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Vol -1; Issue -2
S N. Title Page
No. 1 Efficient alternate cropping systems for south-eastern humid plain
zone of Rajasthan
.P. Tetarwal1, Baldev Ram, B.S. Meena, R.S. Jatav and Pratap Singh
3
2 Germination, cane yield, quality and economics of spring-planted
sugarcane ( Saccharum officinarum) as influenced by cane node
priming techniques in clay loam soils of Rajasthan
B. S. Meena1, J.P. Tetarwal, Baldevram and D. S..Meena
6
3 Foliar application of thiourea and zinc sulphate fertilization: Enhancing
productivity of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) on farmer’s fields of
Sawaimadhopur district
K.M. Sharma Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Borkhera Kota, Agriculture University,
Kota-324001 (Rajasthan)
9
4
Soil enzymatic activities as influenced by different herbicides and
fertility levels applied in Soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merrill] grown on
vertisols of S-E Rajasthan
Pratap Singh1 , V. Nepalia2 and S.S.Tomar3
11
5 Herbicide Resistance: an Emerging Problem and its Management
Pratap Singh*, S.S.Tomar** and V. Nepalia ***
14
6 Economics V/S Production And Market Constraints Of Paddy
Cultivation In Bundi District Of Rajasthan
Avinash Jangid* I.P. Singh**
17
7 “Effect of Different Levels of NPK and FYM on Onion (Allium cepa L.)
Under Arid Condition of Rajasthan”
Priyanka Bairagi, Dr. S.R. Yadav, Dr. I.J. Gulati, Dr. I.M. Verma
23
8 Sustainable livelihood contributes the tribal community of
India- a Review Bheru Lal Kumhar1,Jamana Lal Jat2, Hemant Ameta3,Seema Jat and Alka
Dev4
32
9 Productivity of Rice ( Oryza sativa ) as influenced by SRI and
fertility levels in Chambal Command of Rajasthan
Pratap singh1, R.S.Narolia2, I.N. Mathur 3 and H.P.Meena4
41
Vol -1; Issue -2
10 Influence of Weed and Fertilizer Management on Nutrient Depletion
in Soybean
Pratap Singh1 , V. Nepalia2 and S.S.Tomar
44
11 Recent challenges in the transformation of wheat: Transgenic
Research
Arpita Sharma1,2,#, Kailash Chand Bansal2 and Indu Ravi3
12 Integrated Pest Management in Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.): A
Review Nikki Bhardwaj1,*, Shrinath Sharma2 and S. S. Tomar3
13 Histopathological Studies of Alternaria alternata Associated with Carrot
Seed, Daucus carota L.
Shankar Soyal1*, R.P. Ghasolia2 and Rekha Kumawat
47
Vol -1; Issue -2
(1) Efficient alternate cropping systems for south-eastern humid plain zone of Rajasthan
J.P. Tetarwal1, Baldev Ram, B.S. Meena, R.S. Jatav and Pratap Singh 1Asstt. Professor (Agronomy), All India Coordinated Research Project on Integrated farming systems
Agricultural Research Station (Agriculture University Kota), Kota, Rajasthan, India - 324 001
Email address: [email protected]
Soybean-wheat system is the most predominant cropping system of south-eastern humid plain zone
of Rajasthan. This cropping system has emerged as an important cropping system only after 1980
with the introduction of soybean as a Kharif crop in wheat growing areas of the Rajasthan
particularly under irrigated ecosystem (Gill et al., 2008). In the present scenario various constraints
limiting the soybean production and productivity viz. mono cropping, lack of varietal diversification,
divers weed flora, water scarcity at critical stage of plant growth, insect pests and diseases. These
situations needs crop diversification options that can deliver many agronomic and ecological benefits
simultaneously, while maintaining or enhancing the scale of efficiency of production. Diversification
of the system through introduction of crops of diverse nature may be a good preposition to break the
monotony of the predominant systems and to sustain productivity over a period of time. Now a days
top priority need to be given to highly productive and profitable cropping systems, which can meet
the balanced food demand of burgeoning population and maintaining sustainability in crop
production. Cropping system research plays crucial role in crop diversification and intensification by
selecting alternative crops, inclusion of catch and cash crops and making best use of leftover of each
crop in synergistic manner (Gill et al 2014). Therefore, all efforts are being made to develop efficient
alternate cropping systems to maximize the production from available resources and prevailing
climatic conditions for south-eastern humid plain zone of Rajasthan. Keeping the need of crop
intensification and diversification a field experiment was carried out to evaluate efficient alternate
cropping systems for enhancing the productivity and profitability.
METHODOLOGY
A field experiment was conducted at Agricultural Research Station, Ummedganj, Kota, Rajasthan
during six consecutive years (2009-10 to 2014-15) to find out the most productive and profitable
cropping systems for south-eastern humid plain zone of Rajasthan. The soil of the experimental field
was clay loam with slightly alkaline pH (7.85), having medium available nitrogen (336.0 kg/ha),
available phosphorus (24.5 kg/ha) and high available potassium (295.0 kg/ha) content. The experiment
was laid out in randomized block design with three replications. The treatments comprised of eight
sequential/intercropping systems viz., T1- Soybean-Wheat (Flat bed system), T2- Soybean (Broad
bed)+Maize (Furrow)+Garlic (BB)-Wheat (F), T3- Maize-Mustard-Greengram (Grain+Residue), T4-
Vol -1; Issue -2
Maize+Blackgram (BB)+Sesbania (F)- Gram (BB)+Mustard (F)-Greengram (G+R), T5-
Maize+Blackgram (1:1) - Gram+Linseed (6:1) -Cowpea (Veg+R), T6- Maize–Garlic, T7-
Cotton+Blackgram (1:2)- Greengram (G+R), T8- Cotton+Clusterbean (1:2) (Veg.+mulch) –
Greengram (G+R). The crops were grown and managed with their recommended package of practices
for the zone.
RESULTS
The productivity and profitability of different diversified cropping systems were varied significantly
compared to soybean-wheat system in the south-eastern zone of Rajasthan (Table 1). Results revealed
that among the tested cropping systems, maximum soybean equivalent yield (11592 kg/ha) and net
returns (Rs.214069/ha) were found in maize-garlic cropping system and it was higher to the
magnitude of 150.9 and 171.9 over soybean-wheat system, respectively. The next best treatment was
soybean (broad bed)-maize (furrow)+ garlic (broad bed)+ wheat (furrow) closely followed by maize +
blackgram (1:1)-gram + linseed (6:1)-cowpea (vegetable + mulch) cropping system by recording 55.9
& 53.2 and 63.9 & 61.8 % higher SEY and net return as compared to soybean-wheat cropping system,
respectively. The maximum and significantly higher B: C ratio (3.28) was recorded with bio-intensive
maize + blackgram (1:1)-gram + linseed (6:1)-cowpea (vegetable + mulch) cropping system to the
tune of 40.2 % over existing soybean-wheat system and being on par with maize-garlic cropping
system (2.82).
CONCLUSION
The results thus revealed that maize-garlic system was found more productive and remunerative
cropping system followed by soybean (broad bed)-maize (furrow)+ garlic (broad bed)+ wheat
(furrow) and maize + blackgram (1:1)-gram + linseed (6:1)-cowpea (vegetable + mulch) cropping
system as a diversification and intensification options for soybean-wheat cropping system in south-
eastern parts of Rajasthan.
REFERENCES
Gill, M.S., Gangwar, B., Walia, S.S. and Dhawan, A.K. 2014. Efficient alternate cropping systems of
India. Indian J. Ecology 41(2): 219-227.
Gill, M.S., Shukla, Arvind K. and Pandey, P.S. 2008. Yield, nutrient response and economic analysis
of important cropping systems in India. Indian J. Fertilizer 4(4): 11-36.
Vol -1; Issue -2
(2) Germination, cane yield, quality and economics of spring-planted sugarcane
( Saccharum officinarum) as influenced by cane node priming techniques in clay loam soils of
Rajasthan
B. S. MEENA1, J.P. TETARWAL, BALDEVRAM AND D.S.MEENA
Agriculture Research Station, Ummedganj, Agriculture University, Kota-324001 (Raj.)
Corresponding address: 1 B. S. Meena, Assistant Professor of Agronomy, ARS, Kota (email:
[email protected]),H.No.B-17, SukhDham Colony Baran Road, Kota (Raj.)- 324001
Sugarcane (Saccharum spp. Hybrid complex) is an important commercial crop in India being
cultivated on 5.06 million ha, with an average productivity of 66.9 t/ha ((ISMA, 2014). We are also
the second largest producer of sugarcane in the world after Brazil. It is the most important cash crop
of Rajasthan which is grown on 5375 ha area, with an average productivity of 73.10 t/ha
(Anonymous, 2014). Broadly speaking, in Rajasthan, the low sugar recovery as well as cane
production is governed by various factors at the farmers’ field both crop specific as well as policy
based, out of which imbalanced nutrient use especially NPK, selection of planting material, setts
preparation, poor germination, planting time and method in the prevalent cropping system and agro-
climatic conditions is the major reason responsible for this. Therefore, all efforts for increasing
sugarcane production at the field level become futile. Hence, an attempt has been made in the present
study to assess suitable cane node priming technique for accelerating germination in sugarcane for
spring season crop in clay loam soils of south-east part of Rajasthan.
Key words: Cane node priming, Commercial cane sugar, Return, Sugarcane, Yield
METHODOLOGY
A field experiment was conducted on clay loam soil at agriculture research station, Kota during
cropping seasons of 2012-13 to 2014-15 to find out suitable cane node priming technique for
accelerating germination and to cut down the seed cost in sugarcane. The experiment consists of six
treatments i.e.T1:Un-primed cane node,T2:Treating cane node in hot water at 500 C for 2
hours,T3:Treating cane node in hot water at (500 C) urea solution (3%) for 2 hours,T4:Priming cane
node with cattle dung, cattle urine and water in 1:2:5 ratio,T5:Conventional 3-bed sett planting and
T6:Priming cane node in the slurry of cattle dung, cattle urine and water in 1:2:5 ratio for 15 minutes
and sprouted cane node (incubated in decomposed FYM and cover it with sugarcane trash for 4-5
days for sprouting after priming), laid out in randomized block design with four replications.Crop
was fertilized with 200 kg N, 60 kg P2O5 and 40 kg K2O/ha and followed other package of practice
as and when required. The average annual rainfall received during crop season was about 865 mm.
Crop was planted as spring in the second week of March of respectively years. Gross plot area for
Vol -1; Issue -2
each treatment was 27 m2. Crop treatment wise were harvested manually in third week of February
of respective years. Germination percent, cane yield, quality parameter and economics were workout
as per standard procedure.
RESULTS
Pooled data reveals (Table1) that different priming techniques significantly influenced
germination, NMC, cane yield, CCS yield and economics with cattle dung, cattle urine and water in
1:2:5 ratio (T4) as compared to T1, T2, T3 and T5 and at par with T6 .The germination percent was
recorded significantly higher in T4 (48.89 %) over rest of the treatment except conventional three
bud sett and T6 treatment at 40 DAP. Conventional 3 bud sett (T5), primed cane node in hot water at
(500 C) 3 % urea solution for 2 hours (T3), priming cane node with cattle dung, cattle urine and water
in 1:2:5 ratios (T4) or T6 germinated cane eyes significantly better when compared with unprimed
cane node. Cane yield (91.32 t/ha) and CCS (11.13 t/ha) were recorded significantly better under
priming cane node with cattle dung, cattle urine and water in 1:2:5 ratio (T4) as compared to T1,T2,
T3 and T5 and at par with T6 (90.28 t/ ha). Crop planted by 3-bud sett, use of huge seed cane (70.0
q/ha) whereas only 23 q/ha seed cane as used in cane node planting method. The highest cane yield
in these treatments was due to higher cane length, cane girth and NMC/ha. The highest NR (
88,900 /ha) and BCR (1.97) were also noted under the same treatment which was significantly
superior over T1, T2, T3 and T5 and at par with T6.
CONCLUSION
Cane node priming technique is another improved method recently developed. Use of primed cane
nodes with organic slurry (cattle dung: cattle urine: water in the ratio 1:2:5) saves seed cane by 50%
and reduces the period of germination from conventional 30-45 days to 20 days. The buds start
sprouting within 5-6 days of priming. By maintaining a uniform crop stand and growth conditions,
the technology ensures 25% higher sugarcane production over the conventional method.
REFERENCE
Anonymous, 2014. Rajasthan Agricultural Statistics at a glance, Commissionerate of Agriculture, Jaipur,
Rajasthan, pp. 87.
ISMA. 2014. Indian Sugar Mills Association. Indian Sugar 64(9): 85-86.
IISR, Vision 2050.Indian Institute of Sugarcane Research (ICAR), Lucknow, UP, (www.iisr.nic.in)
pp.5.
Mazid, M.2014.Seed priming application of gibberellic acid on growth, biochemical, yield and
protein status of chickpea. Int.J.Genetic Eng.Biotech. 5(1):17-22.
Vol -1; Issue -2
Table1. Effect of cane node priming technique on germination, millable canes, cane yield, CCS yield
and economics of sugarcane
(Pooled mean of 3 years)
Treatments Germina
tion
(%)
Millable
(x103/ha
)
Cane
yield
(t/ha)
CCS
yield
(t/ha)
Net returns
(x103 /ha)
B: C
ratio
T1 : Un-primed cane node 36.56 67.29 70.56 7.66 50.52 1.56
T2 : Treating cane node in hot
water at 500C for 2 hours 39.54 81.20 75.03 9.14 57.38
1.63
T3 : Treating cane node in hot
water at (500C) urea
solution (3%) for 2 hours 42.87 81.98 75.50 9.34 58.58
1.64
T4 : Priming cane node with cattle
dung, cattle urine and
water in 1:2:5 ratio 48.89 91.15 91.32 11.13 88.90
1.97
T5 : Conventional 3-bed sett
planting 43.01 76.59 75.85 9.16 49.44
1.51
T6 : Primed and sprouted cane
node (incubated for four
days after priming 47.53 89.67 88.89 10.72 83.02
1.89
SEm ± 2.00 3.40 3.12 0.69 3.20 0.09
CD (P=0.05) 5.61 9.53 9.36 1.98 9.15 0.25
(3) Foliar application of thiourea and zinc sulphate fertilization: Enhancing productivity of
wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) on farmer’s fields of Sawaimadhopur district
K.M. Sharma1
1Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Borkhera Kota, Agriculture University, Kota-324001 (Rajasthan)
Correspondence Author Email: [email protected]
Vol -1; Issue -2
ABSTRACT
Bio-regulators plays important role in greater partitioning of photosynthates towards reproductive
sink thereby improves the harvest index. Among bio-regulator, thiourea have been reported to be
effective for enhancing wheat productivity under different environmental conditions. Zinc deficiency
is the most wide spread among all the micronutrients and has been most widely reported in the wheat
An on-farming testing was conducted on total 31 farmer’s fields during rabi seasons of year 2009-10
and 2010-11 under RKVY project. Technology assessed comprised of foliar application of thiourea @
0.05% and zinc sulphate (0.2%) solutions at tillering and spike initiation stages of wheat. Results of
OFT (table-1) reveal that foliar spray of zinc sulphate @ 0.5% on mean basis, increased 7.67 percent
yield in wheat over farmer’s practice with B:C ratio of Rs.1.24. While thiourea (500 ppm) application
resulted in 9.18 per cent yield increase over farmer.s practice with B:C ratio of Rs. 2.62. Further,
foliar spray of mixed solution containing thiourea (0.05%) and zinc sulphate (0.2 %) enhanced wheat
grain yield to the extent of 15.19 per cent with B:C ratio of 2.31.
Another on-farm testing was conducted during three consecutive rabi seasons of 2008-09 to 2010-11
on farmer’s fields of Sawaimadhopur district to assess the impact of zinc sulphate fertilization and
thiourea application on productivity of wheat. Technology assessed in this on-farm testing, comprised
of soil application of zinc sulphate @ 25 kg/ha along with recommended doses of N & P and foliar
application of thiourea @ 0.1% solution at tillering and spike initiation stages of wheat. Results
(table-2) revealed that on mean basis, soil application of zinc sulphate increased the wheat grain yield
by 11.89 per cent over farmer’s practice (only N & P fertilization, no any spray) and provide
additional returns of Rs.5870/ha with incremental B:C ratio of 6.90. Further, the application of zinc
sulphate followed by foliar application of thiourea (0.1%) , increased wheat grain yield to the
magnitude of 21.41 per cent over farmer’s practice (39.24 q/ha) and fetched additional returns of
Rs.10299/ ha and incremental B:C ratio of 3.93.
Key words: Farmer’s fields, thiourea, wheat, zinc
Table.1 Effect of foliar sprays of thiourea and zinc sulphate in wheat crop on the Farmer’s fields of
Sawaimadhopur district
Tr.
No
.
Treatments
Mean Grain yield
(q/ha) %
Increase
over FP
Additional
cost over
FP
(Rs./ha)
Additional
Return
over FP
(Rs./ha)
IBCR
2009-
10
2010-
11 Pooled
T1 Farmer’s practice (No 42.88 41.25 42.065 -- -- -- --
Vol -1; Issue -2
Spray)
T2
Foliar sprays of 0.5%
Zinc sulphate at
tillering
45.76 44.83 45.295 7.67 3920 4895 1.24
T3
Foliar sprays of 500 ppm
Thiourea at tillering and
grain initiation stage
46.96 45.04 46.00 9.18 1825 4767 2.62
T4
Foliar sprays of mixed
solution of 0.2% Zinc
sulphate and 500 ppm
Thiourea at tillering and
grain initiation stages
49.04 47.64 48.34 15.19 3745 8588 2.31
Table-2: Impact of zinc fertilization and foliar application of thiourea on productivity of wheat
on the Farmer’s fields of Sawaimadhopur district
S.
No. Treatment details Mean Grain yield (q /ha)
Additional
cost of
treatment
over FP
(Rs /ha)
Additional
returns
(Rs/ ha)
Incre-
mental
B:C
ratio 2008-
09
2009-
10
2010-
11
Mean
T1 Farmer’s practice (use of only
N&P containing fertilizers
@ 120:40 kg/ ha)
38.24 40.88 38.60 39.24 -- -- --
T2 Recommended N&P (120:40
kg ha-1) + soil application of
ZnSO4 @ 25 kg/ ha
43.36 45.04 43.32 43.91 867 5870 6.90
T3 T2+ Foliar spray of thiourea
@ 0.1% at tillering and
spike initiation stages
47.50 48.36 47.06 47.64 2640 10299 3.93
Vol -1; Issue -2
(4) Soil enzymatic activities as influenced by different herbicides and fertility levels applied in
Soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merrill] grown on vertisols of S-E Rajasthan
Pratap Singh1 , V. Nepalia2 and S.S.Tomar3
Agriculture Research Station, Ummedganj, Agriculture University, Kota-324001 (Raj.)
Correspondence Address : psd427@ rediffmail.com
1 Director Research , Ag.Univ.Kota; 2 Head, Dept.of Agronomy, Rajasthan College of Agriculture,
Udaipur; 3Dean,C.P.Univ.Kota.
ABSTRACT
A field experiment was conducted during Kharif season (2002 and 2003) at Agricultural Research
Station, Kota to evaluate the effect of different herbicides and fertilizer levels applied to soybean
[Glycine max (L.) Merrill] on soil dehydrogenase and Urease activity. The results elucidated that no
significant adverse effect on soil dehydrogenase and urease activity was determined with the
application of herbicides and their mixtures over the untreated control. Application of alachlor as pre
emergence had significant inhibition in dehydrogenase and urease activity over the control with
respect to dehydrogenase and urease activity. Increase in fertilizer levels from recommended dose
had not much impact on dehydrogenase activity but significantly increase urease activity in soil.
Seed yield increased with the application of herbicide mixture of chlorimuron-ethyl + fenoxaprop-p-
ethyl (9+70 and 6+50 g/ha) as post-emergence. Seed yield had positive association with
dehydrogenase and urease activity. Modern agriculture includes continuous use of herbicides and
fertilizers for getting higher production. Herbicides and fertilizers application are becoming a wide
spread practice as weed often pose a serious threat to crop yield. Herbicides and fertilizers are
generally blamed for disturbing the natural eco-system through their effects on soil microbial and
enzymatic activities. Application of herbicides is known to have side effects on soil enzymes
(Peruccii et al., 1980, Felsot and Dzantor, 1995). Intensive use of new herbicides and fertilizers
without adequate knowledge on soil bio-chemical processes and cycling of nutrients may be
disturbed.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
A field experiment was conducted in rainy season (Kharif) of 2002 and 2003 at Agricultural
Research Station, Kota to assess the effect of different herbicides and fertilizer levels on soil
dehydrogenase and urease activity. The soil is clay loam (montmorillonitic, chromusterts) with pH
7.7, organic carbon 5.6g/kg, CEC. …Cmol/kg and clay content 40.3 % g/kg and available N 367,
P2O5 23.5, K2O 310 kg/ha. Soybean “Pratap Soya” was grown in split plot design with 3 replications
Vol -1; Issue -2
of 36 treatment combinations. The main plot treatment includes herbicides viz. pre-emergence
alachlor 2.0 kg/ha, post-emergence (POE) chlorimuron-ethyl (CE) 9 g/ha, fenoxaprop-p-ethyl (FPE)
70 g/ha, quizalofop-ethyl (QE) 50 g/ha, chlorimuron-ethyl + fenoxaprop-p-ethyl (9 + 70 and 6 + 50
g/ha), chlorimuron-ethyl + quizalofop-ethyl (9+50 and 6+37.5 g/ha), alachlor 2.0 kg/ha + one hand
weeding at 30 DAS, one hand weeding (HW) at 30 DAS, two hand weeding at 30 and 45 days after
sowing (DAS) and untreated control. In sub plots three fertilizer levels (75 % of recommended dose
of fertilizers (RDF), 100 % and 125% RDF) were laid out. Soybean was sown with the on set of
monsoon on 21 July, 2002 and 7 July, 2003. Soil samples were colleted at 60 days after sowing
synchronizing with maximum enzyme activities.Dehydrogenase activity was measured by the
procedure of Cassida (1977) using glucose as an electron substrate after a 24 hr incubation period.
Urease activity was determined by recording the rate of urea hydrolyzed (Searle and Peir,1976).
Analysis of variance test was performed (Sokal and Rohlf,1981).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS: Application of alachlor inhibited Urease activity as against
untreated control whereas there was no significant variation with fenoxaprop-p-ethyl, quizalofop-
ethyl, chlorimuron ethyl and their mixtures. Generally, soil enzymes activities were greater in the
untreated control that can be ascribed to the greater contribution of weeds and crop stand stimulating
production of soil enzymes through microbial and plant origin (Pohl and Mal Komes, 1990). The
post emergence herbicides in soybean did not affect soil dehydrogenase but stimulated urease
activity and enhanced yield. This corroborate with the findings of Ramesh et al. (2000). Apart from
application point of view, post emergence herbicides were more viable because of narrow sowing
period available in soybean with onset of monsoon and reduced impact on soil environment. Since
post emergence herbicides were applied on the foliage of weeds, the amount of herbicides molecules
that comes in contact with soil particles were lesser thus their application might have not influence
on microbial proliferation and activity (Auspurg et al., 1989). Controlling the weeds through all
means in question significantly enhanced the seed yield of soybean crop. Two hand weddings,
alachlor+1 HW, chlorimuron-ethyl + fenoxaprop-p-ethyl (9+70 and 6+50 g/ha) achieved
significantly higher yield over all other weed control treatments during both the years. Alachlor 2
kg/ha as pre emergence proved to be least efficient in improving the yield. not show any significance
advantage in terms of yield.Application of different herbicides did not influenced the urease activity
was more under herbicide mixtures of chlorimuron-ethyl + fenoxaprop-p-ethyl / quizalofop-ethyl as
compared to single herbicide application. As Urease in soil is generally derived from microbial
population (Chhonkar 1985), their application might have stimulated some unrealistic
microorganisms. The maximum dehydrogenase and Urease activities were greater in the untreated
control which can be ascribed to the role of weeds and crop stand stimulating production of soil
Vol -1; Issue -2
enzymes through microbial and plant origin (Pohl and Makomes 1990). Herbicidal effects on seed
yield of soybean was more pronounced whereas the application of mixture of chlorimuron-ethyl +
fenoxaprop-p-ethyl to be the most effective in increasing yield (Table1).Soil dehydrogenase was
unaffected by fertilizers levels while urease activity enhanced. The data (Table1) indicated that
reduction in rate of fertilizer from RDF to 75 % tended to significantly reduce the seed yield.
However, enriching the soil through 125 % RDF did not show any significance advantage in terms of
yield. The significantly higher seed yield realized with the application of 100 % RDF and to the
extent of 125 % RDF, could be ascribed to their profound influence on vegetative and reproductive
growth of the crop.
Thus, the post-emergence herbicides did not affect soil enzymatic activities and had enhanced seed
yield. This corroborates with the findings of Billore et al. (1998). Fertilizer application at
recommended level and to the extent of 125 per cent increased the soil urease and seed yield
significantly.
REFERENCES:
Auspurg, B., W. Pestemer and R. Heitfess, 1989. Studies on the effect of a pesticide sequence on the
behavior of terbutryn residues on soil microbial activity. Weed Res. 9: 79-91.
Chhonkar,P.K.1985. Activity and agricultural significance. Proceedings of Soil Biology Symposium,
Hisar. pp: 25-37.
Pohl, K. and H.P. Mal korness, 1990. Influence of cropping intensity and weediness on selected
microbial activities in the soil under field conditions. Zeitschrift Fur Pflanzenkrankheiten and
Pfanzenschutz. 12: 379-378. (Cf. Indian J. Agric. Sic. 2000: 70: 218-219).
Ramesh, A., O.P Joshi and S.D. Billore, 2000. Effect of herbicides on soil dehydrogenase and urease
activity in soybean (Glycine max). Indian J. Agric. Sci. 70: 218-219.
Vol -1; Issue -2
Table 1: Effect of herbicides and fertilizer levels on soil dehydrogenase and urease activity and seed
yield of soybean (Pooled data of 2002 and 2003)
Treatment Dehydrogenase μ mol
ormazon / g soil/24 hr
Urease μ mol urea
hydrolyzed / g soil/hr
Seed yield
(q/ha)
Herbicides
Alachlor 2 Kg/ha preE .2855 .169 2.78
Chlorimuron-ethyl (9 g/ha) postE .3065 .185 5.97
enoxaprop-p-ethyl (70 g/ ha) postE .3065 .171 4.08
Quizalofop-ethyl (50 g/ha) postE .3065 .174 4.90
Chlorimuron-ethyl + Fenoxaprop-
p-ethyl (9 +70 g/ha) postE
.3050 .201 2.52
Chlorimuron-ethyl + Fenoxaprop-
p-ethyl (6 +50 g/ha) postE
.3065 .200 2.21
Chlorimuron-ethyl + Quizalofop-
ethyl (9 +50 g/ha) postE
.3060 .189 8.82
Chlorimuron-ethyl + Quizalofop-
ethyl (6 +37.5 g/ha) postE
.3065 .189 8.54
Alachlor + one hand weeding at 30
days
.2910 .197 2.07
One hand weeding at 30 days .3055 .199 4.38
wo hand weddings at 30 & 45
DAS
.3055 .219 3.13
Untreated control .3200 .171 .54
CD (P=0.05) .0180 NS .74
ertilizer levels
5 % RDF .3035 .161 5.69
00 % RDF .3040 .193 7.92
25 % RDF .3055 .212 8.37
CD (P=0.05) NS .019 .75
* NS – Non-significant at 5 % level of significance
Vol -1; Issue -2
(5) Herbicide Resistance: an Emerging Problem and its Management
Pratap Singh*, S.S.Tomar** and V. Nepalia ***
Professor*, ARS, Kota ; Dean, C.P.Univ,Kota and Professor & Head, RCA,Udaipur ***,
Presently weeds are mostly controlled by herbicides and their continuous use is threaten to the
evolution of herbicide resistance. The first report of susceptible weed acquiring resistance to triazine by
Senecio vulgaris was reported by Ryan (1970)and there after chronological, increase cases of herbicide
resistant weeds have been reported in 275 biotypes (Heap, 2003). In India resistance to isoproturon in
Phalaris minor was observed in rice-wheat cropping system in Punjab and Haryna where isoproturon
resistance in Phalaris minor has occupied an area of about 1.0 mha area. Some resistant weeds are:
Senecio vulgaris (Groundsel) Resistant to Triazine
Lolium rigidum(Annualrye grass) Resistant to Glyphosate
Lactua seorriola Resistant to ALSInhibitor
Phalaris minor (Gulli Danda) Resistant to Isoproturon
Stellaria media (Commonchick ) Resistant to Florsulam
Papaver rhoes (Common poppy) Resistant to Sulfonylureas
Herbicide resistance is an evolutionary process. Compared to insect and pathogens, weeds have relatively
long reproduction cycles and this has contributed to the relatively slow evolution of herbicide resistance.
It occurs because there is variation in weed populations and a selective pressure that favors certain
individuals. The major factor that regulates rate of development of herbicide resistance are intensity of
selection pressure, initial frequency of resistant individuals, weed biology and soil seed bank.
Reasons of Herbicide Resistance:
• Continuous, repeated and regular use of single herbicide with similar mode of action
• Application of sub/overdose of herbicide
• Improper time of application
• Use of furious quality herbicides
• Same crop rotation which provide the favorable environment for weed year to year
• Monoculture resulted shift of weed flora from complex to pernicious species
• Plant quarantine : import of agricultural produce contaminated with resistant weeds
• Lack of knowledge among the farmers with respect to correct use
Herbicide resistance mechanisms : Herbicide resistance is an inherited trait. It occurs through the
selection of plants able to survive herbicides. With repeated application, selection of resistant plants
Vol -1; Issue -2
multiply until they dominate the population. The biochemical changes that can endow resistance to
herbicide are altered site of action of herbicide, enhanced metabolism due to various factors,
sequestration and compartmentation of herbicide within plant system and genetic control.
Management strategies for herbicide resistance
1. Diagnosing Herbicide Resistant Weeds: Before assuming that any weeds surviving a herbicide
application are resistant, rule out the factors and symptoms of resistance. If resistance appears to be a
likely possibility, check for the following:
Are other weeds listed on the product label controlled satisfactorily?
Did the same herbicide or herbicide with the same site of action fail in the same area of the field
in the previous year?
Do field histories indicate extensive use of the same herbicide year after year?
If one or more of these situations apply, it is possible that the weed may be resistant to the herbicide.
2. Management : No single approach can be successful for longtime against resistant weeds, as these are
very resilient and quickly adopt to the changed environment. An integrated approach should be followed.
I. Agronomic management approaches
(i) Tillage Practices: Reduce tillage is favorable for quick development of herbicide resistance. Annual or
seasonal ploughing should be done. It is appropriate only where little or no seed shed in the crop just after
harvest or deep tillage reduce herbicide requirement and delay build up of resistance by bringing up
buried susceptible weed seed up continuously.
(ii) Crop Rotation: Inclusion of alternative crops can widen the choice of herbicides, after a greater
flexibility in the time of sowing. Crop rotation facilitates herbicide rotations due to change of planting
time and provide better herbicide rotations. In India, the problem of resistance in weed species is also
more serious in the rice-wheat system which can be managed by rice - berseem rotation found effective to
reduce Phalaris minor. Alternative crops (Sunflower, Sugarcane) for one season largely decline density of
Phalaris minor in the following season.
(iii) Stale seed bed practice followed by some delayed sowing: Under irrigated conditions in wheat
fields in north India, timely pre-sowing irrigation could provide a large stimulation in germination of
P.minor. It can be controlled with stale seedbed preparation or use of any with any non-selective herbicide
(Glyphosate).
(iv) Others : Use of weed free seed and irrigation channels should be free from weeds
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(v) Crop residue management : Burning of rice residue was found to significantly reduce the efficacy of
isoproturon and was one of the factor in evolution of isoproturon resistance in P. minor but burning of
wheat straw reduces the resistant P.minor intensity in the following season.
II. Herbicidal approaches :
Herbicide mixture (Tank mixture / Product mixture) : Compatible herbicides with different
mode of action can be mixed and can reduce shift in weed flora and risk of herbicide resistance. The
mixture should be non-phytotoxic to the crops and succeeding crops also. The use of two or more
herbicides having different mechanisms of action when used in mixture delay the rate of development of
resistance. This is because weeds resistant to the vulnerable herbicide would be destroyed by the mixing
partner or at least be rendered relatively unfit compared to the wild type. Mixtures may be broad-spectrum
mixture or target specific mixture. When jungle rice resistant to propanil applied by propanil mixed with
other herbicides, the population of jungle rice reduced drastically without reduction in rice yield.
Herbicide Sequence : If necessary, use with different mode of action within individual crop like
long duration crops- Sugarcane, Cotton etc. pre plant incorporated followed by pre-emergence / post-
emergence or pre-emergence by post-emergence or early post by late post- emergence.
Herbicide Rotation : The Herbicides with different mode of action should be rotated, preferably
one in each year. It will delay the evaluation of herbicide resistance. Herbicide rotation exposes weeds to
different classes of herbicides will decrease the frequency of resistance allele.
Alternate Herbicides : An important component for the management of resistant weed
populations involves identification of alternative herbicides and their integration with appropriate non-
chemical methods. Development of resistance to L. rigidum for ACCase, ALS inhibitors alternate
herbicide may be Trifluralin. Likewise for P. minor to isoproturon alternate herbicide may be
sulfosulfuron, clodinofop, fenoxaprop) in wheat.
III. Use of synergists: Various synergists can be used to increase the efficacy of herbicide. Herbicide dose
can also be reduced by using synergists.
IV. Soil solarization : Soil solarization involves use of transparent thin polythene sheet to cover the soil
during hot summer months for 2-6 weeks to raise soil temperature. Soil solarization, by virtue of its lethal
action against weed seeds could be an effective approach in minimizing the resistant weed reserve in the
soil especially after harvest of rabi crops. Yaduraju, N.T. (1999) reported that P.minor and A. fatua were
effectively control under soil solarization .
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New dimensions for herbicide resistance management
1. Bio-technological approaches: Herbicide resistant crops may help in mitigating the problem of
herbicide resistance in weeds.i.e. RRsoybean.
2. Biological approaches: Biological control of weeds may include use of mycoherbicides (plant
pathogens that causes death of the weeds). Mycoherbicides can also be mixed with potential, compatible
herbicides to enhance the efficacy but more research needed in this direction..
Sustainable resistance management strategy by integrated weed management
An exclusive reliance on any single, highly efficient control method, chemical or non-chemical, can fail as
a result of evolutionary forces finding a way to circumvent the control method. All these leads to adoption
of sustainable resistance management strategy by integrated weed management. As it has been observed
that the occurrence of resistance is usually due to practice on individual farms.
The crop managers must use the following strategies
• USE herbicide only when necessary
• ROTATE herbicides
• APPLY suitable mixtures
• ROTATE crops and varieties
• COMBINE feasible weed control practices
• INCLUDE tillage in weed management program
• SCOUT field regularly and identify weeds present
• RESPOND quickly to non control of any weed plant
• CLEAN harvesting equipments before moving from on field to another field
• TAKE assistance from industry, state and research organizations
• EXTEND knowledge and awareness for herbicide resistance among growers, to adopt IWM
technologies
Vol -1; Issue -2
REFERENCES :
Heap, I. 2003. Herbicide resistant weeds. Herbicide Resistant Action Committee report: 4-6.
Ryan, G.G. 1970. Weed Science, 18: 614-616.
Yaduraju, N.T.1999.Role of soil solarization in weed management.In Proc.Weed management
research in major crop and cropping systems,GBPUAT, Pantnagar : 7-13.
(6) ECONOMICS V/S PRODUCTION AND MARKET CONSTRAINTS OF PADDY
CULTIVATION IN BUNDI DISTRICT OF RAJASTHAN
Avinash Jangid* I.P. Singh**
*M.Sc. Student ** Advisor , Department of Agriculture Economics COA, SKRAU, Bikaner
Abstract
The present study was conducted in Bundi district in Rajasthan state which has significant area and
production under paddy cultivation . On an overall basis, cost of cultivation of paddy on cost A1, A2 (
Cost A1 + rent paid for leased in-land),B1 ( Cost A2 + interest on fixed capital assets (excluding land)),
B2 (Cost B1 + rental value of owned land), C1 ( Cost B1 + imputed value of family labour.), C2 (Cost B2
+ imputed value of family labour) and C3 (Cost C2 + 10 per cent of cost C2 as management cost)basis
were Rs.30227.58, Rs.30227.58, Rs.32745.91, Rs.38745.91, Rs.36648.85, Rs.42648.85 and
Rs.46913.73, respectively. Cost of production per quintal for paddy varied between Rs.733.16 per
quintal on small farms to 907.93 on large farms with an overall average of Rs.822.54 per quintal. On an
average, the farm business income, family labour income and net income were workout to be
Rs.101804.91, Rs. 93286.58 and Rs.89383.63 respectively. On an overall basis, returns on cost A1, A2,
B1, B2, C1, C2 and C3 basis, were Rs. 101804.91, Rs. 101804.91, Rs. 99286.44, Rs. 93286.58, Rs.
95383.69, Rs. 89383.63 and Rs. 85118.75, respectively. On an average, the returns per rupee of
investment on cost A1, A2, B1, B2, C1, C2 and C3 basis were Rs. 4.48, Rs. 4.48, Rs. 4.12, Rs. 3.46, Rs.
3.64, Rs. 3.12 and Rs. 2.83, respectively. The major constraints in production of paddy were shortage
of hired human labour for transplanting and harvesting, erratic electricity supply, poor quality of
insecticides and pesticides .The major constraints in marketing of paddy were high price fluctuations,
malpractices in the mandi, lack of storage facilities at farm levels and high cost of transportation. The
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study also suggested certain policy measures to mitigate problems of the farmers and making
cultivation of paddy more profitable.
INTRODUCTION
The Paddy is the staple food for 2.5 billion people and growing paddy is the largest single use of land
for producing food, covering 9 percent of the earth's arable land. Paddy provides 21 percent of global
human per capita energy and 15 percent of per capita protein. Calories from rice are particularly
important in Asia, especially among the poor, where it accounts for 50-80 percent of daily calorie intake.
India's share in the world paddy production is about 2.5 percent .India has the largest area under paddy
in the world but is the second largest producer of paddy next only to China. In India, rice constitutes
about 42 percent of the total food grain production accounting for about 24 percent of the total cropped
area. India has the largest area under paddy cultivation in the world, which is about 45 million hectares
(2009). Paddy is high valued cash crop and also a major export commodity. Paddy processing industry is
the biggest industry in India because India is the second largest paddy producer of the world. India
produces about 128 million tonnes of paddy annually and milling industry not only mills rice but it also
carries out many other essential functions such as procurement, drying, storage and utilization of
byproduct. One of the major issues affecting the profitability and sustainability of the paddy cultivation
is the steady increase in the cost of production per quintal. This is due to increasing cost of labour, farm
power (machinery), fertilizers and agrochemicals.
Bundi district in Rajasthan has 29.46 thousand hectares of area under paddy cultivation (2014) with
production of 71.94 thousand tonnes. Bundi district ranks second in both area and production of paddy.
Marketing aspects of paddy are no less important. Marketing is regarded as important multiplier and
effective engine of development. Due to inefficient marketing system, the farmer's share in consumer
rupee is very low. A significant share of consumer rupee goes to intermediaries. An efficient system of
marketing of paddy will result in reduction of marketing costs and middlemen profit, thereby, increasing
farmer's share in consumer rupee. There is an urgent need to work out production costs and returns,
marketing costs, milling cost per quintal and price spread in different marketing channels. The present
study is an attempt in that direction.
METHODOLOGY
Bundi district of Rajasthan was selected purposively as it ranked second in area and production of
paddy in the state. Bundi Tehsil and two villages namely, Matunda and Namana were selected on the
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basis of highest area. The farmers were classified in to small (0 < 3.25 ha), medium (>3.25 < 6.50 ha)
and large (>6.50ha). A sample of 60 farmers was randomly drawn with probability proportional to
number of farmers in each size group. The sample included 29 small, 21 medium and 10 large farms.
The primary data pertaining to crop year 2013-2014 were collected by pre-tested schedules through
personal interview method. Tabular analysis was carried out to work out compound growth rates, cost of
cultivation, gross income, net income, marketing cost and price spread in marketing. Secondary data
were obtained from Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Pant Krishi Bhawan, Jaipur and its website
(www.rajasthankrishi.gov.in) for ten years (2003-2004 to 2013-14) to work compound growth rates.
Statistical Tools:
Cost of cultivation
To achieve second objective of the study, cost of cultivation of paddy on different size of farms was
studied. The cost of cultivation of paddy was worked out by using various cost concepts which are
defined as under :
Cost A1:
1. Value of hired human labour.
2. Value of owned and hired animal labour.
3. Value of owned and hired machine labour.
4. Value of seeds (both farm produced and purchased).
5. Value of manures, fertilizers, insecticides and pesticides.
6. Irrigation charges.
7. Depreciation
8. Land revenue.
9. Interest on working capital.
10. Miscellaneous expenses.
Cost A2: Cost A1 + rent paid for leased in-land.
Cost B1: Cost A2 + interest on fixed capital assets (excluding land)
Cost B2: Cost B1 + rental value of owned land
Cost C1: Cost B1 + imputed value of family labour.
Cost C2: Cost B2 + imputed value of family labour.
Cost C3: Cost C2 + 10 per cent of cost C2 as management cost.
The cost of production was worked out by using following formula:
Cost of production per quintal = Cost of cultivation/ha
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Quantity of main product/ha
Income measures
Following income measures were used to fulfill the second objective ;
1. Gross income: Synonymous with value of output (both main and by product) evaluated at harvest
prices.
GI = Qm X Pm + Qb X Pb
Where,
GI=Gross Income ;
Qm= Quantity of main product ;
Pm= Price of main product ;
Qb= Quantity of by- product ;
Pb= Price of by-product ;
2. Farm business income =
Gross income - Cost A1 (Cost A2 in case of tenant operated land)
3. Family labour income = Gross income – Cost B2
4. Net income = Gross income – Cost C2
5. Returns to management = Gross income – Cost C3
6.Returns per rupee of investment = Gross Income(G.I.)/ ha
Total Cost (cost C2) / ha
CONSTRAINTS IN PRODUCTION AND MARKETING
The constraints in production and marketing were studied by using simple tabular analysis using
percentages.
RESULTS
Production Aspects:
The use of inputs and various cultural practices in the cultivation of paddy crop on the sample
farms in the study area have been presented in this section. Generally, paddy is grown in the month
of June-July and harvested in Oct.-Nov. In Bundi district, the input use pattern and cultural practices
followed in the cultivation of paddy crop on the sample farms of the study area are presented in the
Table 1. Breakup of cost of cultivation such type of study was also carried out by Aamer et al 2009
in paddy and Chinnappa, B. 2001.
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Various costs incurred in the cultivation of paddy on sample farms on different size holdings are
presented in Table 1. On an average, the total cost per hectare of paddy cultivation was `.42648.86
on different sized farms. It was `. 36624.96 on small, `. 42917.53 On medium and `.48404.10 on
large farms. The major component of cost was casually hired labour value which contributed 17.91
per cent of total cost on an overall basis. Similar trend was also obtained by Joshi 2004.
Table 1 : Breakup of cost of cultivation of paddy (`./hectare)
Item Size of holdings
Small Medium Large Overall
1. Machine labour 3652.2
(9.97)
5349
(12.45)
5874
(12.13)
4958.4
(11.62)
2.Casually hired labour 5827.87
(16)
7210.12
(16.8)
9935.25
(20.52)
7657.75
(17.91)
3.Imputed value of
Family labour
4538.87
(12.39)
4316.46
(10.05)
2853.51
(5.89)
3902.95
(9.15)
4.Seed 1173.6
(3)
1197
(2.8)
1472.4
(3.04)
1281
(3)
5.FYM 1275
(3.5)
1385
(3.22)
1935
(3.99)
1531.67
(3.59)
6.Fertilizers 3106.77
(8.5)
3552.69
(8.3)
3739.85
(7.72)
3466.43
(8.12)
7.Plant protection
Chemical
2300
(6.3)
3082
(7.18)
4508
(9.31)
3296.67
(7.72)
8.Irrigation charges 4423.12
(12.1)
5036.56
(11.73)
5387.81
(11.1)
4949.16
(11.6)
9.Depreciation 1350
(3.7)
2375
(5.53)
2845
(5.87)
2190
(5.13)
10.Land revenue 10
(0.02)
10
(0.02)
10
(0.02)
10
(0.02)
11.Interest on working capital 737.53
(2.02)
893.70
(2.08)
1028.28
(2.12)
886.50
(2.08)
12.Interest on fixed
Capital
2230
(6.2)
2510
(5.84)
2815
(5.9)
2518.33
(6)
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13.Rental value 6000
(16.3)
6000
(14)
6000
(12.39)
6000
(14.06)
Total 36624.96
(100)
42917.53
(100)
48404.1
(100)
42648.86
(100)
Table 2: Gross income and Net Income per hectare of Basmati (PB-1) on different farm size
holdings
Size holding Yield
(qtls/ ha) Gross income (Rs.)
Net income
(Rs.)
Small 54.95 127637.50 91012.54
Medium 57.11 132497.50 89579.97
Large 58.65 135962 87558.40
Overall average 56.90 132032.50 89383.63
Constraints in production of paddy
The study of production constraints (Table 3) revealed that on an average, 30 per cent farmers reported
poor quality of insecticides/pesticides. Almost all farmers faced the problem of high cost of labour. 45 per
cent farmers reported that good quality seed was not available. 32 per cent farmers reported the problem
of erratic electricity supply. 40 per cent farmers reported the problem of shortage of hired human labour
for sowing and harvesting. The information collected from farmers are accordance with the observation
recorded by Kumara. et al 1996.
Table 3: Constraints in production of paddy faced by farmers
(per cent)
Constraints Farmer’s response pattern (in
per cent)
1.Quality of insecticide/pesticide poor 30
2.High cost of labour 100
3.Quality of seed not available 45
4.Electricity supply erratic 32
5.Timely availability of DAP not there 58
4.Shortage of hired human labour for 40
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sowing/harvesting
Constraints in marketing of paddy
Table 4. shows constraints in marketing of paddy in the study area. This table reveals that the major
constraints faced by the farmers in marketing of paddy was lack of storage facilities at farm level. On an
overall basis, 60 per cent farmers reported this problem as a major constraint. 50 per cent of the farmers
faced the problem of lack of transportation facilities. The problem of high cost of transportation was also
reported by 60 per cent of farmers. Almost all farmers faced the problem of price fluctuations. On an
average, 75 per cent farmers faced the problems of malpractices in the mandi.
Table 4. : Constraints in marketing of paddy faced by farmers
(per cent)
CONCLUSION
Cost of cultivation of paddy was reported highest on large farms (Rs. 48404.1) followed by medium (Rs.
42917.53) and small (Rs. 36624.96) farms. The major component of cost was casually hired labour which
accounted for 17.91 per cent of total cost. The analysis of cost of cultivation showed that on an average, the
total cost (Cost C2) per hectare of paddy was `. 42648.85 for the sample farms of the study area. The cost C2
was highest on large farms followed by medium and small farms. On an overall basis, the cost of production
per quintal was `. 822.54 on sample farms. It was highest on large farms followed by medium and small
farms. On an average, gross income per hectare of paddy cultivation was `. 132032.50. This was higher on
large farms as compared to the medium and small farms. On an overall basis, the farm business income was
`. 101804.91 per hectare. It was higher on large farms, followed by small and medium farms. On an average
the family labour income was `.93286.58. It was higher on large farms as compared to small and medium
farms. On an overall basis, the net income per hectare of paddy cultivation was `.89383.63. The returns to
management per hectare of paddy cultivation was `. 85118.75. The returns per rupee of investment was
higher on small farms (`. 3.16) followed by medium (`. 2.8) and large (`. 2.55) farms indicating that small
farms are more efficient due to lower cost per unit of output.
Suggestions to avoid the constraints in production and marketing of paddy faced by farmers -
Constraints Farmer’s response pattern (in per cent)
1.Problem of storage 60
2.Lack of transportation facilities 50
3.High cost of transportation 60
4.High fluctuation in prices 100
5.Malpractices in the mandi 75
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• The economies of scale are not in favour of large farms mainly due to high cost per unit of output.
Therefore, the large farms should use their resources (capital and labour) optimally so that the scale
economies tilt in their favour.
• Erratic electricity supply should be corrected so that farmers can adequately irrigate paddy crop.
• The problem of shortage of labour can be countered by popularizing manually/mechanically operated
paddy transplanters as in Punjab. Also, MNREGA labour can be used for farming operations on wage
sharing basis between government and farmers to meet out shortage during peak periods.
• Storage facilities should be constructed at village level under Gramin Bhandaran Yojana.
• The farmers can avoid distress sales by availing warehouse receipt loans.
• Quality control of insecticide/pesticide should be ensured in the market so that farmers get quality
products.
• The malpractices in the market should also be checked so that farmers get a fair deal.
• Subsidized transportation facilities should be provided during the post harvest period to the farmers.
REFERENCES
Aamer, Iqbal, Ashraf,Ijaz, Muhammad, Sher, K.M, Chaudhry, (2009).Identification and prioritization of
production, protection and marketing problems faced by the rice growers. Pakistan-Journal-of-
Agricultural-Sciences 46(4): 290-293.
Chinnappa, B. (2001). An economic appraisal of paddy based cropping system in southern Transition
Zone (Zone-7) Karnataka. Mysore Journal of Agricultural Science 35(3): 258-26.
Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Pant Krishi Bhawan, Jaipur and culled from
(www.rajasthankrishi.gov.in)
Joshi, N.P. (2004). Production and Marketing of Rice in different Development Regions of Nepal.
Institute of Agriculture and Animal Science (IAAS): 138.
Kumara, A., R.P.Singh,and R.K.Pandey, (1996).Productivity, growth, and instability in rice production-
An Analysis of plateau region, Bihar. The Bihar Journal of Agricultural Marketing. 4(2): 144-155.
Vol -1; Issue -2
7) “Effect of Different Levels of NPK and FYM on Onion (Allium cepa L.) Under Arid Condition of
Rajasthan”
Priyanka Bairagi, Dr. S.R. Yadav, Dr. I.J. Gulati, Dr. I.M. Verma
Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry,
College of Agriculture, Bikaner
ABSTRACT
A field experiment was conducted at Niche area of Excellence Farm, SKRAU, Bikaner during rabi
season, 2012-13. The experiment was laid out in split plot design with four replications consisting of four
levels NPK fertilizers through drip irrigation (control, 75, 100 and 125% recommended dose of NPK
fertilizer) in main plots and four levels of FYM (control, 10, 20 and 30 t ha-1) in sub plots. The soil of
experimental site was loamy sand in texture containing 78.85, 18.80 and 180.00 kg ha-1 available N, P and
K respectively in 0-15 cm soil depth with pH 8.68, EC 0.28 dS m-1 and OC 0.15 %. The experimental
revealed significantly higher the fertilizer use efficiency, net returns and B:C ratio at the application of
100% recommended dose of NPK as compared to control and 75% recommended dose of NPK fertilizer
through drip irrigation and the application of 30 t FYM ha-1 also increased significantly the fertilizer use
efficiency, net returns and B:C ratio over control, 10 and 20 kg FYM ha-1, respectively.
INTRODUCTION
Onion (Allium cepa L.) is one of the commonest and indispensable vegetable cum condiment crop grown
for local consumption, export and processing. Among the different methods of irrigation, drip irrigation is
the most important one which was developed originally as a sub irrigation system. India is the second
largest producer of onion after China grown in about 10.03 lakh hectare area with the production of
145.61 lakh tonne of bulbs in the country and productivity is about 13.99 tonne per hectare (Anonymous,
2011). In Rajasthan total area of onion is about 73456 hectare with 664215 tonnes production and 9042
kg per hectare productivity (Anonymous 2011), (Thimmaiah (1989):, Singh et al. (2003):, Krishnamurthy
and Sharanappa (2005):, Mandloi et al. (2008) :, Hari et al. (2009) ). In Rajasthan, the area under drip
irrigation is 30300 ha (Alam and Kumar, 2007). Looking the lacking of irrigation water has become
essential to asses the fertilizer-use efficiency under drip fertigation system to worked out as a factor of
total economic yield from all harvests by quantity of fertilizer applied and expressed as kg yield/kg NPK.
FUE was worked out as a factor of total economic yield from all harvests by quantity of fertilizer applied
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and expressed as kg yield/present investigation will be helpful in evaluating the efficiency of applied
nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium with FYM on the growth and yield of onion under drip irrigation
with saline water.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
A field experiment was conducted during Rabi 2012-13. The region is characterized by deep, coarse sandy
soil. Experiment consisted of 16 treatment combinations comprising of four NPK levels (0, 75, 100 and
125 % RDF kg ha-1) with four FYM levels (0, 10, 20 and 30 t ha-1). It was conducted in split plot design
with four replications. To raise nursery beds onion verity Nasik Red (N-53) of 3 m x 1 m x 0.15 m in size
were prepared. Water soluble urea, muriate of potash and mono potassium phosphate were applied as per
treatments after transplanting through drip irrigation. FYM was applied 20 days before transplanting as
per the treatment combinations in their respective plots, mixed and irrigated.
FUE= Yield (kg /ha)
Total quantity of nutrient applied (kg/ha)
Gross returns (Rs. ha-1): = Returns from fruit of onion (Rs. ha-1)
Net returns (Rs. ha-1): = Gross returns (Rs. ha-1) – Total cost of cultivation (Rs. ha-1)
B:C ratio = Gross returns
Cost of cultivation
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The result presented in table reveals that the doses of fertilizer application have shown significant impact
on fertilizer use efficiency of onion in the table. The maximum yields of onion was recorded with the
application from 100% recommended dose of NPK fertilizer (12.18 kg kg-1 of fertilizer) to 75%
recommended dose of NPK fertilizer (12.18 kg kg-1 of fertilizer) however 125% recommended dose of
NPK fertilizer, significant decrease the fertilizer use efficiency as compared to 100% recommended dose
of NPK fertilizer through drip irrigation. The present findings are in good accordance with the results of
Veeranna et al. (2001), Singhandhupe et al. (2003), Hongal and Nooli (2007), Arunadevi (2005), and
Badr and Abou Ei-Yaized (2007) and Vijaykumar et al. (2010). Fertilizer use efficiency of onion
increased significantly with the application of 10, 20 and 30 t FYM ha-1, and the maximum fertilizer use
efficiency of 9.92 kg kg-1 of fertilizer was recorded with FYM 3 t ha-1 in the table. This might be due to
increased multiplication of soil microbes which could have converted organically bound nutrients to
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inorganic form (Bellakki and Badanur, 1997). Organic manures being a source of nutrients favor and
encourage soil microbial activity, enhances phosphorus activity, slow down release on nitrogen, reduces
leaching losses, particularly of nitrogen and potassium and ultimately improved fertilizer use efficiency.
The similar results have also been reported by Prakash et al. (2002) Bhattacharya et al.(2004) and
Chaturvedi and Chandel (2005) in Soybean and Kumawat and Jat (2005) in barley, Ray et al. (2005) in
okra and Mali et al. (2006) in cucumber, Ullah et al. (2008) in brinjal, Kumar and Sharma (2004) in
tomato, Ansari (2008) in potato, Mgbeze and Abu (2010) in African Yam.
Doses of fertilizer application have shown significant impact on B:C ratio and net returns in the table. A
significantly higher B:C ratio and net return was determined with the 100% recommended dose as
compared to control and 75% recommended dose of NPK fertilizer through drip irrigation. This might be
due to the fact that under the treatments the cost of input added was low as compared to increase and
value of output obtained; therefore, higher bulb yields resulted in higher net returns. These findings are
similar to those of Thimmaiah (1989), Mandloi et al. (2008) and Shinde et al. (2013) in onion, Singh et
al. (2003) in potato, Madhuri et al. (2006) in turmeric. B:C ratio and net returns increased significantly
with the application of 10, 20 and 30 t FYM ha-1, and the maximum and significant net returns (Rs
97745.50 per hectare) and B:C ratio (2.32) were recorded with FYM 30 t ha-1 in the table. This might be
due to the fact that under these treatments the cost of input added was low as compared to output
obtained, therefore, higher bulb yields resulted in higher net returns. These findings are similar to those of
Choudhary and Chandra (2006a) who reported maximum net return of Rs. 52,882 and B:C ratio 4.89 by
the application of vermicompost @ 9 t ha-1 as compared to ne t return of Rs. 50,469 and B:C ratio of 4.66
by the application of 60 : 30 : 30 kg NPK ha-1. The above finding are also in conformity with the findings
of Mandloi et al.(2008) and Chatoo et al. (2010) in onion, Yadav and Luthra, (2005) in vegetable pea,
Kalalbandi et al.(2007) in cabbage and Sharma and Bhalla (1995) and Bairwa et al. (2009) in Okra.
Table: Effect of NPK-drip fertigation and FYM levels on FUE, net returns and B:C ratio
Treatments FUE ( kg/kg of
nutrient)
Net returns (Rs.
ha-1)
B:C ratio
Fertilizer levels (NPK kg ha-1)
i) Control 4562 .96
ii) 75 % RDF
(75:37.5:75) 0.80 1770 .17
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iii) 100% RDF
(100:50:100) 2.18 7746 .32
iv) 125% RDF
(125:62.5:125) 0.87 00388 .28
S.Em.± .41 787 .04
C.D. (5%) .30 915 .14
FYM levels (tonne ha-1)
i) Control .79 2100 .83
ii) 10 .41 7345 .15
iii) 20 .72 5705 .33
iv) 30 .92 09316 .42
S.Em.± .40 862 .03
C.D. (5%) .17 339 .07
CONCLUSION
Significant improvement in fertilizer use efficiency of onion was observed on application of 100%
recommended dose NPK fertilizer as compare to 75 and 125% recommended dose NPK fertilizer through
drip irrigation. Highest fertilizer use efficiency (9.92 per cent) was recorded with the soil incorporation of
FYM 30 t ha-1 as compare to control. Significantly higher net return and B: C ratio was recorded with
100% recommended dose of NPK fertilizer as compare to control and 75% recommended dose of NPK
fertilizer through drip irrigation. An increase of Rs. 57216.25 ha-1 in net return and 0.59 in benefit cost
ratio was recorded by incorporating FYM 30 t ha-1 over no addition of FYM.
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Bellakki, M.A. and Badanur, V.P. (1997). Long term effect of integrated nutrient management on
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Kumar, Pradeep and Sharma, S.K. (2004). Integrated nutrient management for sustainable cabbage tomato
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Veeranna, H.K., Abdul Khalak, A.A., Farooqhi and Sujith, G.M., (2001). Effect of fertigation with normal
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and economics of vegetable pea. Udyanika, 11(2): 119-121.
(8) Sustainable livelihood contributes the tribal community of India- a Review
Bheru Lal Kumhar1,Jamana Lal Jat2, Hemant Ameta3,Seema Jat4 and Alka Dev5
Department of Agronomy, College of Agriculture, Dapoli.
Dr. B. S. Konkan Krishi Vidyapeeth,Dapoli – 415 712, Dist. Ratnagiri (Maharashtra)1
Sam Higginbottom Institute of Agriculture,Technology & Sciences Allahabad (U. P.)2
National Research Center on Seed Spices Ajmer3
Maharana Pratap University of Agriculture and Technology Udaipur4
Career Point University Kota5, (Rajasthan)
Abstract
The sustainable livelihood synthesizes all human activities including five core assets: physical,
natural, financial, human and social capital upon which the livelihoods are built (Carney 1998).The
sustainable livelihood approach aims to find out about livelihoods to improve the design and
implementation of poverty reduction efforts (Prasad 2014). The livelihood assets status of the tribal
people in the state of India is the resultant outcome of collective performance of independent variables
such as socio-personal (age, education, social participation and family composition), economic (size of
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land holding, main occupation, housing status, farm power, farm implements, livestock possession,
material possession, income from forestry and gross annual income), psychological (level of aspiration,
knowledge about forestry practices, adoption of forestry practices and attitude towards forestry),
communication (extension contact and use of information sources) and situational (employment status,
migration status and utilization of forest resources).The Jharkhand state is bestowed with rich natural
resources, abundant biodiversity and excellent human resources.Forest based livelihoods by the tribal
people mainly revolve around collection, processing andutilization/ selling of various NTFPs like fuel
wood, lac, tooth brush, leaves for plate and cup making, fodder and browse, vegetables, fruits, seeds,
flowers, bamboos, medicines, mushrooms, oilseeds, oilseed cake, spices, honey, oils, gums, resins, gum-
resins, dyes, wax, brooms, fibers, floss, silk, charcoal, fencing, wildlife products, thatches, baskets, ropes,
mats, handicrafts, pickles, beverages, abiotic products etc.
Keywords: Livelihood, Forest, Sustainable production and Integrated farming
Introduction
The concept of sustainable development emerged in the 1980s. It propelled a paradigm shift in
development thinking, and continues to dominate the development-discourse at various levels, from the
local to global. The best explanation to sustainable development was given by the World Commission for
Environment and Development (The Bruntland Commission) in its 1987 report, ‘Our common future’, as,
‘the ability to meet the needs of the present without compromising the ability of the future generation to
meet their own needs’ (Mishra, 2005). The concept of livelihood is rapidly gaining acceptance as a
valuable means of understanding the factors that influence people’s lives and well-being. ‘It is comprised
of capacities, assets, and activities required for means of living. A livelihood will be sustainable when it
can cope with and recover from stress and shocks and maintain or enhance its capacities and assets, both
now and in the future, while not undermining the natural resource base’ (Carney, 1998). Sustainable
livelihood is a way of thinking about the objectives, scope and priorities for development, in order to
enhance progress in poverty elimination. Sustainable livelihood aims to help poor people achieve lasting
improvements against the indicators of poverty that they define.
Jharkhand literally means ‘forest region’ where forests play a central role in the economic, cultural
and socio-political systems and the entire lives and livelihoods of a majority of the people revolve around
forests and forestry. Non-timber forest products (NTFPs) play an important role in supporting rural
livelihoods and food security in Jharkhand.Livelihoods are ways of keepingoneself meaningfully
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occupied by using one’sendowments (human and material) togenerate adequate resources to meet
therequirements of the household in asustainable manner (Bernstein 1992).Livestockcontributes to food,
economics,environment, health, education, society,infrastructure, nutritional security and thusin total to
the livelihood security of tribesby providing transport and on-farm powerSustainable livelihood
approaches aregenuinely trans-disciplinary as they areproduced, disseminated and are applied inthe
borderland between research, policyand practice (Knutsson 2006).The natural system possesses self-
regulating mechanisms, which are composed of a complex web of positive and negative feedback systems
operatingwithin the context of the carrying, regeneration, and assimilation capacityof the respective
systems. Mobility of plants and animals, as an essentialelement of self-regulation of the biotic system, has
played a major role inthe evolution of the planet Earth. As an integral part of the animal kingdom,mobility
governed by ecological factors has patterned the dominant lifestyleof mankind for millions of
years.Dairying contributes to food,economic, environmental, institutional, health, educational,
social,infrastructural, nutritional security and thus in total to thelivelihood security of tribes by providing
transport and on-farmpower. Dairy animals’ manure helps in maintaining soil fertility;and they fulfill a
wide range of socio-cultural roles of tribes. Eventhe poorest of the poor tribes often have dairy animal that
cansave them along a pathway out of poverty. Small farmers havedairy animals with low milk
productivity, low milk price andshortage of quality breed animals as major constraints (Rani etal,
2013).The advantage of using a livelihood approach as a basis for analysis is that it can provide structured
thinking and a sound analytical basis on which to groundinterventions and identify opportunities for
improved assistance. Betterunderstanding of livelihoods could lead to enhanced analysis and programme
designthat is more responsive to opportunities and more focused on addressing actual vulnerabilities and
threats faced by communities. The emphasis on holistic approach does not exclude a sectorial focus. It can
help people who undertake sectorial projects to understand and build links with other sectors. The
livelihood approach helps to create insight into how sectorial initiatives have an impact on people’s
livelihoods, and into how people respond to sectorial initiatives.
Result and discussion
The livelihood of tribal communities in the area has traditionally been dominated by pig-based production
systems poultry, goat rearing and artisan activities played a vital role in the livelihood of tribal people.
These all are found to be substantially contributing for the sustainable livelihood of the respondents and
are the integral part of day-to-day livelihood activities, nutritional security and traditional lifestyle of
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tribal people in the area. Formulation of policies on sustainable livelihood of tribes ensured a number of
rights and concessions for tribal people. Therefore the livelihood promotion among tribal people needs a
paradigm shift focusing on pig production system to keep pace with sustainable development and poverty
elimination in the area (Mukesh kumar et al 2015).
Research amongst host communities in western Tanzania (Whitaker, 1999) focused on changing
opportunities faced by host communities. The study concludes that the influx of refugees created a new
context in which hosts devised strategies to gain access to incoming resources and to maintain access to
their own resources. Differing strategies and structures allowed some hosts to benefit while others became
worse off. The broad pattern, which emerged out of this study, was that hosts who already had access to
resources or power were better poised to exploit the refugee situation. While hosts who were already
disadvantaged in the local socio-economic structure, struggled to maintain access to even the most basic
resources and thus became further marginalized.
In this regard, the Situation Analysis Study of Indian farmers conducted by NSSO as a part of Millennium
Study of Union Ministry of Agriculture, has brought out some highly relevant and interesting results,
some of which are: (i) An estimated 27 per cent of the farmers do not like farming because it is not
considered profitable, (ii) Nearly 40 per cent of the farmers, if given a choice, would prefer to take up
some other career, (iii) There is very low level of awareness among farmers about the modern eco-
friendly technologies like use of bio-fertilizers, IPM and IPNM as well as of government programmes like
MSP, crop insurance and agri-export promotion, (iv) Many farmers have reported non-availability of
modern inputs within the villages, (v) Smallholders’ dependence for livelihoods on dairying and other
animal husbandry activities is higher than that of not-so-small farmers, (vi) Nearly 50 per cent of farm
households are indebted and the ratio as well as average of outstanding loan per farm household are
higher in relatively more developed states like Punjab, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh, (vii) There is a
considerable variation in per capita expenditure of farm house holds across the states Kumar et al2006.
The study leads to conclude that the livelihoods of tribal communities in the area have traditionally been
dominated by subsistence agriculture. However, the forest resources play a vital role in the livelihoods of
tribal people through direct paid employment and NTFPs based self-employment.There is enormous
scope in improvement of NTFPs based livelihoods for tribal population through proper storage and value
addition to NTFPs, domestication and commercialization of NTFPs, organized marketing system, proper
refinement and dissemination of indigenous technologies, institutional support in training and skill
development, appropriate extension and communication networks and exploring new forest resources
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based livelihood avenues through wood and NTFPs based secondary employments in the area Islam et al
2013.
The path analysis revealed that the social participation, level of aspiration and gross annual income were
the crucial variables for livelihood assets status. To make livelihoods of tribal people stronger and
sustainable, the contributor variables of livelihood assets status must be improved to accelerate the forest
resources based livelihood diversifications, promotion and development Islam et al 2014.
The study signified that despite inhabiting in resource rich areas, the tribal people are in underprivileged
position in all respects as reflected by their low socio-personal and economic status and poor employment
opportunities. The prevailing scenario led to the repercussions like acute poverty, malnutrition, migration,
substandard life quality, debt, unrest, naxalism, and isolation from national mainstream, lack of awareness
and exposure, traditional severity etc. The forests play a central role in the economic, cultural and socio-
political systems and the entire lives and livelihoods of a majority of the tribal people in the area Islam et
al 2015.
An effective management of the entire NTFPs collection is a key factor for a successful
commercialization of NTFPs in the global market. These include processing and marketing skills,
promoting the domestication of NTFPs, provision of credit to NTFPs farmers, prevention of deforestation,
effective promotion of NTFPs, up-scaling research on NTFPs and development of NTFPs policy to guide
the production, harvesting, domestication and marketing of the products. Improving the management of
NTFPs collection in the country will enormously help to boost employment and income-generation
opportunities, enhance food security and improve the livelihoods of farmers, their families, and
communities Verma and Paul 2015.
Contrary to the dominant belief of attributing ecological disaster exclusively to the industrial society,
there is strong historical evidence that ecological factors were key elements in the rise and fall of ancient
civilization and in two of the major social transformations, namely, the agricultural and industrial
transformations. An in-depth look at the different religious teachings, medieval philosophies, and
traditional beliefs as the major repositories of human knowledge besides modern science reveals that,
aside from the variation in semantics, most of them contain a strong component of living in harmony with
nature and with one another. This is the logical essence of what we, today, call sustainability, Mebratu
1998.
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Fig 1.1Sustainable livelihoods framework (Source Mukesh Kumar, Jancy Gupta and Aparna
Radhakrishnan, Sustainability of dairy based livelihoods of the tribes in Ranchi and Dhanbad districts of
Jharkhand; Indian J Dairy Sci 69(2), 2016 )
However, research (Jacobsen, 2002) has shown that many refugees cannot establish or maintain their
livelihoods because they cannot exercise the rights to which they are entitled under international human
rights, humanitarian law, and/or refugee law. Often, refugees suffer from the absence of civil, social and
economic rights including freedom of movement and residence, freedom of speech and
assembly, fair trial, property rights, the right to engage in wage labour, self-employment and the
conclusion of valid contracts, access to school education, access to credit; protection against physical and
sexual abuse, harassment, unlawful detention and deportation.
In fact, Bennett and Franzel (2009) provide the best example of how the Sustainable Livelihoods
Framework itself can constitute the conceptual framework for a meta-analysis. They scrutinized 32
underlying studies from Africa and Latin America on the capacity of organic and resource-conserving
agriculture to improve the livelihoods of poor smallholders. Although it was often argued in the past that
the Sustainable Livelihoods Framework should not be used as a rigid prescription for interventions or
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research, it becomes clear from this study that a uniform approach does enable meta-conclusions to be
drawn. But that is only the first step.
Figure 1.2 The five capitals of sustainable livelihood (Scoones 1998)
Conclusion
The livelihood approach was also attractive because it had an open eye for the wider context in
which the poor organized their livelihood strategies. The approach acknowledged that these strategies are
embedded in structures and governed by institutions: Rainfall is bounded by climate, land is placed in
property systems and wages and prices are ruled by supply and demand in markets and government
regulations. This wider context was considered fundamental because an important part of the poverty
alleviation policies and interventions was meant to aim at opportunities and constraints in these structures
that would either enable or prevent the poor from organizing effective livelihood strategies. If these
policies and interventions could become more effective, it would bring the poor less vulnerability, more
well-being and more sustainability.
Reference
Natural capital
natural resource stocks (soil, water, air, genetic resources etc.)
and environmental services
(hydrological cycle, pollution sinks etc.)
Human capital
skills, knowledge, labour
(includes good health and Economic or financial capital
physical capability)capital base (cash, credit/debt, savings, and other economic assets)
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Bennett, M. and Franzel, S. (2009): Can organic and resource-conserving agriculture improve
livelihoods? A meta-analysis and conceptual framework for site-specific evaluation. ICRAF Occasional
Paper 11. Nairobi.
Bernstein H. 1992: Rural livelihoods: crises and responses. Oxford University Press, Oxford in
association with Open University.
Carney D. 1998: Sustainable Rural Livelihoods, What Contribution Can We Make? Nottingham: DFID.
Desta Mebratu(1998), sustainability and sustainable development: historical and conceptual
reviewenviron. impact asses rev.1998;18:493–520, International Institute for Industrial Environmental
Economics, Lund University
Islam M. A., Quli S.M.S., Rai R.and Sofi P.A. 2013: Livelihood contributions of forest resources to the
tribal communities of Jharkhand,In. J. of Funda. and Applied Life Sciences 2013 Vol. 3 (2) April-June,
pp. 131-144.
IslamM.A., QuliS.M.S., Rai R. and AliA. 2014: Exploration of Variables Predicting Livelihood Assets
Status ofTribal Communities Subsisting in Forests of Jharkhand, India J Hum Ecol, 47(3): 241-249
(2014)
Islam, M.A., Rai, R., Quli, S.M.S. and Tramboo, M.S. 2015: Socio-economic and demographic
descriptions of tribal people subsisting in forest resources of Jharkhand, India. Asian J. Bio. Sci., 10 (1) :
75-82.
Jacobsen, Karen, 2002. Supporting Displaced Livelihoods: the Economic Impact of Protracted Conflict
and Displacement, and Lessons Learned from Four MicroenterpriseInterventions. November 2002.
Knutsson P. 2006: The sustainable livelihoods approach: a framework for knowledge integration
assessment,Human Ecology Review 13(1): 90-99.
Kumar M., Gupta J. and Radhakrishnan A. 2016: Sustainability of dairy based livelihoods of the tribes in
Ranchi and Dhanbad districts of Jharkhand, Indian J. Dairy Sci. 69(2), 2016.
Kumar M., Gupta j., Radhakrishnanand A. and Singh M. 2015: Pig-based production system contributing
towards thesustainable livelihood of tribes of Jharkhand, I. J. of Farm Sci. 5(4) : 290-298, 2015.
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Kumar P., Singh N.P. and Mathur V.C. 2006: Agricultural Economics Research ReviewVol. 19
(Conference No.) 2006 pp 1-22
Mishra, N. 2005: Eco-feminism: A global concern’, Social welfare, 3-8.
Prasad J.V.N.S. 2014. Livelihood diversification through agroforestry in India. Paper presented in World
Congress on Agroforestry, New Delhi, February 10 to 12, 2014.
Rani R., Gill A. and Bajaj G. 2013: Constraints perceived by dairy farmers inadoption and repayment of
dairy loans,J. of Ani. Re. 3 (1): 75-84.
Scoones, I (1998) „Sustainable Rural Livelihoods: A Framework for Analysis�,Working Paper 72,
Brighton, UK: Institute for Development Studies.
Verma S.K. and Paul S.K. 2015: Sustaining Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFPs) Based Rural
Livelihood of Tribal in Jharkhand: Issues and Challenges, IASC conference 2015.
Whitaker, Beth Elise, 1999. Changing opportunities: refugees and host communities in western Tanzania.
New Issues in Refugee Research, Working Paper no. 11, UNHCR, Geneva, 1999.
(9) Productivity of Rice ( Oryza sativa ) as influenced by SRI and fertility levels in Chambal
Command of Rajasthan
PRATAP SINGH1, R.S.NAROLIA2, I.N. MATHUR 3 AND H.P.MEENA4
Corresponding author : [email protected] 1Director Research and ZDR, Agriculture University, Kota and 2,3,4 Asstt. Professors AICRP on Water
Management, ARS, Kota
All India Coordinated Irrigation Water Management Project, Agricultural Research Station (
Agriculture University) Kota, Rajasthan 324001
ABSTRACT
System of rice intensification (SRI) has attracted attentions because of its apparent success in increasing rice yields
with less water use. SRI management involves many departures from the methods conventionally recommended for
rice cultivation. SRI practices are reported to increase the yields of irrigated rice by 25-50% or even more
(Thakur et al. 2010) while reducing water requirements (Satyanarayana et al. 2007). No information on this
method of rice establishment are available in rice grown in the south-eastern Rajasthan. Hence, experiments were
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conducted during kharif season of 2010-2011 at the research farm of ARS, Kota and demonstrations at farmers
fields to evaluate the feasibility of SRI and best suited fertility levels for this and saving of water in the
rice growing area of Chambal command. The maximum paddy yield was observed under SRI ( 56.85
q/ha) and among fertility levels 100 % RDN (75% N by inorganic + 25% N by organic) gave maximum
paddy yield. Water expense efficiency was more under SRI as compared to conventional method.
METHODOLOGY:
The experiment were laid out in split plot design in four replications comprising of 2 methods of crop
establishment viz., conventional transplanting (CT) and system of rice intensification (SRI) and 4 fertility levels
i.e. 100% RDN by inorganics; 75% RDN (75% N by inorganics + 25% organics);100% RDN (75% N
by inorganics + 25% organics) and 100% RDN by organics using variety-Pusa basmati-1. After puddling
twenty-five days old seedlings of rice were transplanted under conventional transplanting at 20 cm x 10 cm spacing
keeping 2-3 seedlings/hill and for SRI, 12 days old 1 seedlings/hill were transplanted. In conventional method 5-7
cm water was maintained from transplanting to grain filling stage of crop and in SRI, alternate wetting and drying
conditions were maintained in early crop growth period and 2 cm water was maintained between panicle initiation
stage and grain filling stage.
RESULTS AND CONCLUSION:
Growth and yield parameters at harvest was significantly higher in SRI as compared to conventional
transplanting. This can be attributed to more space, sunlight and nutrients available in SRI due to the wider
spacing (Thakur et al 2010). Higher root volume in top 15 cm soil depth was recorded in SRI followed by CT.
Higher root growth and activity under SRI relates to increased root oxidation activity and root-sourced
cytokinins (Zhang et al. 2009). This might be due to lesser tiller mortality in SRI due to water management
through alternate drying and wetting than conventional flooding method. Heaviest panicles, significantly higher
than which in turn produced significantly heavier panicle than . Significantly more filled grains/ panicle were
recorded in SRI than in CT. Significantly
higher grain yield was recorded in SRI ( 56.85 q/ha) as compared to CT ( 48.41q/ha) . It revealed that
paddy yield is significantly influenced by the various treatments. The maximum paddy yield was
observed under the treatment system of rice intensification (56.85 q/ha) and among fertility levels 100 %
RDN (75% N by inorganic + 25% N by organic) gave maximum paddy yield. Water expense efficiency
was more under SRI as compared to conventional method. Application of 100 % RDN (75 % by
inorganics + 25 % N by Organics) gave higher water expense efficiency.Nissanka and Bandara (2004)
Vol -1; Issue -2
reported 7.6 t/ha grain yields in SRI and it was 9% greater than the conventional transplanting. Higher grain yield
production in the SRI might be attributed to the vigorous and healthy growth, development of more productive
tillers and leaves, ensuring greater resource utilization in the SRI compared to conventional transplanting.
Overall, combined effect of SRI and fertility gave higher yield and resulted in increased net return as compared to
CT. The reduction in seed rate and irrigation requirement in SRI were the main benefits of SRI.Based on two years
study, it is concluded that system of rice intensification is better than conventional and may be the next best
alternative to grow with less water in south-eastern Rajasthan.
Table 1 : Effect of method of cultivation and fertility levels on the yield and WEE in Rice
Treatments Grain Yield (q/ha) Water Expense efficiency
(kg/ha/cm)
2010 2011 Pooled 2010 2011 Mean
Method of cultivation
SRI method (SRI) 54.58 59.13 56.85 47.5 50.5 49.0
Conventional method (CT) 47.75 49.06 48.41 29.7 33.2 31.4
CD (P=0.05) 5.54 7.36 5.38
Fertility levels
100 % RDF by Inorganics 53.87 57.18 55.52 39.0 43.2 41.1
100 % RDF by Organics 41.96 46.08 44.02 30.4 34.8 32.6
100 % RDF (75 % N by Inorganics
+ 25 % N by Organics )
58.29 60.63 59.46 42.2 45.8 44.0
75 % RDF (75 % N by Inorganics
+25 % N by Organics)
50.54 52.50 51.52 36.6 39.6 38.1
CD (P=0.05) 2.71 2.59 2.27
References :
Satnarayan,A.,Thiyarajan,T.M. and Upoff,N.2007.Opportunities for water saving with higher yield from
the system of rice intensification. Irrigation Science 25:99-115.
Thakur,A.K., Rath,S., Roychwdhury,S and Uphoff,N.2010.Comparative performance of rice with SRI and
conventional management using different plant spacings. J.Agronomy and Crop Science 196 (20146-159.
Vol -1; Issue -2
(10) Influence of Weed and Fertilizer Management on Nutrient Depletion in Soybean
Pratap Singh1 , V. Nepalia2 and S.S.Tomar
Agriculture Research Station, Ummedganj, Agriculture University, Kota-324001 (Raj.)
A field experiment conducted during the rainy season of 2002 and 2003 to develop the suitable weed
management practices for decreasing the nutrient removal by weeds and increasing the uptake by soybean
crop and it yield showed that weeds in soybean depleted the soil fertility by removing 69.2 Kg N, 12.4 Kg
P and 76.7 Kg K under unweeded check. Tank mix application of chlorimuron-ethyl + fenoxaprop-p-ethyl
at 9+70 and 6+50 g ha-1 at 10-20 days after sowing significantly reduced the NPK depletion by both
categories of weeds while their alone applications proved effective in reducing the nutrient removal by
individual weed categories and consequently gave higher seed yield.
METHEDOLOGY:
The experiment was carried out at Agricultural Research Station, Kota during the Kharif season of 2002
and 2003. The soil was clay-loam with 367 & 370 kg available N, 23.5 & 24.0 Kg P and 310 & 312 Kg K
ha-1 during 2002 & 2003, respectively. The experiment was conducted in split plot design comprising
twelve weed control treatments in main plots viz. Two hand weeding at 30 and 45 days after sowing
(DAS); Alachlor 2.0 kg ha-1 as pre-emergence (PE); Alachlor 2.0 kg ha-1 + one hand weeding at 30 DAS;
One hand weeding (HW) at 30 DAS; Chlorimuron-ethyl (CE) 9 g ha-1; Fenoxaprop-p-ethyl (FPE) 70 g ha-
1; Quizalofop-ethyl (QE) 50 g ha-1
; Chlorimuron-ethyl + Fenoxaprop-p-ethyl (9 + 70 and 6 + 50 g ha-1);
Chlorimuron-ethyl + Quizalofop-ethyl (9+50 and 6+37.5 g ha-1) as post-emergence(POE) and three
fertility levels (75% of recommended dose of fertilizers (RDF), 100% and 125% RDF) in sub plots.
Soybean cv. “Pratap Soya” inoculated with Rhizobium culture and was sown with the on set of monsoon
on 21 July, 2002 and 7 July, 2003. The observation on weed density and weed dry matter were recorded
using quadrate. The soil had organic carbon 0.56 & 0.57 % with pH 7.7 & 7.8. Pre-emergence and post
emergence herbicides were applied one and 15-20 days after sowing. Individual weed samples were
collected and then oven dried. The samples were ground and digested using the 10:4:1 HNO3: H2SO4:
HClO4 tri-acid mixture. The N content was determined by colorimeter using Nessller’s reagent while P
content was determined by USDA hand book no 60 (Richards, 1968) and K content by flame photometric
method (Richards, 1968). Uptake of N and P was calculated by multiplying per cent content and dry
weight.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION: `
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Echinochloa spp. and Celosia argentia were found to be most dominant weeds. Weeds depleted the soil
fertility by taking 29.6 and 55.4 Kg N ha-1, 4.6 and 10.3 kg P ha-1 and 31.9 and 60.2 Kg K ha-1 under
unweeded check. Alachlor @ 1.0 kg ha-1 + 1 HW at 30 DAS and tank mixture of chlorimuron-ethyl +
fenoxaprop-p-ethyl (9+70 & 6+50 g ha-1) as POE were found more effective in decreasing N, P and K
removal by weeds than alone herbicidal treatments. Tank mix application of chlorimuron-ethyl +
fenoxaprop-p-ethyl (9+70 & 6+50 g ha-1) and chlorimuron-ethyl + quizalofop-p-ethyl (9+50 & 6+37.5 g
ha-1) tended to reduce nutrient depletion significantly by total weeds due to wide spectrum weed control.
Increasing fertility levels over 75 per cent RDF tended to increase N, P and K uptake by weeds.
Application of nutrients at recommended level and to the extent of 125 per cent, resulted in significantly
higher nutrient uptake by weeds individually and in totality as comparison to 75 per cent RDF. Weedy
conditions throughout the growing season resulted in 65.1,63.9 and 61.2 percent reduction in N, P and K
uptake by crop (Seed + Straw),respectively. Post emergence tank mix application of chlorimuron-ethyl +
fenoxaprop-p-ethyl (9+70 & 6+50 gha-1) and pre emergence alachlor @ 2.0 Kg ha-1 followed by one hand
weeding at 30 DAS resulted in highest N, P & K uptake by crop being statistically similar to weed control
through two hand weeding. Uptake of nutrient (N, P and K) by seed, straw and their total uptake were
significantly increased upto 100 per cent RDF application whereas lowering of fertility levels to the extent
of 25 per cent (75% RDF) tended to reduced nutrient uptake to the soybean crop. The enhancement in
seed yield due to chlorimuron-ethyl + fenoxaprop-p-ethyl (9+70 & 6+50 gha-1) was 41.0, 59.9, 51.1, 56.6,
163.7 and 39.0, 57.7, 49.0, 54.4 and 160.0 per cent compared to alone chlorimuron-ethyl, fenoxaprop-p-
ethyl, quizalofop-ethyl, alachlor and weed check, respectively. The seeds yield was enhanced significantly
due to fertility levels. Compared to 100 per cent RDF, application of 75 and 125 per cent RDF lead to
14.68, 2.33 and 13.84, 2.61 per cent decrease and increase in yield during 2002 and 2003,re spectively.
These results are in close conformity with Jain et al. (1988).The improvement under these treatments was
because reduced weed competition due to effective weed control improved nutrient uptake of the crop.
Weed control is a valuable tool for realizing higher seed yield as it curbs the weed growth at right in time
and will ensure efficient utilization of fertilizers by crop plants. Therefore, weed should be controlled to
avoid losses caused by weeds and for improvement in N, P and K uptake by crop.
REFERENCES
Jain,H.C., S.K.Dubey and J.S.Bisen, 1988. Influence of weed control and fertility levels on soybean (
Glycine max (L.) Merrill). Indian J. Weed Sci. 20 (2): 68.74.
Richards 1968. USDA hand book no 60.
Vol -1; Issue -2
(11) Recent challenges in the transformation of wheat: Transgenic Research
Arpita Sharma1,2,#, Kailash Chand Bansal2 and Indu Ravi3
1Department of Biotechnology and Bioscience, Banasthali University, Niwai (Tonk), Rajasthan-, India.
2National Bureau Plant Genetics Resources, IARI, Pusa, New Delhi - 110012, India
3Indira Gandhi National Open University, Regional Centre, Jaipur, Rajasthan – 302020, India
# Email of Corresponding author: [email protected]
Phone of Corresponding author: +91-9910300927, +91-8078670614
Abstract Efficient and cost-effective transformation technologies are essential for studying gene function in the
major cereal crops, mainly in wheat. Demand for efficient transformation systems to allow over-
expression of target genes, is greatly increasing day by day. Wheat can be transformed at very high
efficiency but the methods are genotype-dependent. Wheat is most recalcitrant crop to transform;
however, advanced technologies are also allowing the development of high-throughput transformation
systems in wheat. For many gene function studies in wheat, researcher face some problems like low
transformation rates, complex genome. An ideal transformation system needs to be extremely efficient,
simple to perform, inexpensive, genotype-independent, and give the required expression of the transgene.
Considerable progress has been made in enhancing transformation efficiencies, controlling transgene
expression and in understanding and manipulating transgene insertion. In India, a number of challenges
still remain in wheat transformation studies, one of the key ones being the development of genotype
independent transformation systems for wheat and provide database of some Indian genotypes with
complete information about regeneration & transformation.
Key words: Wheat transformation, particle bombardment, genotype dependence, transgene expression.
Introduction
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Efficient, high-throughput, and cost-effective transformation technology is vital in order to allow the
functional analysis of genes of potential value in crop improvement programmes. This application of crop
transformation may not lead to the development of a commercial GM crop but rather will provide a
valuable contribution in the process leading to the development of improved conventional crops.
However, the direct use of GM technology in wheat may also have future applications in improving the
ability of these crops to withstand environmental challenges, in increasing yield, and enhancing
nutritional quality.
In this research, the focus is on stable transformation systems. Several researchers made a comparison of
biolistic and Agrobacterium-mediated transformation methods in wheat. It was found that particle
bombardment gave higher transformation efficiencies as well as giving and stable transgene expression. A
recent report of routine and highly efficient particle bombardment-mediated wheat transformation
describes a high-throughput method with an average transformation efficiency of 45% to 35% for the
various genotypes namely HD2894, HD2888, HD2329, HD2932 & other (Ali et al., 2015). Wheat is
considering the world’s most important crop but it has lagged in terms of development of efficient
transformation methods. The first successful wheat transformation used microprojectile bombardment of
embryogenic callus tissue (Vasil et al., 1992). Agrobacterium-mediated transformation techniques were
first reported in 1997 (Cheng et al., 1997). However, despite these first successful reports, the efficiency
of wheat transformation remained low and microprojectile bombardment remained the method of choice
as it generally gave higher efficiencies than Agrobacterium. Microprojectile bombardment and
Agrobacterium-mediated transformation were compared in wheat and, after large-scale experiments,
higher transformation efficiencies were achieved with Agrobacterium (Hu et al., 2003). High quality
transformation events are usually considered to be single copy insertions of the gene of interest without
additional backbone sequences or other rearrangements and with stable expression of the transgene over
generations. Hu et al., (2003) used immature embryos as explants for transformation and, indeed,
throughout the history of the development of transformation methodology, immature embryos have been
the preferred explant for both wheat. Agrobacterium-mediated transformation is now able to yield
efficiencies up to 30% in wheat (Risacher et al., 2009). However, Agrobacterium mediated transformation
is limited to specific wheat genotypes whereas biolistics methods are applicable to a much wider range
(Sparks and Jones, 2009). Although high transformation efficiencies are essential to minimize the effort
required to produce sufficient numbers of independent transgenic plants for analysis, there are many other
desirable features of transformation systems. The ability to obtain the required level and pattern of
expression of the transgene is also important and, in some cases, it is necessary to control, or at least to
Vol -1; Issue -2
determine and understand, the site of transgene insertion. High-throughput transformation systems are
usually developed for a single responsive genotype and are not transferrable to alternative genotypes. An
ideal transformation system would be genotype independent but this remains one of the key challenges for
wheat. In this review, each of these features of transformation systems is considered in turn. The aim is to
provide some recent advances leading to improved wheat systems and to identify the challenges still
remaining. Improving transformation efficiency, there are some areas to consider when attempting to
improve transformation efficiency, like improving regeneration from the chosen target tissue, increasing
the number of transformation events and, improving the ability to select transformation events.
Regeneration The first key requirement for a successful transformation system is a highly regenerable target tissue. In
wheat, mature embryos have been the target tissue of choice different culture systems. Picloram has also
been shown to be beneficial in some cereal cultures giving better regeneration than 2,4
dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) (Barro et al., 1999). However, simple modifications to culture media
components have also had a very significant effect in enhancing regeneration. Ali et al., 2013 developed a
high-throughput transformation system for wheat and, during the optimization of the system, changes
were made to the level of copper in the culture media. For example, 2,4 dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-
D) has been shown to act as a powerful growth regulator with combination with Kinetin, ABA in cereals
(Ali et al., 2013; Ali et al., 2015) with the potential to enhance regeneration.
Increasing high number of transformation events Despite the improvements made by adding or changing the concentration of various media components,
these changes only, improve regeneration in certain genotypes and in certain
culture systems. Studies such as these indicate that, in order to improve regeneration efficiency in a range
of genotypes, it is first necessary to understand the genes involved in the regeneration response and their
expression patterns and then to adapt or tailor the strategies to improve regeneration to the required
genotype. The second approach to improving transformation efficiencies is to increase the number of
transformation events. In rice and maize, it has been reported that treatment of immature embryos by
centrifugation and heat improves transformation efficiency (Hiei et al., 2006). After regeneration
efficiency from the target tissue and the number of transformation events has been optimized, it is still
necessary to have an efficient system to identify the resulting transformation events. Efficient, cost-
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effective transformation systems must be able to select transgenic plants and avoid non-transgenic
‘escape’ plants coming through the system, as this leads to time-consuming additional analysis.
Selection Marker In a number of cereals, including wheat, the hygromycin resistance gene provides an effective selection
system that rarely allows escape plants to survive (Harwood et al., 2009). However, a number of other
selectable marker genes, including the bar gene, conferring resistance to the glufosinate group of
herbicides, are also effective (Harwood and Smedley, 2009; Wu et al., 2008). Isolation of containing the
bar gene, together with a labelled marker. It is well known that if a population of independent transgenic
lines is developed, each containing a single copy of the same transgene, then a range of different
transgene expression levels will be observed (Bartlett et al., 2009). The bar gene has been used to select
transformed tissues in many species including wheat (Ali et al., 2015) and has been promoted as being
more desirable than herbicide or antibiotic resistance genes from a biosafety/regulatory point of view.
Controlling transgene expression The ability to obtain the required level and pattern of transgene expression is another key requirement for
any transformation system. The first consideration for controlling transgene expression is the choice of
promoter. Hensel et al., (2011) provides a list of promoters shown to be effective in the cereals. A number
of promoters give good constitutive expression throughout the plant, for example, the maize ubiquitin
promoter that is widely used in wheat. A comparison of gus gene activity in barley under different
promoters is described by Himmelbach et al., (2007) who found the highest expression levels with the
maize ubiquitin promoter. This highlights the need for care while choosing a promoter to control
transgene expression. The range of available promoters has now been extended to include those induced
by biotic or abiotic stress.
Choice of genotype and explant The grouping of genotypes of choice for transformation event can be complicated and time-consuming
but information is very necessary to fight with food scarcity. Ali et al., (2015), recently gave this
information for Indian genotypes.
Genotype dependence in wheat transformation
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One key remaining challenge for crop transformation systems is to overcome genotype dependence. In
wheat, the most successful, high-throughput transformation systems use the HD2894, HD2888, HD2932
and HD2329 (Ali et al., 2013). These genotypes have excellent regeneration from mature embryo target
tissues as well as good regeneration. An assessment of the transformation efficiency for these genotypes
compared with other Indian genotypes showed that, they gave transformation efficiencies up to 35%, the
other varieties failed to yield any transformation events (Ali et al., 2015). Callus resistant to the selective
agent Basta is only seen from wheat transformation varieties Promise confers the high transformability.
This clearly demonstrates that transformability in wheat is under genetic control. There are examples
throughout the literature of particular wheat genotypes being amenable to transformation. In wheat, more
genotypes can be transformed using biolistic techniques than using Agrobacterium. Sparks and Jones
(2009) describe a biolistics protocol that has allowed the transformation of 35 wheat genotypes while only
a few genotypes can be transformed using Agrobacterium. This is probably because, although a number
of genotypes have the ability to regenerate green plants from immature embryos, only a few of them are
also susceptible to Agrobacterium. High-throughput transformation systems in wheat must use a target
tissue that is easily isolated and highly regenerable. For wheat the most suitable target is mature embryos.
As both the regeneration of green plants from mature embryo target tissues and susceptibility to
bombardment are under genetic control, an understanding of the genes involved is probably a prerequisite
for developing strategies to overcome genotype dependence. Although technical challenges still remain
with the technologies for achieving targeted transgene insertion, these technologies should allow the goal
of targeted transgene insertion in wheat to be achieved.
Conclusions Transformation efficiencies in wheat continue to increase and this is allowing the demand for an
evaluation of gene function using transgenic tools to be meet. However, the pace of gene discovery is also
increasing, with the availability of more sequenced crop genomes and
improved genomics tools, meaning that even more genes will need to go through a transformation
pipeline to allow the study of gene function. A key remaining challenge is the genotype dependence of
wheat transformation systems and this continues to restrict the application of the technology. It is,
however, likely that, by understanding and manipulating plant genes important in either the plant
regeneration process it will be possible to address issues of genotype dependence and to improve
transformation efficiencies further.
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Acknowledgement Support by grant in aid to the National Research Centre on Plant Biotechnology from Indo-United States
Agricultural Knowledge Initiative (Indo-US AKI) project of Indian Council of Agricultural Research
(ICAR), first author is gratefully thanks to provide SRF fellowship during project. Dr. S. K. Singh is
gratefully acknowledged for contributing great ideas. first author is gratefully thanked to Banasthali
University, NBPGR & NRCPB for their constant support during Ph. D.
References:
1. Barro F, Martin A, Lazzeri PA, Barcelo´ P. 1999. Medium optimization for efficient somatic
embryogenesis and plant regeneration from immature inflorescences and immature scutella of elite
cultivars of wheat, barley and tritordeum. Euphytica 180, 161–167.
2. Bartlett JG, Snape JW, Harwood WA. 2009. Intron-mediated enhancement as a method for
increasing transgene expression levels in barley. Plant Biotechnology Journal 7, 856–866.
3. Cheng A, Fry JE, Pang S, Zhou H, Hironaka C, Duncan DR, Conner TW, Wan Y. 1997. Genetic
transformation of wheat mediated by Agrobacterium tumefaciens. Plant Physiology 115, 971–980.
4. Harwood WA, Bartlett J, Alves S, Perry M, Smedley M, Leyland N, Snape JW. 2009. Barley
transformation using Agrobacterium-mediated techniques. In: Jones HD, Shewry PR, eds.
5. Methods in molecular biology, transgenic wheat, barley and oats, Vol. 478, 137–147.
6. Harwood WA, Smedley M. 2009. Barley transformation using biolistic techniques. In: Jones HD,
Shewry PR, eds. Methods in molecular biology, transgenic wheat, barley and oats, Vol. 478, 125–
136.
7. Hensel G, Himmelbach A, Chen W, Douchkov DK, Kumlehn J. 2011. Transgene expression
systems in the Triticeae cereals. Journal of Plant Physiology 168, 30–44.
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8. Hiei Y, Ishida Y, Kasaoka K, Komari T. 2006. Improved frequency of transformation in rice and
maize by treatment of immature embryos with centrifugation and heat prior to infection with
Agrobacterium tumefaciens. Plant Cell Tissue and Organ Culture 87, 233–243.
9. Himmelbach A, Zierold U, Hensel G, Riechen J, Douchkov D, Schweizer P, Kumlehn J. 2007. A
set of modular binary vectors for transformation of cereals. Plant Physiology 145, 1192–1200.
10. Hu T, Metz S, Chay C, et al. 2003. Agrobacterium-mediated largescale transformation of wheat
(Triticum aestivum L.) using glyphosate selection. Plant Cell Reports 21, 1010–1019.
11. Risacher T, Craze M, Bowden S, Paul W, Barsby T. 2009. Highly efficient Agrobacterium-
mediated transformation of wheat via in planta inoculation. In: Jones HD, Shewry PR, eds.
Methods in molecular biology, transgenic wheat, barley and oats, Vol. 478, 115–124.
12. Salari A**, Sharma A**, Muthusamy SK, Singh SK, V Chinnusamy V and Bansal KC. 2013. An
Improved Protocol for High Frequency Plant Regeneration from Mature Embryos of Wheat.
Procedings of Indian national Science Academy 79(2), 159-166.
**The first and second authors contributed equally
13. Salari A, Sharma A, Singh SK and Bansal KC. 2015. Comparative in vitro regeneration and
transient transformation efficiency of different genotypes of wheat (Triticum aestivum).
14. Indian Journal of Agricultural Sciences 85 (8), 1065–70.
15. Sparks CA, Jones HD. 2009. Biolistics transformation of wheat. In: Jones HD, Shewry PR, eds.
Methods in molecular biology, transgenic wheat, barley and oats, Vol. 478, 71–92.
16. Travella S, Ross SM, Harden J, Everett C, Snape JW, Harwood WA. 2005. A comparison of
transgenic barley lines produced by particle bombardment and Agrobacterium-mediated
techniques. Plant Cell Reports 23, 780–789.
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17. Vasil V, Castillo AM, Fromm ME, Vasil IK. 1992. Herbicide resistant fertile transgenic wheat
plants obtained by microprojectile bombardment of regenerable embryogenic callus.
Biotechnology 10, 667–674.
18. Wu H, Doherty A, Jones HD. 2008. Efficient and rapid Agrobacterium-mediated genetic
transformation of durum wheat (Triticum turgidum L. var. durum) using additional virulence
genes. Transgenic Research 17, 425–436.
(12) Integrated Pest Management in Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.): A Review Nikki Bhardwaj1, Shrinath Sharma2 and S. S. Tomar3
1 Research Scholar, Rajmata Vijayaraje Scindia Krishi Vishwavidyalaya Gwalior (M.P.) 2Assistant professor, School of Agricultural Sciences, Career Point University, Kota (Raj.) 3Professor & Dean, School of Agricultural Sciences, Career Point University, Kota (Raj.)
Abstract: A review study was carried out was on highly problematic pest, gram pod borer(H. armigera L.) is
conducted through effective result on scientific research to find out the effective management of this
insect. The sizable area of chickpea is having the problem of pod borer which reduces the yield of
chickpea upto 60 Per cent hence; the review is restricted to IPM which also increases the yield of gram
due several cultured technologies adopted in IPM system. In the study, IPM module having deep summer
ploughing, intercultural operation, use of pheromone trap and bamboo purses for sitting of carnivorous
birds like mayna and drongo etc, was for the best in comparison to other methods of pest control.
Introduction:
Agriculture is the main back bone of our economy, and more than 60 percent population of our country
engaged with rural farming. Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) is major crop of south east part of Rajasthan
(Kota) in rabi season, but the major hindrance in production is polyphagous pest is gram pod borer
(Helicoverpa armigera Hubner) this pest cause the 50 -60 per cent loss in yield. The gram pod borer or
the gram caterpillar is polyphagous and sporadic pest is widely distributed in India, Cunningham, et.al.,
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(2007) Recent experimental evidence has shown that learning occurs in the host selection behaviour of H.
armigera (Hübner), one of the world‘s most harmful agricultural pests. This paper discusses the
occurrence of learning changes our understanding of the host selection behaviour of this polyphagous
moth, a number of field studies have shown that the ‘attractiveness’ of different hosts for H. armigera
oviposition may depend on the relative abundance of these host species. Insect learning may play a
fundamental role in the design and application of present and future integrated pest management strategies
such as the use of host volatiles, trap crops and resistant crop varieties for monitoring and controlling this
pest species. H. armigera is one of the most harmful pests infesting from the bud formation to the
maturity of the crop (Patil et al., 1990). It is a polyphagous pest occurring on a variety of crops (Mehrvar
et al., 2009; Chari et al., 1990). Indiscriminate and excessive use of chemicals all over the world leads to
develop resistance against various insecticides (Rao et al., 2000). Therefore, looking into this problem
there is a strong need of Integrated Pest Management which can solve the problem with minimum
expenses. Hence, the present review paper is based on deferent aspects of Integrated Pest Management in
chickpea.
Tools of IPM: Following tools can be used for the purpose of integrated pest management. Broadly this
may divided into three categories, which are as follows:
1. Cultural Method of IPM: A. Deep summer ploughing: Deep summer ploughing by M.B. plough be shown effective tool for
destroyed insect pest at immature stage.
B. Field sanitation: Field sanitation is an important and highly effective farm practice to keep most
pests under control. That remains in soil after the harvesting of the crop. H. armigera larva thrives
on other crops also but it affects chickpea crop very adversely. Hence, field sanitation is very
important tool for controlling infestation from this insect at immature stage which present in crop
residue.
C. Bird perches: Used Bird perches for birds, so that these birds can eat larval of caterpillar and
other insect immature stages. It is one of the significant method that lead to a harmonious and
sustainable management of gram pod borer (H. armigera) in chickpea. Several species of
insectivorous birds have been found to feed on insect pests of crops including H. armigera
(Chakravarthy, 1988) which are known to reduce the larval population to the extent of 84 per cent.
Among the predatory birds, black drongo, house sparrows, blue jays, cattle egret, rosy pastor and
mynah have been commonly recorded predators on large number of H. armigera and lepidopteron
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insects on chickpea, pigeon pea, and groundnut crops (Gokhale and Ameta, 1991). The study
conducted by Gopali et al., (2009) found that sowing of sunflower (50 g/ha) and sorghum (50
g/ha) along with chickpea seeds recorded lower larval number (0.35 larvae/m row) over no live
bird perch (4.12 larvae/m row). Sunflower acted as most suitable live bird perch in chickpea
ecosystem as it is very fast growing plant and provided rigid support for alighting insectivorous
birds right from vegetative stage till maturity of the crop. Major predatory birds alighted on
sunflower perch reducing the larval number in the shortest time. Predatory wasps carrying large
number of larvae was recorded on sunflower plants.
D. Trap cropping: We use this term to define the most general practice of trap cropping, in which a
trap crop planted next to a higher value crop is naturally more attractive to a pest as either a food
source or oviposition site than is the main crop, thus preventing or making less likely the arrival of
the pest to the main crop and/or concentrating it in the trap crop where it can be economically
destroyed. Shelton and Badenes-Perez (2005) trap cropping, a traditional tool of pest management,
trap crop may include not only natural differential attractiveness for oviposition and feeding, but
also other attributes that enable the trap crop plants to serve as a sink for insects or the pathogens
they vector. Successful deployment of trap crops within a landscape depends on the inherent
characteristics of the trap crop and the higher value crop, Thus, trap cropping is more knowledge-
intensive than many other forms of pest management. And provide a synthesis of the factors that
influence the success of trap cropping. Last, we provide a list of recommendations and guidelines
that should prove helpful in moving trap cropping forward to its full potential.
E. Intercropping: Use of intercropping with non-preferred host plant like barley, wheat, mustard
and linseed should be preferred over sole crop. Singh & co workers in year 2009 found that
intercropping in chickpea on natural enemies of gram pod borer (H. armigera) and to monitor the
adult population through pheromone traps. Highest chickpea equivalent grain yield was recorded
in chickpea + mustard (6:2) during both the seasons followed by chickpea + barley (4:2) during
rabi 2004-05 and chickpea + linseed / chickpea + coriander (4:2) during 2006-07. Pod damage by
H. armigera was highest in chickpea sole crop.
2. Biological Method of IPM: these use of different biological control agents are the most
effective, inexpensive and environmentally safest methods for the control of many biotic stresses
including H. armigera and here below discussed individually. (Wubneh W. Y. 2016) The use of
Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) based microbial insecticides have become an integral part of IPM
Vol -1; Issue -2
approaches, particularly because these preparations provide an environmentally suitable
alternative to the generally hazardeous broad-spectrum chemical insecticides. These bacterial
insecticides like Nuclear Polyhedrosis Virus (NPV), which is target specific and exert no effect on
beneficial organisms (e.g. parasitoids and predators).
A. Viruses and fungi
Most natural populations of H. armigera, and also of other lepidopteran species, have at least
some degree of infection by species-specific nuclear polyhedrosis viruses (NPVs). If the degree
of NPV infection can be enhanced then the Helicoverpa larval population can be decimated,
without deleterious effects on any other organisms. HaNPV has been reported to be a viable
option to control H. armigera in chickpea.
In 1993, some cotton farmers in Yeotimal district of Maharashtra state of India were able to
manage H. armigera by spraying chilly plus garlic extract. Later, this method was successfully
applied to control pod borer on chickpea
B. Bacteria
In the developed world, use of Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) based microbial insecticides have
become an integral part of IPM approaches, particularly because these preparations provide an
environmentally suitable alternative to the generally hazardous broad-spectrum chemical
insecticides. These bacterial insecticides, like nuclear polyhedrosis virus (NPV), target specific
insects but do not affect beneficial organisms (e.g. parasitoids and predators). With the
development of more effective Bt strains and improved commercial formulations, these insect
pathogens are gaining increasing international support for use against agricultural insect pests.
The efficacy of Bt, which can be enhanced by incorporation of suitable quantities of acids, salts,
oils, adjuvants, thuringiensin (exotoxin of Bt) and chemical insecticides, against lepidopteran
pests including H. armigera has been demonstrated.
The ichneumonid, Campoletis chlorideae (Uchida), is probably the most important larval
parasitoid on H. armigera in chickpea in India. Carcelia illota (Curran), Goniophthalmus halli
Mesnil and Palexorista laxa (Curran) have also been reported to parasitize up to 54 per cent
larvae on chickpea . Although Pawar et al. reported 31.4 per cent parasitism of H. armigera
larvae by C. chlorideae (Uchida), an ichneumonid, in chickpea at ICRISAT, India. In Bihar state
of India, 14.3 to 58.0 per cent parasitism of H. armigera larvae by C. chlorideae was observed in
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chickpea fields [70]. In Maharashtra state of India, 14.7 per cent parasitism by C. chlorideae on
H. armigera larvae was observed in a chickpea field
3. Physical Method of IPM:
• Use trap: Use Pheromone traps for H. aemigera monitoring is highly beneficial to control of
gram pod borer because trap attracts male insect and allow collecting of male insect the can be
destroyed hence, this trap minimize the pest problem.
4. Chemical Method of IPM:
A. Effect of various chemical controls: The pod borer can be managed by spraying the insecticides at
the ETL of one larva per five plants at pod initiation stage. The recommended insecticides are 250 ml
of fenvalerate 20EC or/ Emamectin (if epidemic situation). These losses can be reduced by the
application of insecticides (Sinha et al. 1983). Chemical insecticides are generally used in pod borer
control due to their effectiveness and easy availability. Recently, H. armigera is reported to have
developed resistance to many commonly used insecticides (Lande 1992). In past, the best insecticide
was reported to be the cypermethrin (Gohokar et al. 1985, Jadhav and Suryawanshi 1998).
B. Apply Helicoverpa nuclear polyhedrosis virus (HaNPV) @250-500 larval equivalents/ha.
Investigation was carried out in Rain fed areas of Chhattisgarh on chickpea, Cicer arientum
(Linnaeus) by using 5% Neem Seed Kernel Extract (NSKE) suspension with combination of
Flubendiamide 39.39 SC compared with Profenophos + Cypermethrin 44 EC, Farmer’s practice i. e.
Chlorpyriphos + Cypermethrine 55 EC & control plots against the incidence of gram pod borer. The
results indicates that Neem Seed Kernel Extract (5%) along with Flubendiamide 39.39 SC @ 50
ml/ha effectively reduce the H. Armigera larval population when used in regular sprays in vegetative
and pod formation stages(Verma et al. 2016).
Information on pest management in chickpea for farmers: Training of the farmers and extension personnel in IPM methodology.
Aggressive demonstration campaigns by R&D institutions in collaboration with state functionaries
and non-governmental organizations (NGOs).
Improved availability of critical inputs bio-pesticides, bio-agents and resistant varieties.
Development of monitoring tools and forewarning systems.
Advocate use of safer pesticides and appropriate application methods.
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Research on multiple disease and pest resistant varieties, and Holistic integration of all
information to develop bio-intensive and cost effective practices.
Conclusion: Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) is grown widely in the world because the seeds are rich source of
protein for the rapidly increasing population. However, the production and productivity of chickpea
have been experienced drastically because of biotic and abiotic stresses. It is vulnerable to a broad
range of pathogens and the mainly severe pest being gram pod borer, Helicoverpa armigera. Due to
this chronic problem and greater public awareness of a need for sustainable control practices,
biological control will probably be considered and used more frequently as part of a management
program. Following techniques proved to control the pod borer ( H. armigera.)
1. The use of Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) based microbial insecticides have become an integral part of
IPM approaches, particularly because these preparations provide an environmentally suitable
alternative to the generally hazardous broad-spectrum chemical insecticides.
2. These bacterial insecticides like Nuclear Polyhedrosis Virus (NPV), which is target specific and
exert no effect on beneficial organisms (e.g. parasitoids and predators). With the development of
more effective Bt strains and improved commercial formulations, these insect pathogens are
gaining increasing international support for use against agricultural insect pests.
3. Most natural populations of H. armigera have at least some degree of infection by species-specific
NPVs. When the degree of NPV infection can be enhanced then the H. armigera larval population
can be decimated, without deleterious effects on any other organisms.
4. Various potentially effective parasitoids, like ichneumonid, Campoletis chloridae and
Trichogramma spp., are found parasitizing eggs and larvae of H. armigera infesting chickpea.
5. Various insectivorous birds have long been observed to be effective predators of H. armigera
larvae. Insectivorous birds such as myna and drongo help to reduce the number of caterpillars.
Activity of these birds can be enhanced, and more birds attracted, by placing bird perches in
chickpea fields.
6. Similarly various plant extracts have shown insecticidal properties and can be used effectively on
field crops.
7. Use of different bio-agents and botanicals having easy ways of formulation, cost effective,
environmentally suitable and no or minimal deleterious effect on non target organisms, worthy of
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inclusion in most IPM packages. So, IPM module to control can be alternate system, which may
play an important role in achieving the goal of agriculture.
Reference: Chakravarthy, A.K. (1988) Bird predators of pod borers of field bean (Lablab niger). Tropi. Pest Mgmt.,
34: 395-398.
Chari, M.S., Krishnananda and Rao, R.S.N.,(1990) Heliothis armigera threat to Indian agriculture. In:
Heliothis management (Jayaraj, S., Uthamasamy, S., Gopalan, M. and Rabindra, R.J. eds.).
Proceedings of the National Workshop, TNAU, Coimbatore, India, 154-161 PP.
Cunningham J.P, Zalucki M.P and West S. A.,(2007) Learning in Helicoverpa armigera (Lepidoptera:
Noctuidae) a new look at the behaviour and control of a polyphagous pest 89(3)201-207.
Gohokar RT, Thakre SM, Borle MM. (1985). Chemical control of gram pod borer (Heliothis armigera)
by different synthetic pyrethroids and insecticides. Pesticides 19, 39–40.
Gokhale, V.G. and Ameta, O.P.,(1991) Predatory behavious of house sparrow, Passer domestics L. in the
population regulation of Heliothis sp. infesting chickpea, Cicer arietinum. Indian J. Ent., 53: 631-
634.
Gopali J. B., Teggelli R., Mannur D. M. and Yelshetty S.,(2009) Bird perches for sustainable
management of pod borer, Helicoverpa armigera (Hubner) in chickpea ecosystem. Karnataka J.
Agric. Sci., 22(3):541-543.
Jadhav RS, Suryawanshi DS. (1998). Chemical control of Helicoverpa armigera (Hubner) on chickpea. J
MaharashtraAgric Univ 23, 83–84
Lande SS. (1992). Susceptibility of Helicoverpa armigera (Hb.) to conventional insecticides. Unpublished
M Sc Thesissubmitted to P.K.V., Akola.
Mehrvar, A., Rabindra, R. J., Veenakumari, K. and Narabenchi, G. B. (2009) Management of Helicoverpa
armigera (Hubner) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) using its nucleopolyhedro virus (HearNPV)
formulations applied by different methods on tomato. J. of Biological Control, 23(2): 145-149.
Mehto DN, Singh KM. 1983. Succession of insect pests in chickpea, Cicer arietinum Linn. Indian J
Ento.45, 377–383.
Patil, C.S, Khaire, V.M. and Mote, U.N.,(1990) Comparative performance of different insecticides against
pigeonpea pod borer complex on short duration pigeon pea. J. of Maharashtra Agriculture
University, 15 (3): 337-339.
Rao, V.H., Rao, N. H. P., Nages, M. and Rao, C.S. (2000) Insecticide resistance frequencies in
Helicoverpa armigera population on cotton. Pestology, 24(7): 31-33.
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Shelton A.M. and Badenes-Perez F.R. (2005). Concepts and applications of trap cropping in pest
management. Annual Review of Entomology. Vol. 51:285-308.
Sinha MM, Yazdani S S, Kumar A, Lal K. (1983). Relative efficacy of different spray formulations
against gram pod borer. Pesticides 17, 33–34.
Singh S. K., Sinha B.K. and Jamwal B. S., (2009) Management of gram pod borer, Helicoverpa armigera
(Hubner) by intercropping and monitoring through pheromone traps in chickpea. Karnataka J.
Agric. Sci., 22(3):524-526.
Verma S., Ramteke l., Sinha A., Nandanwar A. K. Pandu Ram Raikara (2016). Effective Management of
Gram Pod Borer Helicoverpa Armigera (Hubner) with Combination of Neem Seed Kernel Extract
(NSKE) and Flubendiamide 39 per cent SC in rain fed areas of Chhattisgarh. Int.J. of Applied and
Pure Sci.
Wubneh W. Y. (2016) Biological control of chickpea pod borer, Helicoverpa armigera Hubner
(Lepidoptera: Noctuidae): A Global Concern. World Scientific News. 45(2) 92-110
(13) Histopathological Studies of Alternaria alternata Associated with Carrot Seed, Daucus carota L.
SHANKAR SOYAL1*, R.P. GHASOLIA2 and REKHA KUMAWAT 1Department of Plant Pathology, S.K.N. College of Agriculture, Jobner (Sri Karan Narendra Agriculture
University, Jobner), Jaipur (Rajasthan)–303329,
*Correspondence Author Email: [email protected].
ABSTRACT:
Carrot is an important root vegetable crop of Rajasthan. The crop suffers severely from various seed borne
diseases. Alternaria leaf blight is an important disease of carrot. All seed components viz. pericarp,
endosperm and embryo were employed by two methods viz., component planting and whole mount
method. Maximum (4-56 and 3-43%) percent infection of A. alternata was observed in pericarp followed
by endosperm (2-42 and 1-39%) and it was absent in embryo (0 and 0%) in both the methods.
KEYWORDS: Carrot, Alternaria alternata, pericarp, endosperm, and embryo.
INTRODUCTION:
The carrot (Daucus carota L.) belongs to family: Umbelliferae, is a root vegetable, usually orange in
colour. Carrot roots are used as a vegetable for soups, stews, curries and pies; grated roots are used as
salad, tender roots as pickles (Bose et. al., 1986).
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One of the important factors which limit the production of this crop in Rajasthan is the use of contaminated
seeds and following of traditional package of practices for the cultivation of carrot by farmers culminating
into heavy losses at all the stages of crop growth till harvest. The crop suffers from several numbers of
phytopathogenic fungi. In most of the carrot producing areas, Alternaria leaf blight (ALB) is recognized
as the most common and destructive foliage disease in carrot (Clerc et al., 2009 and Boedo et. al., 2010).
In Israel and Turkey, the disease incidence was recorded 65 to 90% with reduced root yields about 40-
60% (Noon et al., 2001; Netzer and Kenneth, 1969 and Vintal et al., 1999) that decreased the
effectiveness of mechanical harvesting (Bragg lumber 1999; Noon et al., 2001 and Soylu et al., 2004).
Initial symptoms of the disease is first appeared on older leaves as irregularly shaped, minute, dark brown
to black spots with yellow borders on the edge of the leaflet blade. As the disease progressed the lesions
expanded the leaflets to turn brown, shrivel and die.
The experiment was conduct to observe the exact location of Alternaria alternata in the seeds it has
become essential to carry out an experiment on its detection. The location of pathogen in seed may be of
relevance to its transmission and further pathogenesis.
MATERIALS AND METHODS:
To observe the exact location of Alternaria alternata in the seeds collected, two methods Component
Plating and Whole Mount (Singh et al., 1980) were followed.
Component Plating Method: The method suggested by Singh et al. (1980) was followed with slight
modification. Fifty seeds from highly contaminated sample (A) were selected at random and used for
detection of fungi. Seeds were thoroughly washed (one seed per test tube) three times with tap water and
finally with sterilized distilled water and then soaked in distilled water for 7-8 hours. Each seed was then
dissected aseptically in to different parts i.e. pericarp (seed coat), endosperm (cotyledon) and embryo
(embryal axis) with a pair of sterilized needles under stereo-bionocular microscope. Each component was
surface disinfected with 0.1 per cent HgCl2 solution followed by three washing with sterilized distilled
water and then components of individual seed were plated at equal distance in Petri dish having three
moistened blotting papers. The dishes were incubated at 24+ 1 0C under 12 hour’s alternative cycles of
light and darkness. After 7 days, seed components were examined for presence of Alternaria alternata.
Whole Mount Method: One hundred seeds of highly contaminated sample (A) were taken at random and
used for detection. Seeds were boiled individually in distilled water for 5-7 minutes and allowed to cool.
Each seed was dissected aseptically to separate the seed components (i.e., pericarp, endosperm and
embryo) with a pair of sterilized needles under stereo-binocular microscope. These parts of seeds were
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boiled individually in 10% HCl for 10 minutes in test tubes. After cooling they were washed thoroughly
with tap water and finally with sterilized water. Tissues of components of seed were macerated on a slide
followed by staining and mounting in cotton blue and lactophenol, respectively. The slide was examined
under compound microscope and per cent infection of percarp, endosperm and embryo by fungi was
recorded method suggested by Jha, 1995.
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
Component Plating Method: Alternaria alternata were observed only in pericarp and endosperm (Table
1 and Fig. 1). Incidence of this fungus was higher in pericarp than endosperm but it was absent in embryo.
The maximum per cent infection of Alternaria alternata was observed in pericarp and endosperm from
sample “A” (56.00 and 42.00 %) followed by ‘C’ (48.00 and 37.00 %), ‘B’ (32.00 and 20.00 %), ‘D’
(19.00 and 10.00%) and it was minimum in sample “E” (4.00 and 2.00 %), respectively.
Whole Mount Method
Microscopic examination of mounted components of seed revealed the presence of hyphae and conidia of
Alternaria alternata in pericarp and endosperm (Table 2 and Fig.2) but not from embryo. The per cent
infection of Alternaria alternata in pericarp and endosperm were observed maximum in sample “A”
(43.00 and 39.00 %) followed by ‘C’ (41.00 and 32.00 %), ‘B’ (29.00 and 20.00 %), ‘D’ (15.00 and 8.00
%) and minimum in sample “E” (3.00 and 1.00 %), respectively.
The location of pathogen in seed may be of relevance to its transmission and further pathogenesis. The
histopathological study of A. alternata in all seed components viz. pericarp, endosperm and embryo were
employed by component planting and whole mount method. Incidence of A. alternata observed to be
more in pericarp in comparison to endosperm but not from embryo. Similar results were achived by
Netzer and Kenneth, (1969); Neergaard, (1977); Soteros, (1979) and Kim and Mathur, (2006).
REFERENCES
Boedo C., Berruyer R., Lecomte M., Bersihand S., Briard M., Clerc L. V., Simoneau P. and
Poupard P. 2010. Evaluation of different methods for the characterization of carrot resistance to the
Alternaria leaf blight pathogen (Alternaria dauci) revealed two qualitatively different resistances. Plant.
Path. 59 (2): 368-375.
Bose T. K., Som M. G. and Kabir J. 1986.Vegetable Crops. Naya Prakash, Kolkata (W.B.): 492-517.
Bragglumber 1999. Carrot Grower Guide. Oxford Frozen Foods, Ltd. NS.
Clerc V.L., Pawelec A., Touchard C. B., Suel A. and Briard M. 2009. Genetic architecture of factors
underlying partial resistance to Alternaria leaf blight in carrot. Theoretical and Applied Genetics. 118 (7):
1251-1259.
Vol -1; Issue -2
Jha D. K. 1995. Laboratory Manual on Seed Pathology. V.P.H. Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi. pp. 101.
Kim W. G. and Mathur S. B. 2006. Detection of Alternaria spp. in carrot seeds and effect of the fungi on
seed germination and seed growth of carrot. Plant Path . J. 22 (1): 11-15.
Neergaard P. 1977. Seed Pathology. Vol. 1&2. The Mac-Millan Press Ltd., London and Basingatoke.
Netzer D. and Kenneth R. G. 1969. Persistence and transmission of Alternaria dauci (Kuhn) Groves and
Skolko in the semi-arid conditions of Israel. Ann. App. Bio. 63: 289-294.
Noon E. B., Shtienberg D., Shlevin E, Vintal H. and Dinoor A. 2001. Optimization of chemical
suppression of Alternaria dauci, the causal agent of Alternaria leaf blight in carrot. Plant Disease 85
(11): 1149-1156.
Singh D., Mathur, S.B. and Neergaard, P. 1980. Histological studies of Alternaria sesamicola
penetration in sesame seed. Seed Sci. and Technol., 8, 85-93.
Soteros J. J. 1979. Detection of Alternaria radicina, A. dauci from imported carrot seed in New Zealand.
N. Z. J. Agri. Rec. 22: 185-190).
Soylu S., Kurt S., Soylu E. M. and Tok F. M. 2004. First report of Alternaria leaf blight caused by
Alternaria dauci on carrot in Turkey. New Disease Reports, 10: 3
Table1: Detection of A. alternata in parts of carrot seed by component plating method
Samples Per cent component showing infection*
Pericarp Endosperm Embryo
A 56 42 0
B 32 20 0
C 48 37 0
D 19 10 0
E 4 2 0
*No of seeds tested = 50
A = Kelanwas, B = Nimbi, C = Surethi, D = Todameena E = Company produce
Table2: Detection of A. alternata in parts of carrot seed by whole mount method
Samples Per cent component showing infection*
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Pericarp Endosperm Embryo
A 43 39 0
B 29 20 0
C 41 32 0
D
E
15
3
8
1
0
0
*No of seeds tested = 100
A = Kelanwas, B = Nimbi, C = Surethi, D = Todameena E = Company produce
Fig. 1: Detection of A. alternata in parts of carrot seed by component plating method
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Kelanwas Nimbi Surethi Todameena Company produce
Pericarp Endosperm Embryo
Per
cen
t
Seed components
Samples
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Fig. 2: Detection of A. alternata in parts of carrot seed by whole mount method
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
Kelanwas Nimbi Surethi Todameena Company produce
Pericarp Endosperm Embryo P
erce
nt
Samples
Seed components
