Holy RomanEmpire and was a cen-ter of German music,art, and literature.
Hamburg
Berlin
Warsaw
Memel
Prague
Vienna
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Munich
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Prussia, 1865Annexed by Prussia, 1866
South German States(joined Prussia to formGerman Empire, 1871)Conquered from France, 1871
Joined Prussiain North GermanConfederation, 1867
German Empire, 1871
The Unification of Germany,1865 – 1871
GEOGRAPHY SKILLBU ILDER :Interpreting Maps 1. Location What was unusual about the territory of
Prussia as it existed in 1865?2. Regions After 1865, what year saw the biggest
expansion of Prussian territory?
PATTERNS OF CHANGE 617
THINK THROUGH HISTORYC. DrawingConclusionsBismarck succeededin ignoring both theparliament and consti-tution of Prussia. Howdo you think his suc-cess would affectPrussian government?C. Possible AnswerThe parliament andconstitution wouldgrow weaker. Theking and prime minis-ter would growstronger.
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The Franco-Prussian War By 1867, a few southern German statesremained independent of Prussia. The majority of southern Germanswere Catholics. So, many in the region resisted domination by a Pro-testant Prussia. However, Bismarck felt he could win the support ofsoutherners if they faced a threat from outside. He reasoned that awar with France would rally the south.
Bismarck was an expert at manufacturing “incidents” to gain hisends. And he was successful with France. He published an altered ver-sion of a diplomatic telegram he had received. The telegram gave afalse description of a meeting between Wilhelm I and the Frenchambassador. In the description, Wilhelm seemed to insult the French.Reacting to the insult, France declared war on Prussia on July 19, 1870.
At once, the Prussian army poured into northern France. InSeptember 1870, the Prussian army surrounded the main Frenchforce at Sedan. Among the 80,000 French prisoners taken wasNapoleon III himself—a beaten and broken man. Only Paris heldout against the Germans. For four months, Parisians withstood aGerman siege. Finally, hunger forced them to surrender.
The Franco-Prussian War was the final stage in German unifica-tion. Now the nationalistic fever also seized people in southernGermany. They finally accepted Prussian leadership.
On January 18, 1871, at the captured French palace of Versailles,King Wilhelm I of Prussia was crowned kaiser (KY•zuhr), or emperor.Germans called their empire the Second Reich. (The Holy RomanEmpire was the first.) Bismarck had achieved Prussian dominance overGermany and Europe “by blood and iron,” as he had set out to do.
The Balance of Power ShiftsThe 1815 Congress of Vienna established five Great Powers inEurope—Britain, France, Austria, Prussia, and Russia. The wars ofthe mid-1800s greatly strengthened one of the Great Powers, asPrussia became Germany. In 1815, the Great Powers were nearlyequal in strength. By 1871, however, Britain and Germany wereclearly the most powerful—both militarily and economically. Austria,Russia, and Italy lagged far behind. France struggled along some-
where in the middle. The European balance of power had broken down. This shiftalso found expression in the art of the period. In fact, during that century, artists,composers, and writers pointed to paths that European society should follow.
BackgroundFood became soscarce during thesiege of Paris thatpeople ate sawdust,leather, and rats.Parisians evenslaughtered animalsin the zoo for food.
2. TAKING NOTES
On your own paper, make a timeline like the one below. On it, showthe development of independentnation-states in Europe.
3. ANALYZING ISSUES
Look at the quotation fromBismarck’s “blood and iron”speech (page 617). How wouldyou say his approach to settlingpolitical issues differed from theapproach of liberals?
THINK ABOUT• the goals of liberals• the meaning of the phrase
“blood and iron”• Bismarck’s goals and how he
attained them
4. ANALYZING THEMES
Revolution How might Cavourand Garibaldi have criticized eachother as contributors to Italianunity?
THINK ABOUT• the personalities of the two men• methods used by Cavour and
Garibaldi to win Italian unity
1. TERMS & NAMES
Identify• Camillo di Cavour• Giuseppe Garibaldi• Red Shirts• Otto von Bismarck• realpolitik• kaiser
Section Assessment3
Otto von Bismarck1815–1898
Germans have still not decided howto judge Otto von Bismarck. Tosome Germans, he was the great-est and noblest of Germany’sstatesmen. They say he almostsingle-handedly unified the nationand raised it to greatness. Toothers, he was a devious politicianwho abused his powers and ledGermany into dictatorship.
Bismarck’s complex personalityhas also fascinated historians. By1895, 650 books had already beenwritten about his life. His speeches,letters, and his memoirs do nothelp to simplify him. They show himto be both cunning and deeplyreligious. At one moment, he coulddeclare “It is the destiny of theweak to be devoured by thestrong.” At another moment hecould claim “We Germans shallnever wage aggressive war,ambitious war, a war of conquest.”
1800 1820 1840 1860 1880 1900
Congress ofVienna 1815
618 PATTERNS OF CHANGE
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Nationalist Revolutions Sweep the West 619
SETTING THE STAGE European countries passed through severe political troublesduring the 1800s. At the same time, two separate artistic and intellectual movementsdivided the century in half. Thinkers and artists focused on ideas of freedom, therights of individuals, and an idealistic view of history during the first half of the cen-tury. After the great revolutions of 1848, political focus shifted to men who practicedrealpolitik. Similarly, intellectuals and artists expressed a “realistic” view of the world.In their view of the world, the rich pursued their selfish interests while ordinary peo-ple struggled and suffered.
The Romantic MovementAt the beginning of the 19th century, the Enlightenment idea of reason gradually gaveway to another major movement: romanticism. Romanticism was a movement in artand ideas. It showed deep interest both in nature and in the thoughts and feelings ofthe individual. In many ways, romantic thinkers and writers reacted against the idealsof the Enlightenment. Romantics rejected the rigidly ordered world of the middle-class. They turned from reason to emotion, from society tonature. Nationalism also fired the romantic imagination. Forexample, a fighter for freedom in Greece, Lord Byron alsoranked as one of the leading romantic poets of the time.
The Ideas of Romanticism Emotion, sometimes wild emo-tion, was a key element of romanticism. Nevertheless, romanti-cism went beyond feelings. Romantics expressed a wide rangeof ideas and attitudes. In general, romantic thinkers and artists
• emphasized inner feelings, emotions, imagination
• focused on the mysterious and the supernatural; also,on the odd, exotic, and grotesque or horrifying
• loved the beauties of untamed nature
• idealized the past as a simpler and nobler time
• glorified heroes and heroic actions
• cherished folk traditions, music, and stories
• valued the common people and the individual
• promoted radical change and democracy
Not all romantics gave the same emphasis to these fea-tures. The brothers Jakob and Wilhelm Grimm, for example,concentrated on history and the sense of national pride itfostered. During the first half of the 19th century, they col-lected German fairy tales. They also created a dictionary andgrammar of the German language. Both the tales and thedictionary of the Grimm brothers celebrated the spirit of
Revolutions in the Arts4TERMS & NAMES
• romanticism• realism• impressionism
MAIN IDEA
Artistic and intellectual movementsboth reflected and fueled changes inEurope during the 1800s.
WHY IT MATTERS NOW
Romanticism and realism continue todominate the novels, dramas, and filmsproduced today.
A. Possible AnswerRomantics idealizedthe past as a simplernobler time; glorifiedheroes and theiractions; cherished folktraditions, music, andstories.THINK THROUGH HISTORYA. Analyzing CausesWhich ideas of roman-ticism would encour-age nationalism?
Though created inthe early 20thcentury, thiswatercolor ofBritish artist ArthurRackham is full ofromantic fantasy. Itillustrates the tale“The Old Woman inthe Wood” byJakob and WilhelmGrimm.
BackgroundThe Grimm brothersalso collected talesfrom other countries:England, Scotland,Ireland, Spain, theNetherlands, Scandi-navia, and Serbia.
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being German. And they celebrated the German spirit long before Germans hadunited into a single country.
Other writers and artists focused on strong individuals. They glorified real or myth-ical rebels and leaders, such as Napoleon or the legendary King Arthur. Still otherscelebrated the beauty and mystery of unspoiled nature. For example, one of France’sleading romantic novelists, Amandine Aurore Dupin (better known as George Sand),lovingly described the French countryside and country life. British writer EmilyBrontë set her powerful romantic novel, Wuthering Heights, in the windswept moorsof northern England. The British poet William Blake believed he could “see a Worldin a Grain of Sand/And a Heaven in a Wild Flower.” In painting, English romanticartist Joseph Turner captured the raging of the sea. Another English artist, JohnConstable, celebrated the peaceful English countryside. Whatever their particularemphasis, romantic writers and artists affected all the arts.
Romanticism in Literature Germany produced one of the earliest and greatestromantic writers. In 1774, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (YO•hahn VUHLF•gahng fuhnGER•tuh) published The Sorrows of Young Werther. Goethe’s novel told of a sensitiveyoung man whose hopeless love for a virtuous married woman drives him to suicide.
Victor Hugo led the French romantics. Hugo’s huge output of poems, plays, andnovels expressed romanticism’s revolutionary spirit. His works also reflect the roman-tic fascination with history and support for the individual. His novels Les Misérablesand The Hunchback of Notre Dame both show the struggles of individuals against ahostile society.
The British romantic poets William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge bothhonored nature as the source of truth and beauty. To Wordsworth, nature was richlyalive. Coleridge, on the other hand, put the accent on horror and the supernatural inhis poem “The Rime of the Ancient Mariner.” Later English romantic poets, such as
Byron, Shelley, and Keats, wrote poems celebrating rebelliousheroes, passionate love, and the mystery and beauty of nature. Likemany romantics, many of these British poets lived stormy lives anddied young. Byron, for example, died at the age of 36, while Shelleydied at 29.
The Gothic Novel The Gothic horror story was a form that becamehugely popular. These novels often took place in medieval Gothiccastles. They were also filled with fearful, violent, sometimessupernatural events. Mary Shelley, wife of the poet PercyShelley, wrote one of the earliest and most successful Gothichorror novels, Frankenstein. The novel told the story of amonster created from the body parts of dead human beings.The following passage shows Mary Shelley’s romantic imagi-nation at work. She describes how the idea for the monstertook shape. After an evening telling ghost stories with her hus-band and Lord Byron, the following vision appeared to her:
A V O I C E F R O M T H E P A S TNight waned upon this talk, and even the witching hour had gone by,before we retired to rest. When I placed my head on my pillow, I didnot sleep, nor could I be said to think. My imagination, unbidden, pos-sessed and guided me. . . . I saw—with shut eyes, but acute mentalvision—I saw the pale student of [unholy] arts kneeling beside thething he had put together. I saw the hideous phantasm of a manstretched out, and then, on the working of some powerful engine,show signs of life, and stir with an uneasy, half-vital motion.MARY SHELLEY, Introduction to Frankenstein
B. PossibleAnswers Beauty,mystery, terror, hero-ism, passion, love,tragedy, isolation.THINK THROUGH HISTORYB. SummarizingWhat are some of thefeelings that are keyto romantic literatureand art?
620 Chapter 24
Frankenstein
In Frankenstein, a rational scientist,Dr. Frankenstein, oversteps thelimits of humanity by creating lifeitself. Since his goal is unnatural, hesucceeds only in creating a physi-cal monster who cannot live withhumans because of his ugliness.
In addition to Gothic horror, thenovel embodies a number of majorromantic themes. Mary Shelleywarns of the danger of humansmeddling with nature. Also, despitehis horrible appearance, the crea-ture is sensitive and gentle. Likemany romantics of Shelley’s day,the creature feels lost in an unsym-pathetic and alien world. Finally, hissolitude drives him to madness.
The story of Frankenstein,originally published in 1818, stillenjoys an enormous readership.The book has inspired many films—some serious, such as Frankensteinwith actor Boris Karloff, and somesatirical, such as producer MelBrooks’s Young Frankenstein.
SPOTLIGHTON
BackgroundDupin used the penname George Sandbecause she knewthat critics would nottake a woman writerseriously.
BackgroundVictor Hugo champi-oned the cause offreedom in France.When Napoleon IIIoverthrew the SecondRepublic, Hugo leftFrance in protest.
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Nationalist Revolutions Sweep the West 621
Romantic Composers Emphasize Emotion Emotion dominated the music pro-duced by romantic composers. Romantic composers moved away from the tightlycontrolled, formal compositions of the Enlightenment period.Instead, they celebrated heroism and villainy, tragedy and joy, with anew power of expression.
One of romanticism’s first composers rose to become its great-est: Ludwig van Beethoven (LOOD•vihg vahn BAY•toh•vuhn).In his early years, Beethoven wrote the classical music of theEnlightenment. But in later years, he turned to romantic composi-tions. His Ninth Symphony soars, celebrating freedom, dignity,and triumph.
While they never matched Beethoven’s greatness, later romanticcomposers also appealed to the hearts and souls of their listeners.Robert Schumann’s compositions sparkle with merriment. Like manyromantic composers, Felix Mendelssohn drew on literature, such asShakespeare’s A Midsummer Night’s Dream, as the inspiration for hismusic. Polish composer and concert pianist Frederic Chopin(SHOH•pan) was popular both with other musicians and with thepublic. Chopin’s compositions, such as his first and second pianoconcertos, contain melodies that are still familiar today.
Romanticism made music a popular art form. As music becamepart of middle-class life, musicians and composers became popularheroes of romanticism. Composer and pianist Franz Liszt (lihst),for example, achieved earnings and popularity equal to that oftoday’s rock stars.
The Shift to RealismBy the middle of the 19th century, rapid industrialization had a deepeffect on everyday life in Europe. And this change began to make thedreams of the romantics seem pointless. In literature and the visualarts, realism tried to show life as it is, not as it should be. Realistpainting reflected the increasing political importance of the workingclass in the 1850s. The growing class of industrial workers lived grimlives in dirty, crowded cities. Along with paintings, novels provedespecially suited to describing workers’ suffering. The interest in sci-ence and the scientific method during this period encouraged this“realistic” approach to art and literature. Science operated throughobjective observation and the reporting of facts. That new invention,the camera, also recorded objective and precise images. In the sameway, realist authors observed and reported as precisely and objec-tively as they could.
Writers Study Society Realism in literature flourished in France with writers suchas Honoré de Balzac and Emile Zola. Balzac wrote a massive series of almost onehundred novels entitled The Human Comedy. These stories detail the lives of over2,000 people from all levels of French society following the Revolution. They alsodescribe in detail the brutal struggle for wealth and power among France’s businessclass. Zola’s explosive novels scandalized France at the end of the 1800s. He exposedthe miseries of French workers in small shops, factories, and coal mines. His revela-tions shocked readers. His work spurred reforms of labor laws and working conditionsin France.
The famous English realist novelist, Charles Dickens, created unforgettable charac-ters and scenes. Many were humorous, but others showed the despair of London’s
Ludwig van Beethoven 1770–1827
A genius of European music,Beethoven suffered the most tragicdisability a composer can endure.At the age of 30, he began to godeaf. His deafness grew worse for19 years. By 1819, it was total.
At first, Beethoven’s handicapbarely affected his career. Hiscomposing and concerts went onas before. By 1802, however, heknew that his hearing would onlyworsen. He suffered then frombouts of depression. Thedepressions would bring him to thebrink of suicide. Nonetheless, hewould rebound:
. . . It seemed unthinkable forme to leave the world foreverbefore I had produced all that Ifelt called upon to produce. . . .
After 1819, Beethoven’s friendshad to write their questions to himin notebooks. He continued tocompose, however, and left many“sketchbooks” of musical ideas hewould never hear.
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BackgroundTo express powerfulemotions, romanticcomposers increasedthe size of symphonyorchestras. They addedlarge numbers of wind,brass, and percussioninstruments.
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HISTORY THROUGH ART: Fine Art
Synthesizing Artists choosespecific elements for their paint-ings to create the world they wantto show. Compare the settings,use of color and light, sharpnessof line, and atmosphere of thesepaintings.
SEE SKILLBUILDER HANDBOOK, PAGE R18
Comparing Look for examplesof modern art in books and maga-zines. Show examples of paintingswhere artists still use techniquesthat could be called romantic orrealist or impressionist.
Connect to Today
Connect to History
Artistic MovementsIn the 19th century, as always, artistic movements reflected the social conditions ofthe time. During the first half of the century, common people began to fight forpolitical power. During that same period, romanticism was the dominant artistic style.By mid-century, political realism had taken over. At the same time, art began to celebrate working,sweating, everyday people. But the romantic idealdid not die. By the end of the century, a newmovement called impressionism portrayed the lifeof middle-class people as a beautiful dream.
RomanticismRomantic landscape artists idealized nature. Some emphasizedthe harmony between humans and nature. Others showednature’s power and mystery, as in this painting, Moonrise Overthe Sea, by German artist Caspar David Friedrich. Still otherromantic artists focused on heroes and scenes from history,legend, or literature.
RealismRealist artists reacted against the dreams of the romantics. These artistsbelieved that their art should portray people as they really were, not as theyshould be. The Winnowers, by Gustave Courbet, the most famous realist,shows the world of everyday work. The winnowers are removing hulls fromnewly harvested grain. Courbet does not romanticize the work. He records it.
ImpressionismImpressionists aimed at capturingtheir immediate “impression” of abrief moment. They used brightcolors and loose brushwork tocatch the fleeting light thatsparkles and shimmers. As aresult, Poppies at Argenteuil byClaude Monet shows less attentionto exact “realistic” detail thandoes The Winnowers. It also doesnot express the sense of serenemystery of Moonrise Over the Sea.
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working poor. In this passage, Dickens describes the gloom of working-class life:
A V O I C E F R O M T H E P A S TIt was a Sunday evening in London, gloomy, close, and stale. . . . Melancholy streets, ina penitential garb of soot, steeped the souls of the people who were condemned tolook at them out of windows, in dire despondency. . . . No pictures, no unfamiliar ani-mals, no rare plants or flowers. . . . Nothing for the spent toiler to do, but to comparethe monotony of his seventh day with the monotony of his six days, think what a wearylife he led, and make the best of it.CHARLES DICKENS, Little Dorrit
Photographers Capture the Passing Moment As realist painters and writersdetailed the lives of actual people, photographers could record an instant in time withscientific precision. The first practical photographswere called daguerreotypes (duh•GEHR•uh•typs).They were named after their French inventor, LouisDaguerre. Daguerre was an artist who createdscenery for theaters. To improve the realism of hisscenery, Daguerre developed his photographicinvention. The images produced in his daguerrotypeswere startlingly real and won him worldwide fame.
Daguerrotype prints were made on metal.However, the British inventor William Talbotinvented a light-sensitive paper that he used toproduce photographic negatives. The advantage ofpaper was that many prints could be made fromone negative. The Talbot process also allowed pho-tos to be reproduced in books and newspapers.Mass distribution gained a wide audience for therealism of photography. With its scientific, mechan-ical, and mass-produced features, photography was the art of the new industrial age.
Impressionists React Against Realism Beginning in the 1860s, a group ofpainters in Paris reacted against the realistic style. Instead of showing life “as it reallyis,” they tried giving their impression of a subject or a moment in time. For this reason,this style of art came to be known as impressionism. Fascinated by light, impression-ist artists used pure, shimmering colors to capture a moment seen at a glance.
Artists like Edouard Manet (mah•NAY), Claude Monet (moh•NAY), Edgar Degas(duh•GAH), and Pierre-Auguste Renoir (ruhn•WHAR) also found new subjects for theirart. Unlike the realists, impressionists showed a more positive view of the new urbansociety in western Europe. Instead of abused workers, they showed shop clerks and dockworkers enjoying themselves in dance halls and cafés. They painted performers in thetheater and circuses. And they glorified the delights of the life of the rising middle class.
“Ships at LowTide,” an earlyphotograph taken in1844 by WilliamTalbot.
2. TAKING NOTES
Using a chart like the one below,contrast romanticism, realism, andimpressionism. For each move-ment, provide a brief description,the social conditions that each re-flects, and representative artists.
3. ANALYZING CAUSES
How might a realist novel bringabout changes in society?Describe the steps by which thismight happen.
THINK ABOUT• the conditions described in
realist novels• who reads realist novels• how political change takes place
4. THEME ACTIVITY
Revolution Listen to asymphony or concerto byBeethoven. Imagine that you are amusic critic who has previouslyheard only formal classicalcompositions. Write a review ofBeethoven’s piece. Make thetheme of your review therevolutionary quality ofBeethoven’s music—which youmay admire or dislike.
1. TERMS & NAMES
Identify• romanticism• realism• impressionism
Section Assessment4
Movement
Romanticism
Realism
Impressionism
DescriptionSocial
Conditions Artists
Vocabularydespondency: lackof hope
THINK THROUGH HISTORYC. AnalyzingCauses Why do youthink a description ofLondon like Dickens’smight lead to socialchange?
Nationalist Revolutions Sweep the West 623
BackgroundDaguerre’s photo pro-cess required about20–30 minutes expo-sure time—a bigadvance over a previ-ous method that tookeight hours.
C. Possible AnswerHis dark descriptionmight make peoplethink of how socialconditions could bechanged to bring somehope and prosperity toBritish workers.
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24Chapter Assessment
Nationalist Revolutions Sweep the West
TERMS & NAMESBriefly explain the importance of each of the followingto the revolutions in Latin America or Europe.
Interact with History
On page 602, you were asked tocreate a symbol for your newlyindependent country. Show yoursymbol to the class. Explain the ele-ments of your design and what theyare intended to express. With yourclassmates’ comments in mind,what might you change in yourdesign?
1. creoles
2. Simón Bolívar
3. conservatives
4. liberals
5. nationalism
6. Camillo di Cavour
7. Otto von Bismarck
8. realpolitik
9. romanticism
10. realism
Visual Summary
624 Chapter 24
REVIEW QUESTIONS
SECTION 1 (pages 603–608)
Latin American Peoples Win Independence11. What caused the creoles in South America to rebel against Spain?
12. What role did Agustín de Iturbide play in the independence of Mexicoand of the countries of Central America?
13. Who was Dom Pedro, and what role did he play in Brazil’s move toindependence?
SECTION 2 (pages 609–612)
Revolutions Disrupt Europe14. Why did so many people in Europe and North America support the
revolution of Greek nationalists against the Ottoman Empire?
15. How successful were the revolts of 1848? Explain.
SECTION 3 (pages 613–618)
NationalismCase Studies: Italy and Germany
16. How did nationalism in the 1800s work as a force both for disunity andfor unity?
17. What approaches did Camillo di Cavour use to try to acquire moreterritory for Piedmont-Sardinia?
18. What strategy did Otto von Bismarck use to try to make Prussia theleader of a united Germany?
SECTION 4 (pages 619–623)
Revolutions in the Arts19. Name two ideas or attitudes of the romantic movement that reflected
the ideals of nationalism.
20. What new conditions caused a change in the arts from romanticism torealism?
1804 Haiti gains independence from France
Politics ArtsMilestones of the 1800s
1814 The Congress of Vienna begins1821 Bolívar wins Venezuela’s independence from Spain1824 Bolívar completes the liberation of Latin America
1848 Revolutions sweep Europe
1830 Greece wins full independence; revolts breakout in France, Belgium, and Poland
1861 Alexander II frees the serfs in Russia
1870 Italy is unified1871 The Franco-Prussian War ends; Germany is unified
1800 Beethoven completes his First Symphony
1812 The Brothers Grimm publish a collectionof fairy tales
1818 Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein is published1824 Lord Byron dies in Greece; Beethoven
completes the Ninth Symphony—his last
1836 Charles Dickens becomes an overnight successwith his novel Pickwick Papers
1831 Victor Hugo publishes The Hunchback ofNotre Dame
1839 Louis Daguerre reveals his photographic process1849 Gustave Courbet’s early paintings
receive public recognition1867 Claude Monet begins painting in the
impressionist style
1800
1810
1820
1830
1840
1850
1860
1870
1880
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CHAPTER ACTIVITIES1. LIVING HISTORY: Unit Portfolio Project
Your unit portfolio project focuses on showing thesimilarities and differences among revolutions (see page 509). For Chapter24, you might use one of the following ideas.
• Ask classmates to role-play bystanders present at Padre Hidalgo’s grito deDolores. Ask them to share their feelings. Audiotape their comments anduse them to write a newspaper report about reactions to the event.
• Write a speech that might have been delivered to a rally somewhere inEurope. Urge the country’s leaders to help the Greeks in their struggle forindependence from the Ottoman Empire.
• Create a “How-to Booklet for Nationalists,” based on the strategies usedeither by Cavour or by Bismarck.
2. CONNECT TO TODAY: Research Project
Romanticism and realism in the arts reflectedsocial and political conditions. These two artistic movements still exist today.Create a chart comparing romantic and realistic aspects of modern films.
Use the Internet, newspapers, magazines, or your own personalexperience to search for romantic and realistic portrayals of social and
political conditions in movies today.
• For your chart, list examples of modern films that are romantic and list filmsthat are realistic. Include still shots from movies that support your findings.
• In your search, consider movies from at least three countries.
3. INTERPRETING A TIME LINE
Revisit the unit time line on pages 508–509. If you were shown only theperiod from 1820 to 1848, what fate would you predict for Europe’s oldorder? Why?
CRITICAL THINKING1. GARIBALDI’S CHOICE
Giuseppe Garibaldistepped aside to let Victor Emmanuel II rule areasthat Garibaldi had conquered in southern Italy. Whydo you think he made that choice?
2. NATIONALISM
Using a chart like the one below, describe thenationalist movement in each of the followingcountries and the results of those movements.
3. THE MEANS TO VICTORY
In the 1800s, revolutionaries often fought withinferior weapons and scarce supplies. How do youthink nationalism might help revolutionariesovercome the disadvantages of old weapons andpoor supplies to win a war for nationalindependence? Explain.
4. ANALYZING PRIMARY SOURCES
In a speech to the German parliament in 1888, Ottovon Bismarck called for further expansion of thearmy. In the following quote from that speech, “theIron Chancellor” explains why Germany must alwaysbe prepared for war.
A V O I C E F R O M T H E P A S TWhen I say that we must strive continually tobe ready for all emergencies, I advance theproposition that, on account of our geo-graphical position, we must make greaterefforts than other powers would be obligedto make in view of the same ends. We lie inthe middle of Europe. We have at least threefronts on which we can be attacked. Francehas only an eastern boundary; Russia only itswestern, exposed to assault. . . . So we arespurred forward on both sides to endeavorswhich perhaps we would not make otherwise.OTTO VON BISMARCK, speech to the German parliament onFebruary 6, 1888.
• According to Bismarck, what key factor makesGermany a potential target for invasion? Why?
• Do you think Bismarck might have beenoverstating the threat to Germany? Explain.
FOCUS ON POLITICAL CARTOONS
The 19th-century French car-toonist Charles Philipon wastesting a law to see how faraway an artist could get fromthe true features of Louis-Philippe before being con-demned to prison and a fine.Since the French word poire(“pear”) also means “fool,”
• how does the cartoonistshow King Louis-Philippedeveloping as a monarch?
• what do you think was thelegal fate of the cartoonist?
Connect to History Whatright was Charles Philiponstanding up for by drawing hiscartoon and testing the law?
THEME REVOLUTION
THEME CULTURAL INTERACTION
Country Nationalism and its Results
MexicoGreeceItalyGermany
THEME POWER AND AUTHORITY
CLASSZONE .COMTEST PRACTICEAdditional Test Practice,
pp. S1–S33
Nationalist Revolutions Sweep the West 625
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