Napoleonic Wars

TheNapoleonicWars (1803–1815) were a series of ma-jor conflicts pitting the French Empire led by EmperorNapoleon I against an array of European powers formedinto various coalitions. They revolutionized Europeanarmies and played out on an unprecedented scale, mainlyowing to the application of modern mass conscription.The wars are traditionally seen as a continuation of theRevolutionary Wars, which broke out in 1792 during theFrench Revolution. Initially, French power rose quicklyas the armies of Napoleon conquered much of Europe. Inhis military career, Napoleon fought about 60 battles andlost seven, mostly at the end of his reign.[19] The greatFrench dominion collapsed rapidly after the disastrousinvasion of Russia in 1812. Napoleon was defeated in1814, and then once more in 1815 at Waterloo after abrief return to power. The Allies then reversed all Frenchgains since the RevolutionaryWars at the Congress of Vi-enna.Before a final victory against Napoleon, five of sevencoalitions saw defeat at the hands of France. France de-feated the first and second coalitions during the FrenchRevolutionary Wars, the third (notably at Austerlitz), thefourth (notably at Jena, Eylau, and Friedland) and thefifth coalition (notably at Wagram) under the leadershipof Napoleon. These great victories gave the French Armya sense of invulnerability, especially when it approachedMoscow. But after the retreat from Russia, in spite ofincomplete victories, France was defeated by the sixthcoalition at Leipzig, in the Peninsular War at Vitoria andat the hands of the seventh coalition at Waterloo.The wars resulted in the dissolution of the Holy RomanEmpire and sowed the seeds of nationalism that wouldlead to the consolidations of Germany and Italy later inthe century. Meanwhile, the global Spanish Empire be-gan to unravel as French occupation of Spain weakenedSpain’s hold over its colonies, providing an opening fornationalist revolutions in Spanish America. As a directresult of the Napoleonic wars, the British Empire becamethe foremost world power for the next century,[20] thusbeginning Pax Britannica.No consensus exists about when the French Revolution-aryWars ended and theNapoleonicWars began. An earlycandidate is 9 November 1799, the date of Bonaparte’scoup seizing power in France. However, the most com-mon date is 18 May 1803, when renewed war brokeout between Britain and France, ending the one-year-oldPeace of Amiens, the only period of general peace in Eu-rope between 1792 and 1814. Most actual fighting ceasedfollowing Napoleon’s final defeat at Waterloo on 18 June

1815, although skirmishing continued as late as 3 July1815 at the Battle of Issy. The Second Treaty of Parisofficially ended the wars on 20 November 1815.

1 Background 1789–1802

Main articles: French Revolution, French RevolutionaryWars, War of the First Coalition and War of the SecondCoalition

News of the French Revolution of 1789 was received withgreat alarm by the rulers of France’s neighbors, whichonly increased with the arrest and eventual execution ofKing Louis XVI of France. The first attempt to crushthe French Republic came in 1793 when Austria, theKingdom of Sardinia, the Kingdom of Naples, Prussia,Spain and the Kingdom of Great Britain formed the FirstCoalition. French measures, including general conscrip-tion (levée en masse), military reform, and total war,contributed to the defeat of the First Coalition, despitethe civil war occurring in France. The war ended whenGeneral Napoleon Bonaparte forced the Austrians to ac-cept his terms in the Treaty of Campo Formio. OnlyGreat Britain remained opposed to the French Republic.The Second Coalition was formed in 1798 by Austria,Great Britain, the Kingdom of Naples, the Ottoman Em-pire, the Papal States, Portugal, Russia, Sweden and othercountries. During the War of the Second Coalition, theFrench Republic suffered from corruption and internaldivision under the Directory (five directeurs holding ex-ecutive power). France also lacked funds, and no longerhad the services of Lazare Carnot, the war minister whohad guided it to successive victories following extensivereforms during the early 1790s. Bonaparte, the main ar-chitect of victory in the last years of the First Coalition,had gone to campaign in Egypt. Missing two of its mostimportant military figures from the previous conflict, theRepublic suffered successive defeats against revitalizedenemies whomBritish financial support brought back intothe war.Bonaparte returned from Egypt to France on 23 August1799, and seized control of the French government on9 November 1799 in the coup of 18 Brumaire replacingthe Directory with the Consulate led by himself. He re-organized the French military and created a reserve armypositioned to support campaigns either on the Rhine or inItaly.

1

2 2 PRELUDE

On all fronts, French advances caught the Austrians offguard and knocked Russia out of the war. In Italy,Bonaparte won a notable victory against the Austri-ans at Marengo in 1800, but the decisive win came atHohenlinden later that year. The defeated Austrians leftthe conflict after the Treaty of Lunéville (9 February1801), forcing Britain to sign the Peace of Amiens withFrance.

1.1 Start date and nomenclature

No consensus exists as to when the French Revolution-ary Wars ended and the Napoleonic Wars began. Pos-sible dates include 9 November 1799, when Bonaparteseized power on 18 Brumaire in France;[21] or 18 May1803, when Britain and France ended the one short pe-riod of peace between 1792 and 1814, or 2 December1804, when Bonaparte crowned himself Emperor.[22]

British historians occasionally refer to the nearly contin-uous period of warfare from 1792 to 1815 as the GreatFrench War, or as the final phase of the Anglo-FrenchSecond Hundred Years’ War, spanning the period 1689to 1815.[23]

In France, the Napoleonic Wars are generally integratedwith the French Revolutionary Wars : Les guerres de laRévolution et de l'Empire.[24]

1.2 Napoleon’s tactics

Napoleon was, and remains, famous for his battlefield vic-tories, and historians have spent enormous attention inanalyzing them.[25] In 2008, Donald Sutherland wrote:

The ideal Napoleonic battle was to manip-ulate the enemy into an unfavourable positionthrough maneuver and deception, force himto commit his main forces and reserve to themain battle and then undertake an envelopingattack with uncommitted or reserve troops onthe flank or rear. Such a surprise attack eitherwould produce a devastating effect on moraleor force him to weaken his main battle line. Ei-ther way, the enemy’s own impulsiveness be-gan the process by which even a smaller Frencharmy could defeat the enemy’s forces one byone.[26]

After 1807, Napoleon’s creation of a highly mobile, well-armed artillery force gave artillery usage increased tac-tical importance. Napoleon, rather than relying on in-fantry to wear away the enemy’s defenses, now could usemassed artillery as a spearhead to pound a break in theenemy’s line. Once that was achieved he sent in infantryand cavalry.[27]

2 Prelude

Britain was irritated by a number of French actions fol-lowing the Treaty of Amiens. Bonaparte had annexedPiedmont and Elba, made himself President of the ItalianRepublic, a state in northern Italy that France had setup, and failed to evacuate Holland. France continuedto interfere with British trade despite peace having beenmade and complained about Britain harboring certainindividuals and not cracking down on their anti-Frenchpress.[28]:220–239

Malta had been captured by Britain during the war andwas subject to an complex arrangement in the 10th articleof the Treaty of Amiens where it was to be restored to theKnights of St. John with a Neapolitan garrison and placedunder the guarantee of third powers. However, the weak-ening of the Knights of St. John by the confiscation oftheir assets in France and Spain along with delays in ob-taining guarantees prevented the British from evacuatingit after three months as stipulated in the treaty.[28]:239–247

The Helvetian Republic had been set up by France whenthey invaded Switzerland in 1798. France had withdrawnits troops, but violent strife subsequently broke out againstthe government, which many Swiss saw as overly cen-tralized. Alarmed, Bonaparte reoccupied the country inOctober 1802 and imposed a compromise settlement.This action caused widespread outrage in Britain, whoprotested this as violation of the Treaty of Luneville. Al-though continental powers were unprepared to act, theBritish decided to send an agent who would help the Swissobtain supplies, and also sent orders for their military notto return Cape Colony to Holland as they had committedto do so in the Treaty of Amiens.[28]:248–252

Swiss resistance collapsed, however, before anythingcould be accomplished and after a month Britain coun-termanded the orders not to restore Cape Colony. Atthe same time Russia finally joined the guarantee withregards to Malta. Concerned that there would be hos-tilities when Bonaparte found out that Cape Colony hadbeen retained, the British began to deliberately procras-tinate on the evacuation of Malta.[28]:252–258 In January1803 an official government paper in France published areport from a commercial agent which noted the ease withwhich Egypt could be conquered. The British seized onthis to demand some sort of satisfaction and security be-fore evacuating Malta, which was a convenient steppingstone to Egypt. France disclaimed any desire to seizeEgypt and asked what sort of satisfaction was requiredbut the British were unable to give a response.[28]:258–264There was still no thought of going to war, Prime Minis-ter Addington publicly affirmed Britain was in a state ofprofound peace.[28]:265

In early March 1803 the Addington ministry receivedword that Cape Colony had been re-occupied by theBritish army in accordance with the orders which hadsubsequently been countermanded. On 8 March they

3.1 British motivations 3

ordered military preparations to guard against possibleFrench retaliation, but publicly justified them by falselyclaiming that it was only in response to French prepara-tions and that they were conducting serious negotiationswith France. In a few days it was known that Cape Colonyhad been surrendered in accordance with the counter-orders, but it was too late. Bonaparte berated the Britishambassador in front of 200 spectators over its unjustifiedmilitary preparations.[28]:264–268

The Addington ministry realized they would face an in-quiry over their false reasons for themilitary preparations,and during the month of April unsuccessfully attemptedto secure the support of William Pitt the Younger toshield them from damage.[28]:277 That same month theministry suddenly issued an ultimatum to France de-manding the retention of Malta for at least ten years, thepermanent acquisition of the island of Lampedusa fromthe Kingdom of Sicily, and the evacuation of Holland. Inaddition they offered to recognize French gains in Italy ifthey evacuated Switzerland and compensated the King ofSardinia for his territorial losses. France offered to placeMalta in the hands of Russia to satisfy British concerns,pull out of Holland when Malta was evacuated, and forma convention to give satisfaction to Britain on other is-sues. The British falsely denied that Russia had made anoffer and their ambassador left Paris.[28]:268–278 Desper-ate to avoid war Bonaparte sent a secret offer where heagreed to let Britain retain Malta if France could occupythe Otranto peninsula in Naples.[29] All efforts were futileand Britain declared war on 18 May 1803.

3 War between Britain and France,1803–1814

3.1 British motivations

“Maniac-raving’s-or-Little Boney in a strong fit” by James Gill-ray. His caricatures ridiculing Napoleon greatly annoyedthe Frenchman, who wanted them suppressed by the Britishgovernment.[30]

Britain ended the uneasy truce created by the Treaty of

Amiens when it declared war on France in May 1803.The British were increasingly angered by Napoleon’sreordering of the international system in Western Eu-rope, especially in Switzerland, Germany, Italy and theNetherlands. Kagan argues that Britain was insulted andalarmed especially by Napoleon’s assertion of controlover Switzerland. Britons felt insulted when Napoleonsaid it deserved no voice in European affairs (even thoughKing George was an elector of the Holy Roman Empire),and ought to shut down the London newspapers that werevilifying Napoleon.[31]

Britain had a sense of loss of control, as well as loss ofmarkets, and was worried by Napoleon’s possible threatto its overseas colonies. McLynn argues that Britain wentto war in 1803 out of a “mixture of economic motives andnational neuroses – an irrational anxiety about Napoleon’smotives and intentions.” HoweverMcLynn concludes thatin the long run it proved to be the right choice for Britain,because in the long run Napoleon’s intentions were hostileto British national interest. Furthermore, Napoleon wasnot ready for war and this was the best time for Britain tostop them. Britain therefore seized upon the Malta issue,refusing to follow the terms of the Treaty of Amiens andevacuate the island.[32]

The deeper British grievance was their perception thatNapoleon was taking personal control of Europe, mak-ing the international system unstable, and forcing Britainto the sidelines.[33][34][35][36]

Numerous scholars have argued that Napoleon’s aggres-sive posture made him numerous enemies while cost-ing potential allies.[37] The Continental powers as late as1808 affirmed most of his remarkable gains and titles,but the continuing conflict with Britain led him to startthe PeninsulaWar and the invasion of Russia which manyscholars see as a dramatic miscalculation.[38][39][40][41][42]

There was one serious attempt to negotiate peace withFrance during the war, made by Charles James Fox in1806. The British wanted to retain their overseas con-quests and have Hanover restored to George III in ex-change for accepting French conquests on the continent.The French were willing to confirm Malta, Cape Colony,Tobago, and French Indian posts to Britain but wanted toobtain Sicily in exchange for the restoration of Hanover,a condition the British refused.[43]

Unlike its many coalition partners, Britain remained atwar throughout the period of the Napoleonic Wars. Pro-tected by naval supremacy (in the words of Admiral Jervisto the House of Lords “I do not say, my Lords, that theFrench will not come. I say only they will not come bysea”), Britain maintained low-intensity land warfare on aglobal scale for over a decade. The British governmentpaid out large sums of money to other European states,so that they could pay armies in the field against France.These payments are colloquially known as the GoldenCavalry of St George. The British Army provided long-term support to the Spanish rebellion in the Peninsular

4 4 WAR OF THE THIRD COALITION 1805

War of 1808–1814, assisted by Spanish guerrilla ('lit-tle war') tactics. Anglo-Portuguese forces under ArthurWellesley supported the Spanish, which campaigned suc-cessfully against the French armies, eventually drivingthem from Spain, thus allowing Britain to invade south-ern France. By 1815, the British Army played the centralrole in the final defeat of Napoleon at Waterloo.Beyond minor naval actions against British imperial in-terests, the Napoleonic Wars were much less global inscope than preceding conflicts such as the Seven Years’War, which historians term a "world war".

3.2 Economic warfare

In response to the naval blockade of the French coastsenacted by the British government on 16 May 1806,Napoleon issued the Berlin Decree on 21 November1806, which brought into effect the Continental Sys-tem.[44] This policy aimed to eliminate the threat fromBritain by closing French-controlled territory to its trade.Britain maintained a standing army of just 220,000 at theheight of the Napoleonic Wars, of which less than halfwas available for campaigning, the rest being necessaryfor garrisoning Ireland and the colonies or providing se-curity for England, whereas France’s strength peaked ataround 2,500,000 full-time and part-time soldiers includ-ing several hundred-thousand National Guardsmen thatNapoleon could draft into the military if necessary. Bothnations also enlisted large numbers of sedentary mili-tia but they were unsuited for actual campaigning andwere mostly employed to release regular forces for activeduty.[45] The Royal Navy effectively disrupted France’sextra-continental trade— both by seizing and threateningFrench shipping and by seizing French colonial posses-sions — but could do nothing about France’s trade withthe major continental economies and posed little threatto French territory in Europe. Also, France’s populationand agricultural capacity far outstripped that of Britain.However, Britain had the greatest industrial capacity inEurope, and its mastery of the seas allowed it to buildup considerable economic strength through trade. Thatsufficed to ensure that France could never consolidateits control over Europe in peace. However, many in theFrench government believed that cutting Britain off fromthe Continent would end its economic influence over Eu-rope and isolate it.

3.3 Financing the war

A key element in British success was its ability to mo-bilize the nation’s industrial and financial resources andapply them to defeating France. With a population of 16million Britain was half the size of France with 30 mil-lion. In terms of soldiers the French advantage was offsetby British subsidies that paid for a large proportion of theAustrian and Russian soldiers, peaking at about 450,000

men in 1813.[45][46] By the terms of the Anglo-Russianagreement of 1803, Britain paid a subsidy of ₤1.5 mil-lion for every 100,000 Russian soldiers in the field.[47]

Most important, the British national output remainedstrong and the well-organized business sector channeledproducts into what the military needed. Britain used itseconomic power to expand the Royal Navy, doubling thenumber of frigates and increasing the number of largeships of the line by 50%, while increasing the roster ofsailors from 15,000 to 133,000 in eight years after thewar began in 1793. France, meanwhile, saw its navyshrink by more than half.[48] The system of smugglingfinished products into the continent undermined Frenchefforts to ruin the British economy by cutting off mar-kets. Subsidies to Russia and Austria kept them in thewar. The British budget in 1814 reached £66,000,000,including £10 million for the Royal Navy, £40 millionfor the army, £10 million for the allies, and £38 million asinterest on the national debt. The national debt soared to£679 million, more than double the GDP. It was willinglysupported by hundreds of thousands of investors and taxpayers, despite the higher taxes on land and a new incometax. The whole cost of the war came to £831 million. Bycontrast the French financial system was inadequate andNapoleon’s forces had to rely in part on requisitions fromconquered lands.[49][50][51]

4 War of the Third Coalition 1805

Main article: Third CoalitionBritain gathered together allies to form the Third

The British HMS Sandwich fires to the French flagshipBucentaure (completely dismasted) in the battle of Trafalgar.The Bucentaure also fights HMS Victory (behind her) and HMSTemeraire (left side of the picture). In fact, HMS Sandwich neverfought at Trafalgar and her depiction is a mistake by AugusteMayer, the painter.[52]

Coalition against France.[53][54] In response, Napoleonseriously considered an invasion of Great Britain,[55][56]and massed 180,000 effectives at Boulogne. However,before he could invade, he needed to achieve navalsuperiority—or at least to pull the British fleet away fromthe English Channel. A complex plan to distract the

5

British by threatening their possessions in the West In-dies failed when a Franco-Spanish fleet under AdmiralVilleneuve turned back after an indecisive action offCapeFinisterre on 22 July 1805. The Royal Navy blockadedVilleneuve in Cádiz until he left for Naples on 19 Octo-ber; the British squadron caught and overwhelmingly de-feated the combined enemy fleet in the Battle of Trafal-gar on 21 October (the British commander, Lord Nelson,died in the battle). Napoleon would never again have theopportunity to challenge the British at sea, nor to threatenan invasion. He again turned his attention to enemies onthe Continent.

European strategic situation in 1805 before the War of the ThirdCoalition

In April 1805, Britain and Russia signed a treaty withthe aim of removing the French from the Batavian Re-public (roughly present-day Netherlands) and the SwissConfederation (Switzerland). Austria joined the allianceafter the annexation of Genoa and the proclamation ofNapoleon as King of Italy on 17 March 1805. Sweden,which had already agreed to lease Swedish Pomerania asa military base for British troops against France, formallyentered the coalition on 9 August.The Austrians began the war by invading Bavaria with anarmy of about 70,000 under Karl Mack von Leiberich,and the French army marched out from Boulogne in lateJuly 1805 to confront them. At Ulm (25 September – 20October) Napoleon surrounded Mack’s army, forcing itssurrender without significant losses. With the main Aus-trian army north of the Alps defeated (another army un-der Archduke Charles manoeuvred inconclusively againstAndré Masséna's French army in Italy), Napoleon occu-pied Vienna. Far from his supply lines, he faced a largerAustro-Russian army under the command ofMikhail Ku-tuzov, with the Emperor Alexander I of Russia personallypresent. On 2 December, Napoleon crushed the jointAustro-Russian army in Moravia at Austerlitz (usuallyconsidered his greatest victory). He inflicted a total of25,000 casualties on a numerically superior enemy armywhile sustaining fewer than 7,000 in his own force.Austria signed the Treaty of Pressburg (26 December

Surrender of the town of Ulm, 20 October 1805

1805) and left the Coalition. The Treaty required theAustrians to give up Venetia to the French-dominatedKingdom of Italy and the Tyrol to Bavaria. With thewithdrawal of Austria from the war, stalemate ensued.Napoleon’s army had a record of continuous unbrokenvictories on land, but the full force of the Russian armyhad not yet come into play. Napoleon had now consoli-dated his hold on France, had taken control of Belgium,the Netherlands, Switzerland, and most of Western Ger-many and northern Italy. His admirers say that Napoleonwanted to stop now, but was forced to continue in order togain additional security from a concert of countries thatrefused to accept his conquests. Esdaille, however, re-jects that explanation and instead says that it was a goodtime to stop expansion, for the major powers were readyto accept Napoleon as he was:

in 1806 both Russia and Britain had been pos-itively eager to make peace, and they mightwell have agreed to terms that would have leftthe Napoleonic imperium almost completelyintact. As for Austria and Prussia, they sim-ply wanted to be left alone. To have secureda compromise peace, then, would have beencomparatively easy. But...Napoleon was pre-pared to make no concessions.[57]

5 War of the Fourth Coalition1806–1807

Main article: War of the Fourth CoalitionWithin months of the collapse of the Third Coalition, theFourth Coalition (1806–07) against France was formedby Britain, Prussia, Russia, Saxony, and Sweden. In July1806, Napoleon formed the Confederation of the Rhineout of the many tiny German states which constituted theRhineland and most other western parts of Germany. Heamalgamated many of the smaller states into larger elec-torates, duchies, and kingdoms to make the governanceof non-Prussian Germany smoother. Napoleon elevatedthe rulers of the two largest Confederation states, Saxony

6 5 WAR OF THE FOURTH COALITION 1806–1807

Napoleon in Berlin (Meynier). After defeating Prussian forcesat Jena, the French Army entered Berlin on 27 October 1806

and Bavaria, to the status of kings.In August 1806, the Prussian king, FrederickWilliam III,decided to go to war independently of any other greatpower. The army of Russia, a Prussian ally, in particularwas too far away to assist. On 8 October 1806, Napoleonunleashed all the French forces east of the Rhine intoPrussia. Napoleon himself defeated a Prussian army atJena (14 October 1806), and Davout defeated another atAuerstädt on the same day. Some 160,000 French sol-diers (increasing in number as the campaign went on)attacked Prussia, moving with such speed that they de-stroyed the entire Prussian army as an effective mili-tary force. Out of 250,000 troops the Prussians sus-tained 25,000 casualties, lost a further 150,000 as pris-oners, 4,000 artillery pieces, and over 100,000 muskets.At Jena, Napoleon had fought only a detachment of thePrussian force. The battle at Auerstädt involved a sin-gle French corps defeating the bulk of the Prussian army.Napoleon entered Berlin on 27 October 1806. He visitedthe tomb of Frederick the Great and instructed his mar-shals to remove their hats there, saying, “If he were alivewe wouldn't be here today”. In total, Napoleon had takenonly 19 days from beginning his attack on Prussia untilknocking it out of the war with the capture of Berlin andthe destruction of its principal armies at Jena and Auer-städt. Saxony quit Prussia and together with small statesfrom north Germany allied with France.

Charge of the Russian Imperial Guard cavalry against Frenchcuirassiers at the Battle of Friedland, 14 June 1807

In the next stage of the war, the French drove Russianforces out of Poland and employed many Polish and Ger-man soldiers in several sieges in Silesia and Pomerania,with the assistance of Dutch and Italian soldiers in thelatter case. Then Napoleon turned north to confront theremainder of the Russian army and to try to capturethe temporary Prussian capital at Königsberg. A tacti-cal draw at Eylau (7–8 February 1807), followed by ca-pitulation at Danzig (24 May 1807) and the Battle ofHeilsberg (10 June 1807), forced the Russians to with-draw further north. Napoleon then routed the Russianarmy at Friedland (14 June 1807). Following this de-feat, Alexander had tomake peace with Napoleon at Tilsit(7 July 1807). In Germany and Poland, new Napoleonicclient states, such as the Kingdom of Westphalia, Duchyof Warsaw, and Republic of Danzig, were established.By September, Marshal Brune completed the occupationof Swedish Pomerania, allowing the Swedish army, how-ever, to withdraw with all its munitions of war.Britain’s first response To to Napoleon’s Continental sys-tem was to launch a major naval attack on the weakestlink in Napoleon’s coalition, Denmark. Although osten-sibly neutral, Denmark was under heavy French and Rus-sian pressure to pledge its fleet to Napoleon. Londoncould not take the chance of ignoring the Danish threat.In November 1807, the Royal Navy bombarded Copen-hagen, capturing the Danish fleet, and assuring use ofthe sea lanes in the North and Baltic seas for the Britishmerchant fleet. Denmark did join the war on the side ofFrance, but without a fleet it had little to offer.[58][59]

At the Congress of Erfurt (September–October 1808),Napoleon and Alexander agreed that Russia should forceSweden to join the Continental System, which led to theFinnish War of 1808–09 and to the division of Swedeninto two parts separated by the Gulf of Bothnia. The east-ern part became the Russian Grand Duchy of Finland.

Polish cavalry at the Battle of Somosierra in Spain, 1808

7

5.1 Poland

Main article: Duchy of Warsaw

In 1807 Napoleon created a powerful outpost of his em-pire in Eastern Europe. Poland had recently been par-titioned by its three large neighbors, but Napoleon cre-ated the Grand Duchy of Warsaw, which depended onFrance from the very beginning. The duchy consistedof lands seized by Austria and Prussia; its Grand Dukewas Napoleon’s ally the king of Saxony, but Napoleonappointed the intendants who ran the country. The pop-ulation of 4.3 million was released from occupation andby 1814 sent about 200,000 men to Napoleon’s armies.That included about 90,000 who marched with him toMoscow; few marched back.[60] The Russians stronglyopposed any move toward an independent Poland andone reason Napoleon invaded Russia in 1812 was topunish them. The Grand Duchy was dissolved in 1815and Poland would not be a state until 1918. HoweverNapoleon’s impact on Poland was dramatic, including theNapoleonic legal code, the abolition of serfdom, and theintroduction ofmodernmiddle class bureaucracies.[61][62]

6 War of the Fifth Coalition 1809

Main articles: War of the Fifth Coalition and PeninsularWarThe Fifth Coalition (1809) of Britain and Austria against

Surrender ofMadrid (Gros), 1808. Napoleon enters Spain’s cap-ital during the Peninsular War

France formed as Britain engaged in the Peninsular Warin Spain and Portugal. Again Britain stood alone, and thesea became the major theatre of war against Napoleon’sallies. During the time of the Fifth Coalition, the RoyalNavy won a succession of victories in the French colonies.On land, the Fifth Coalition attempted few extensive mil-itary endeavours. One, the Walcheren Expedition of1809, involved a dual effort by the British Army andthe Royal Navy to relieve Austrian forces under intense

French pressure. It ended in disaster after the Army com-mander, John Pitt, 2nd Earl of Chatham, failed to cap-ture the objective, the naval base of French-controlledAntwerp. For the most part of the years of the FifthCoalition, British military operations on land (apart fromthe Iberian Peninsula) remained restricted to hit-and-runoperations executed by the Royal Navy, which dominatedthe sea after having beaten down almost all substantialnaval opposition fromFrance and its allies and blockadingwhat remained of France’s naval forces in heavily fortifiedFrench-controlled ports. These rapid-attack operationswere aimed mostly at destroying blockaded French navalandmercantile shipping and the disruption of French sup-plies, communications, and military units stationed nearthe coasts. Often, when British allies attempted militaryactions within several dozen miles or so of the sea, theRoyal Navy would arrive and would land troops and sup-plies and aid the Coalition’s land forces in a concerted op-eration. Royal Navy ships even provided artillery supportagainst French units when fighting strayed near enough tothe coastline. However, the ability and quality of the landforces governed these operations. For example, when op-erating with inexperienced guerrilla forces in Spain, theRoyal Navy sometimes failed to achieve its objectivessimply because of the lack of manpower that the Navy’sguerrilla allies had promised to supply.

The European strategic situation in February 1809

Economic warfare continued: the French ContinentalSystem against the British naval blockade of French-controlled territory. Due to military shortages and lackof organisation in French territory, many breaches of theContinental System occurred as French-dominated statestolerated or even encouraged trade with British smug-glers. In terms of economic damage to Great Britain, theblockade was largely ineffective. As Napoleon realizedthat extensive trade was going through Spain and Russia,he invaded those two countries. He tied down his forcesin Spain, and lost very badly in Russia in 1812.[63]

Both sides entered additional conflicts in attempts to en-force their blockade; the British fought the United Statesin theWar of 1812 (1812–15), and the French engaged inthe Peninsular War (1808–14) to shut off smuggling into

8 6 WAR OF THE FIFTH COALITION 1809

Spain. The Iberian conflict began when Portugal contin-ued trade with Britain despite French restrictions. WhenSpain failed to maintain the continental system, the un-easy Spanish alliance with France ended in all but name.French troops gradually encroached on Spanish territoryuntil they occupied Madrid, and installed a client monar-chy. This provoked an explosion of popular rebellionsacross Spain. Heavy British involvement soon followed.Austria, previously an ally of France, took the opportu-nity to attempt to restore its imperial territories in Ger-many as held prior to Austerlitz. Austria achieved a num-ber of initial victories against the thinly spread army ofMarshal Berthier. Napoleon had left Berthier with only170,000men to defend France’s entire eastern frontier (inthe 1790s, 800,000 men had carried out the same task,but holding a much shorter front).After defeats in Spain suffered by France, Napoleon tookcharge and enjoyed success, retaking Madrid, defeatingthe Spanish and forcing a withdrawal of the heavily out-numbered British army from the Iberian Peninsula (Battleof Corunna, 16 January 1809). But when he left, theguerrilla war against his forces in the countryside contin-ued to tie down great numbers of troops. Austria’s attackprevented Napoleon from successfully wrapping up op-erations against British forces by necessitating his depar-ture for Austria, and he never returned to the Peninsulartheatre. The British then sent in a fresh army under SirArthur Wellesley (later called the Duke of Wellington)whom the French could not stop.[64]

The Peninsular war proved a major disaster for France.Napoleon did well in when he was in direct charge, butthat followed severe losses, and was followed by worselosses. He severely underestimated how much manpowerwould be needed. Spain proved to be a major, long-term drain on money, manpower and prestige. HistorianDavid Gates called it the “Spanish ulcer.”[65] France lostthe Peninsular War; Napoleon realized it had been a dis-aster for his cause, writing later, “That unfortunate wardestroyed me ... All the circumstances of my disastersare bound up in that fatal knot.”[66]

Meanwhile, the Austrians drove into the Duchy of War-saw, but suffered defeat at the Battle of Raszyn on 19April 1809. The Polish army captured West Galicia fol-lowing its earlier success.Napoleon assumed personal command in the east and bol-stered the army there for his counter-attack on Austria.After a few small battles, the well-run campaign forcedthe Austrians to withdraw from Bavaria, and Napoleonadvanced into Austria. His hurried attempt to cross theDanube resulted in the massive Battle of Aspern-Essling(22 May 1809) — Napoleon’s first significant tactical de-feat. But the Austrian commander, Archduke Charles,failed to follow up on his indecisive victory, allowingNapoleon to prepare and seize Vienna in early July. Hedefeated the Austrians at Wagram, on 5–6 July. (It wasduring the middle of that battle that Marshal Bernadotte

The French Empire in Europe in 1812, near its peak extent.

was stripped of his command after retreating contrary toNapoleon’s orders. Shortly thereafter, Bernadotte tookup the offer from Sweden to fill the vacant position ofCrown Prince there. Later he would actively participatein wars against his former Emperor.)The War of the Fifth Coalition ended with the Treatyof Schönbrunn (14 October 1809). In the east, onlythe Tyrolese rebels led by Andreas Hofer continued tofight the French-Bavarian army until finally defeated inNovember 1809, while in the west the Peninsular Warcontinued.In 1810, the French Empire reached its greatest extent.On the continent, the British and Portuguese remainedrestricted to the area around Lisbon (behind their impreg-nable lines of Torres Vedras) and to besieged Cadiz.Napoleon married Marie-Louise, an Austrian Arch-duchess, with the aim of ensuring a more stable alliancewith Austria and of providing the Emperor with an heir(something his first wife, Josephine, had failed to do).As well as the French Empire, Napoleon controlled theSwiss Confederation, the Confederation of the Rhine, theDuchy of Warsaw and the Kingdom of Italy. Territoriesallied with the French included:

• the Kingdom of Spain (under Joseph Bonaparte,Napoleon’s elder brother)

• the Kingdom of Westphalia (Jérôme Bonaparte,Napoleon’s younger brother)

• the Kingdom of Naples (under JoachimMurat, hus-band of Napoleon’s sister Caroline)

• the Principality of Lucca and Piombino (underElisa Bonaparte (Napoleon’s sister) and her husbandFelice Baciocchi);

and Napoleon’s former enemies, Prussia and Austria.

9

7 Subsidiary Wars

The Napoleonic wars were the direct cause of a numberof wars in the Americas and elsewhere.

7.1 War of 1812

Main article: War of 1812

Coinciding with the War of the Sixth Coalition, thoughtechnically not considered part of the Napoleonic Wars,was the War of 1812. The neutral United States declaredwar on Britain. One main reason was British interfer-ence with American merchant ships and forced enlist-ment into the British navy. France had interfered too (andat one point theU.S. considered declaring war on France.)The war ended in a military stalemate and there were noboundary changes at the Treaty of Ghent which took ef-fect in early 1815, whenNapoleon was on Elba. Themaineffect of the War of 1812 on the Napoleonic Wars wasto let the Americans distract the British navy, giving theFrench a slight advantage. The Louisiana Purchase of1803 came during the peaceful lull after Napoleon de-cided against building a New World empire. So he tookLouisiana from Spain and sold it to the U.S. for $15 mil-lion, including $11 million in gold.[67]

7.2 The Latin American Revolutions

Main article: Spanish American wars of independence

The abdication of kings Carlos IV and Fernando VIIof Spain and the installation of Napoleon’s brother asKing José provoked civil wars and revolutions leading tothe independence of most of Spain’s mainland Americancolonies.

8 The Invasion of Russia 1812

Main article: Napoleon’s invasion of RussiaThe Treaty of Tilsit in 1807 resulted in the Anglo-Russian War (1807–12). Emperor Alexander I declaredwar on Britain after the British attack on Denmark inSeptember 1807. British men-of-war supported theSwedish fleet during the Finnish War and scored victo-ries over the Russians in the Gulf of Finland in July 1808and August 1809. However, the success of the Russianarmy on the land forced Sweden to sign peace treatieswith Russia in 1809 and with France in 1810 and to jointhe Continental Blockade against Britain. But Franco-Russian relations became progressively worse after 1810,and the Russian war with Britain effectively ended. InApril 1812, Britain, Russia and Sweden signed secretagreements directed against Napoleon.[68]

The Battle of Borodino as depicted by Louis Lejeune. The battlewas the largest and bloodiest single-day action of the NapoleonicWars.

The central issue for both Napoleon and Tsar AlexanderI was control over Poland. Each wanted a semi-independent Poland he could control. As Esdaile notes,“Implicit in the idea of a Russian Poland was, of course,a war against Napoleon.”[69] Schroeder says Poland was“the root cause” of Napoleon’s war with Russia but Rus-sia’s refusal to support the Continental System was also afactor.[70]

In 1812, at the height of his power, Napoleon invadedRussia with a pan-EuropeanGrande Armée, consisting of650,000 men (270,000 Frenchmen and many soldiers ofallies or subject areas). The French forces crossed theNiemen River on 24 June 1812. Russia proclaimed aPatriotic War, while Napoleon proclaimed a Second Pol-ish war. The Poles supplied almost 100,000 men for theinvasion-force, but against their expectations, Napoleonavoided any concessions to Poland, having in mind fur-ther negotiations with Russia.[71]

The Grande Armée marched through Russia, winning anumber of relatively minor engagements and the majorBattle of Smolensk on 16–18 August. However, in thesame days, a part of the French Army led by MarshalNicolas Oudinot was stopped in the Battle of Polotsk bythe right wing of the Russian Army, under command ofGeneral Peter Wittgenstein. This prevented the Frenchmarch on the Russian capital, Saint Petersburg; the fateof the invasion was to be decided in Moscow, whereNapoleon himself led his forces.Russians used scorched-earth tactics, and harried theGrande Armée with light Cossack cavalry. TheGrande Armée did not adjust its operational methods inresponse.[72] This refusal led to most of the losses of themain column of the Grande Armée, which in one caseamounted to 95,000 men, including deserters, in a singleweek.[73]

At the same time, the main Russian army retreated foralmost three months. This constant retreat led to the un-

10 9 WAR OF THE SIXTH COALITION 1812–1814

Napoleon's withdrawal from Russia, a painting by AdolphNorthen.

popularity of Field Marshal Michael Andreas Barclay deTolly and a veteran, Prince Mikhail Kutuzov, was madethe new Commander-in-Chief by Tsar Alexander I. Fi-nally, the two armies engaged in the Battle of Borodinoon 7 September,[74] in the vicinity of Moscow. The bat-tle was the largest and bloodiest single-day action of theNapoleonic Wars, involving more than 250,000 men andresulting in at least 70,000 casualties. It was indecisive.The French captured the main positions on the battlefield,but failed to destroy the Russian army; logistical difficul-ties meant that French losses were irreplaceable, unlikeRussian ones.Napoleon entered Moscow on 14 September, after theRussian Army retreated yet again.[75] But by then, theRussians had largely evacuated the city and even re-leased criminals from the prisons to inconvenience theFrench; furthermore, the governor, Count Fyodor Ros-topchin, ordered the city to be burnt.[76] Alexander I re-fused to capitulate, and the peace talks, attempted byNapoleon, failed. In October, with no sign of clear vic-tory in sight, Napoleon began the disastrous Great Retreatfrom Moscow.

Charles Joseph Minard's famous graph of the decreasing sizeof the Grande Armée represented by the width of the line as itmarches to Moscow (tan) and back (black).

At the Battle of Maloyaroslavets the French tried to reachKaluga, where they could find food and forage supplies.But the replenished Russian Army blocked the road,and Napoleon was forced to retreat the same way hehad come to Moscow, through the heavily ravaged ar-

eas along the Smolensk road. In the following weeks, theGrande Armée was dealt a catastrophic blow by the on-set of the Russian Winter, the lack of supplies and con-stant guerrilla warfare by Russian peasants and irregulartroops.When the remnants of the Napoleon’s army crossed theBerezina River in November, only 27,000 fit soldierssurvived, with some 380,000 men dead or missing and100,000 captured.[77] Napoleon then left his men and re-turned to Paris, to prepare the defence against the advanc-ing Russians, and the campaign effectively ended on 14December 1812, when the last enemy troops left Russia.The Russians had lost around 210,000men, but with theirshorter supply lines, they soon replenished their armies.

9 War of the Sixth Coalition 1812–1814

Main article: Sixth Coalition

Seeing an opportunity in Napoleon’s historic defeat, Prus-sia, Sweden, Austria, and a number of German statesre-entered the war.[78] Napoleon vowed that he wouldcreate a new army as large as the one he had sent intoRussia, and quickly built up his forces in the east from30,000 to 130,000 and eventually to 400,000. Napoleoninflicted 40,000 casualties on the Allies at Lützen (2 May1813) and Bautzen (20–21 May 1813). Both battles in-volved total forces of over 250,000, making them someof the largest conflicts of the wars so far. Metternich inNovember 1813 offered Napoleon the Frankfurt propos-als. They would allow Napoleon to remain Emperor butFrance would be reduced to its “natural frontiers” and losecontrol of most of Italy and Germany and the Nether-lands. Napoleon still expected to win the wars, and re-jected the terms. By 1814, as the Allies were closing inon Paris, Napoleon did agree to the Frankfurt proposals,but it was too late and he rejected the new harsher termsproposed by the Allies.J. P. Riley (2013). Napoleon andthe World War of 1813: Lessons in Coalition Warfighting.Routledge. p. 206.

The Battle of Leipzig involved over 600,000 soldiers, making itthe largest battle in Europe prior to World War I.

Meanwhile, in the Peninsular War, Arthur Wellesley re-

11

newed the Anglo-Portuguese advance into Spain just af-ter New Year in 1812, besieging and capturing the for-tified towns of Ciudad Rodrigo, Badajoz, and in theBattle of Salamanca (which was a damaging defeat ofthe French). As the French regrouped, the Anglo–Portuguese entered Madrid and advanced towards Bur-gos, before retreating all the way to Portugal when re-newed French concentrations threatened to trap them. Asa consequence of the Salamanca campaign, the Frenchwere forced to end their long siege of Cadiz and to perma-nently evacuate the provinces of Andalusia and Asturias.In a strategic move, Wellesley planned to move his supplybase from Lisbon to Santander. The Anglo–Portugueseforces swept northwards in late May and seized Burgos.On 21 June, at Vitoria, the combined Anglo-Portugueseand Spanish armies won against Joseph Bonaparte, finallybreaking French power in Spain. The French had to re-treat out of the Iberian peninsula, over the Pyrenees.[79]

The belligerents declared an armistice from 4 June 1813(continuing until 13 August) during which time bothsides attempted to recover from the loss of approximatelya quarter of a million total men in the preceding twomonths. During this time Coalition negotiations finallybrought Austria out in open opposition to France. Twoprincipal Austrian armies took the field, adding 300,000men to the Coalition armies in Germany. In total theAllies now had around 800,000 front-line soldiers inthe German theatre, with a strategic reserve of 350,000formed to support the frontline operations.

The Battle of Hanau (30–31 October 1813), took part betweenAustro-Bavarian and French forces.

Napoleon succeeded in bringing the total imperial forcesin the region to around 650,000—although only 250,000came under his direct command, with another 120,000under Nicolas Charles Oudinot and 30,000 under Davout.The remainder of imperial forces came mostly fromthe Confederation of the Rhine, especially Saxony andBavaria. In addition, to the south, Murat’s King-dom of Naples and Eugène de Beauharnais's King-dom of Italy had a total of 100,000 armed men. InSpain, another 150,000 to 200,000 French troops steadilyretreated before Anglo–Portuguese forces numberingaround 100,000. Thus in total, around 900,000 French-men in all theatres faced around 1,800,000 Coalition sol-

diers (including the strategic reserve under formation inGermany). The gross figures may mislead slightly, asmost of the German troops fighting on the side of theFrench fought at best unreliably and stood on the vergeof defecting to the Allies. One can reasonably say thatNapoleon could count on no more than 450,000 men inGermany—which left him outnumbered about four toone.Following the end of the armistice, Napoleon seemed tohave regained the initiative at Dresden (August 1813),where he once again defeated a numerically superiorCoalition army and inflicted enormous casualties, whilesustaining relatively few. However, the failures of hismarshals and a slow resumption of the offensive on hispart cost him any advantage that this victory might havesecured. At the Battle of Leipzig in Saxony (16–19October 1813), also called the “Battle of the Nations”,191,000 French fought more than 300,000 Allies, andthe defeated French had to retreat into France. Napoleonthen fought a series of battles, including the Battle ofArcis-sur-Aube, in France itself, but the overwhelmingnumbers of the Allies steadily forced him back. His re-maining ally Denmark-Norway became isolated and fellto the coalition.[80]

The Russian army enters Paris in 1814

The Allies entered Paris on 30 March 1814. During thistime Napoleon fought his Six Days Campaign, in whichhe won multiple battles against the enemy forces advanc-ing towards Paris. However, during this entire campaignhe never managed to field more than 70,000 men againstmore than half a million Coalition soldiers. At the Treatyof Chaumont (9 March 1814), the Allies agreed to pre-serve the Coalition until Napoleon’s total defeat.Napoleon determined to fight on, even now, incapableof fathoming his massive fall from power. During thecampaign he had issued a decree for 900,000 fresh con-scripts, but only a fraction of these ever materialized, andNapoleon’s schemes for victory eventually gave way tothe reality of the hopeless situation. Napoleon abdicatedon 6 April. However, occasional military actions contin-ued in Italy, Spain, and Holland throughout the spring of1814.[81]

The victors exiled Napoleon to the island of Elba, and

12 11 WAR OF THE SEVENTH COALITION 1815

restored the French Bourbon monarchy in the person ofLouis XVIII. They signed the Treaty of Fontainebleau (11April 1814) and initiated the Congress of Vienna to re-draw the map of Europe.

10 Gunboat War 1807–1814

Main article: Gunboat War

Initially, Denmark-Norway declared itself neutral in theNapoleonic Wars, established a navy, and traded withboth sides. But the British attacked and captured or de-stroyed large portions of the Dano-Norwegian fleet in theFirst Battle of Copenhagen (2 April 1801), and againin the Second Battle of Copenhagen (August–September1807). This ended Dano-Norwegian neutrality, begin-ning an engagement in a naval guerrilla war in which smallgunboats would attack larger British ships in Danish andNorwegian waters. The Gunboat War effectively endedwith a British victory at the Battle of Lyngør in 1812, in-volving the destruction of the last large Dano-Norwegianship—the frigate Najaden.

11 War of the Seventh Coalition1815

See also: Hundred Days and the NeapolitanWar between the Kingdom of Naples and theAustrian Empire.

Wellington at Waterloo by Robert Alexander Hillingford.

The Seventh Coalition (1815) pitted Britain, Russia,Prussia, Sweden, Switzerland, Austria, the Netherlandsand a number of German states against France. The pe-riod known as the Hundred Days began after Napoleonescaped from Elba and landed at Cannes (1March 1815).Travelling to Paris, picking up support as he went, heeventually overthrew the restored Louis XVIII. The Al-lies rapidly gathered their armies to meet him again.Napoleon raised 280,000 men, whom he distributed

among several armies. To add to the 90,000-strong stand-ing army, he recalled well over a quarter of a million vet-erans from past campaigns and issued a decree for theeventual draft of around 2.5 million new men into theFrench army. This faced an initial Coalition force ofabout 700,000—although Coalition campaign-plans pro-vided for one million front-line soldiers, supported byaround 200,000 garrison, logistics and other auxiliarypersonnel. The Coalition intended this force to have over-whelming numbers against the numerically inferior im-perial French army—which in fact never came close toreaching Napoleon’s goal of more than 2.5 million underarms.

The Prince’s Flag was used as a battle flag by the Dutch forcesduring the Battle of Waterloo.

Napoleon took about 124,000 men of the Army ofthe North on a pre-emptive strike against the Allies inBelgium.[82] He intended to attack the Coalition armiesbefore they combined, in hope of driving the British intothe sea and the Prussians out of the war. His march tothe frontier achieved the surprise he had planned, catch-ing the Anglo-Dutch Army in a dispersed arrangement.The Prussians had been more wary, concentrating 3/4 oftheir Army in and around Ligny. The Prussians forced theArmée du Nord to fight all the day of the 15th to reachLigny in a delaying action by the Prussian 1st Corps. Heforced Prussia to fight at Ligny on 16 June 1815, and thedefeated Prussians retreated in some disorder. On thesame day, the left wing of the Armée du Nord, under thecommand of Marshal Michel Ney, succeeded in stoppingany of Wellington’s forces going to aid Blücher’s Prus-sians by fighting a blocking action at Quatre Bras. Neyfailed to clear the cross-roads and Wellington reinforcedthe position. But with the Prussian retreat, Wellington toohad to retreat. He fell back to a previously reconnoitredposition on an escarpment at Mont St Jean, a few milessouth of the village of Waterloo.Napoleon took the reserve of the Army of the North, andreunited his forces with those of Ney to pursue Welling-ton’s army, after he ordered Marshal Grouchy to take theright wing of the Army of the North and stop the Prus-sians re-grouping. In the first of a series of miscalcula-tions, both Grouchy and Napoleon failed to realize that

13

Map of the Waterloo campaign

the Prussian forces were already reorganized and were as-sembling at the village of Wavre. In any event the Frencharmy did nothing to stop a rather leisurely retreat thattook place throughout the night and into the early morn-ing by the Prussians. As the 4th, 1st, and 2nd PrussianCorps marched through the town towards Waterloo the3rd Prussian Corps took up blocking positions across theriver, and although Grouchy engaged and defeated thePrussian rearguard under the command of Lt-Gen vonThielmann in the Battle of Wavre (18–19 June) it was12 hours too late. In the end, 17,000 Prussians had kept33,000 badly needed French reinforcements off the field.Napoleon delayed the start of fighting at the Battle ofWa-terloo on the morning of 18 June for several hours whilehe waited for the ground to dry after the previous night’srain. By late afternoon, the French army had not suc-ceeded in driving Wellington’s forces from the escarp-ment on which they stood. When the Prussians arrivedand attacked the French right flank in ever-increasingnumbers, Napoleon’s strategy of keeping the Coalitionarmies divided had failed and a combined Coalition gen-eral advance drove his army from the field in confusion.Grouchy organized a successful and well-ordered retreattowards Paris, where Marshal Davout had 117,000 menready to turn back the 116,000 men of Blücher andWellington. Davout was defeated at the Battle of Issy andnegotiations for surrender had begun.On arriving at Paris three days after Waterloo, Napoleonstill clung to the hope of a concerted national resistance;but the temper of the legislative chambers, and of thepublic generally, did not favour his view. Lacking sup-port Napoleon abdicated again on 22 June 1815 and on15 July, surrendered himself to the British squadron at

Rochefort. The Allies exiled him to the remote SouthAtlantic island of Saint Helena, where he died on 5 May1821.Meanwhile, in Italy, JoachimMurat, whom the Allies hadallowed to remain King of Naples after Napoleon’s initialdefeat, once again allied with his brother-in-law, trigger-ing the Neapolitan War (March to May, 1815). Hopingto find support among Italian nationalists fearing the in-creasing influence of the Habsburgs in Italy, Murat issuedthe Rimini Proclamation inciting them to war. But theproclamation failed and the Austrians soon crushed Mu-rat at the Battle of Tolentino (2May to 3May 1815), forc-ing him to flee. The Bourbons returned to the throne ofNaples on 20May 1815. Murat tried to regain his throne,but after that failed, he was executed by firing squad on13 October 1815.

12 Political effects

Napoleon as King of Italy (Appiani)

The NapoleonicWars brought radical changes to Europe,but the reactionary forces returned to power and triedto reverse some of them.[83] Napoleon had succeeded inbringing most of Western Europe under one rule. How-ever, France’s constant warfare with the combined forcesof the other major powers of Europe for over two decadesfinally took its toll. By the end of the Napoleonic Wars,France no longer held the role of the dominant power inContinental Europe, as it had since the times of LouisXIV. Britain emerged as the most important economic

14 13 MILITARY LEGACY

power, and its Royal Navy held unquestioned naval supe-riority across the globe well into the 20th century.In most European countries, subjugation in the FrenchEmpire brought with it many liberal methods of theFrench Revolution including democracy, due process incourts, abolition of serfdom, reduction of the power ofthe Catholic Church, and a demand for constitutionallimits on monarchs. The increasing voice of the mid-dle classes with rising commerce and industry meant thatrestored European monarchs found it difficult to restorepre-revolutionary absolutism, and had to retain many ofthe reforms enacted during Napoleon’s rule. Institutionallegacies remain to this day in the form of civil-law legalsystems, with clearly redacted codes compiling their basiclaws—an enduring legacy of the Napoleonic Code.During the wake of the Napoleonic period, nationalism,a relatively new movement, became increasingly signif-icant. This would shape much of the course of futureEuropean history. Its growth spelled the beginning ofsome states and the end of others, as the map of Europechanged dramatically in the hundred years following theNapoleonic Era. Rule by fiefdoms and aristocracy waswidely replaced by national ideologies based on sharedorigins and culture. Importantly, Bonaparte’s reign overEurope sowed the seeds for the founding of the nation-states of Germany and Italy by starting the process ofconsolidating city-states, kingdoms and principalities. Atthe end of the war Denmark was forced to cede Norwayto Sweden, but because Norway had signed its own con-stitution on the 17th of May 1814, Sweden was forced tofight for the right to own Norway. The resulting union be-tween Sweden and Norway gave Norway more indepen-dence than under Denmark and would end with Norwaybecoming an independent country in 1905.The Napoleonic wars also played a key role in the in-dependence of the Latin American colonies from Spainand Portugal. The conflict significantly weakened the au-thority and military power of Spain, especially after theBattle of Trafalgar. There were many uprisings in Span-ish America, leading to the wars of independence. InPortuguese America, Brazil experienced greater auton-omy as it now served as seat of the Portuguese Empireand ascended politically to the status of Kingdom. Theseevents also contributed to the Portuguese Liberal Revolu-tion in 1820 and the Independence of Brazil in 1822.[84]

Afterwards, in order to prevent another such war, TheCongress of Vienna in 1814–15 reassigned territories inorder to create a balance of power in which no one statewould be able to dominate Europe the way NapoleonicFrance had. The balance on the whole kept Europepeaceful for 100 years. The century of transatlantic peaceafter the Battle of Waterloo in 1815, and up to the out-break of World War I in 1914, enabled the “greatest in-tercontinental migration in human history,”[85] beginningwith a “a big spurt of immigration after the release of thedam erected by the Napoleonic Wars.”[86] Immigration

inflows relative to the U.S. population rose to record lev-els (peaking at 1.6% in 1850-51)[87] as some 30 millionEuropeans relocated to the United States between 1815and 1914.[88]

Another concept emerged from the Congress of Vienna –that of a unified Europe. After his defeat, Napoleon de-plored the fact that his dream of a free and peaceful “Eu-ropean association” remained unaccomplished. Such aEuropean association would share the same principles ofgovernment, system of measurement, currency and CivilCode. Some one-and-a-half centuries later, and after twoworld wars several of these ideals re-emerged in the formof the European Union.

13 Military legacy

In 1800 Bonaparte took the French Army across the Alps, even-tually defeating the Austrians at Marengo

13.1 Enlarged scope

The Napoleonic Wars also had a profound military im-pact. Until the time of Napoleon, European states em-ployed relatively small armies, made up of both nationalsoldiers and mercenaries. These regulars were highlydrilled professional soldiers. These Ancien Régimearmies could only deploy small field armies due to rudi-mentary staffs and comprehensive yet cumbersome logis-tics. Both issues combined to limit actual field forces toapproximately 30,000 men under a single commander.However, military innovators in the mid-18th century be-gan to recognize the potential of an entire nation at war:a “nation in arms”.[89]

The scale of warfare dramatically enlarged during theRevolutionary and subsequent Napoleonic Wars. Before,it was rare for a battle to involve more than 30,000 sol-diers on each side. The French twin innovations of sep-arate corps (allowing a single commander to efficientlycommand more than the traditional command span of30,000 men) and living off the land (which allowed field

13.1 Enlarged scope 15

armies to deploy more men without requiring an equal in-crease in supply arrangements such as depots and supplytrains) allowed the French republic to field much largerarmies than their more traditional opponents. Napoleonsubsequently ensured that what were effectively separateFrench field armies during the time of the French republicoperated as a single army under his control as Emperor,often allowing him to substantially outnumber his oppo-nents. This forced his continental opponents to increasethe size of their armies as well, moving away from the tra-ditional small, well drilled Ancien Régime armies of the18th century to mass conscript armies with its attendantpolitical consequences.

Napoleon on the field of Eylau

The Battle of Marengo, which largely ended the Warof the Second Coalition was fought with fewer than60,000 men on both sides. The Battle of Austerlitz whichended theWar of the Third Coalition involved fewer than160,000 men. The Battle of Friedland which led to peacewith Russia in 1807 involved about 150,000 men.After these defeats, the continental powers developedvarious forms of mass conscription to allow them to faceFrance on even terms and the size of field armies in-creased rapidly. The battle of Wagram of 1809 involved300,000 men, and 500,000 fought at Leipzig in 1813, ofwhom 150,000 were killed or wounded.About a million French soldiers became casualties(wounded, invalided or killed), a higher proportionthan in the First World War. The European totalmay have reached 5,000,000 military deaths, includingdisease.[90][91]

France had after Russia the largest population in Europeby the end of the 18th century (27 million, as comparedto Britain’s 12 million and Russia’s 35 to 40 million).[92]It was well poised to take advantage of the levée en masse.Before Napoleon’s efforts, Lazare Carnot played a largepart in the reorganization of the French army from 1793to 1794—a time which saw previous French misfortunesreversed, with Republican armies advancing on all fronts.The sizes of the armies involved give an obvious indica-tion of the changes in warfare. During Europe’s major

Napoleon’s retreat from Russia in 1812. His Grande Armée hadlost about half a million men.

pre-revolutionary war, the Seven Years’ War of 1756–1763, few armies ever numbered more than 200,000 intotal with actual field forces often numbering less than30,000. By contrast, the French army peaked in size inthe 1790s with 1.5 million Frenchmen enlisted althoughactual strength was much less. Haphazard bookkeeping,rudimentary medical support and lax recruitment stan-dards ensured that strength on paper never came close toactual strength as soldiers either never existed, fell ill orwere unable to withstand the physical demands of sol-diering. And lastly, the French republic could never haveafforded such a large force.In total, about 2.8 million Frenchmen fought on land andabout 150,000 at sea, bringing the total for France toalmost 3 million combatants during almost 25 years ofwarfare.[93]

The Battle of Trafalgar

Britain had a total 750,000 men under arms between1792 and 1815 as its army expanded from 40,000 menin 1793[94] to a peak of 250,000 men in 1813.[95] Over250,000 sailors served in the Royal Navy. In Septem-ber 1812, Russia had 900,000 enlisted men in its landforces, and between 1799 and 1815 a total of 2.1 mil-lion men served in the its army. Another 200,000 servedin the Russian Navy. Indicative of the discrepance be-tween paper figures and actual field strength is that out

16 13 MILITARY LEGACY

of the alleged 900,000 men, the actual field armies de-ployed against France had numbered less than 250,000all together.There are no consistent statistics for other major combat-ants. Austria’s forces peaked at about 576,000 (duringthe war of the sixth coalition) and had little or no navalcomponent yet never fielded more than 250,000 men infield armies. After Britain, Austria proved the most per-sistent enemy of France, more than a million Austriansserved during the long wars. Its large army was over-all quite homogeneous and solid and in 1813 operated inGermany (140,000 men), Italy and the Balkans (90,000men at its peak, about 50,000 men during most of thecampaigning on these fronts). However, Austria’s man-power was becoming quite limited toward the end of thewars, hence leading its generals to favor cautious and con-servative strategies, to limit their losses.

French soldiers in skirmish with Bashkirs and Cossacks in 1813

Prussia never had more than 320,000 men under arms atany time. In 1813-1815, while the core of its army (about100,000 men) was characterized by its extreme compe-tence and determination, the bulk of its forces consistedof second-line and third line troops as well as militiamenof variable strength. Many of these troops performed rea-sonably well and often displayed considerable bravery butlacked the professionalism of their regular counterpartsand were not as well equipped. Others were largely un-fit for actual operations, except sieges. During the 1813campaign, 130,000 men were actually used in the mili-tary operations, with 100,000 effectively participating inthemain German campaign, and about 30,000 being usedto besiege isolated French garrisons.[96]

Spain’s armies also peaked at around 200,000 men, notincluding more than 50,000 guerrillas scattered overSpain. In addition the Maratha Confederation, theOttoman Empire, Italy, Naples and the Duchy of War-saw each had more than 100,000 men under arms. Evensmall nations now had armies rivalling the size of theGreat Powers' forces of past wars but in reality, most ofthese were poor quality forces only suitable for garrisonduties. The size of their actual combat troops remainedmodest yet these could still provide a welcome addition

to the major powers. The percentage of French troops inthe Grande Armee which Napoleon led into Russia wasabout 50% while the French allies also provided a signif-icant contribution to the French forces in Spain. As thesesmall nations joined the Coalition forces in 1813-1814,they provided a useful addition to the coalition while de-priving Napoleon of much needed cannon fodder.

All the participants in the Napoleonic Wars. Blue: The Coalitionand their colonies and allies. Green: The First French Empire,its protectorates and colonies, allies and co-belligerents.

13.2 Innovations

The initial stages of the Industrial Revolution hadmuch todo with larger military forces—it became easy to mass-produce weapons and thus to equip significantly largerforces. Britain served as the largest single manufacturerof armaments in this period. It was the arsenal that sup-plied most of the weapons used by the Coalition powersthroughout the conflicts. France produced the second-largest total of armaments, equipping its own huge forcesas well as those of the Confederation of the Rhine andother allies.[97]

Napoleon himself showed innovative tendencies in hisuse of mobility to offset numerical disadvantages, as bril-liantly demonstrated in the rout of the Austro-Russianforces in 1805 in the Battle of Austerlitz. The FrenchArmy reorganized the role of artillery, forming indepen-dent, mobile units, as opposed to the previous traditionof attaching artillery pieces in support of troops.[98]

Another advance affected warfare: the semaphore systemhad allowed the French War-Minister, Carnot, to com-municate with French forces on the frontiers through-out the 1790s. The French continued to use this sys-tem throughout the Napoleonic wars. Additionally, aerialsurveillance came into use for the first time when theFrench used a hot-air balloon to survey Coalition posi-tions before the Battle of Fleurus, on 26 June 1794.[99]

13.3 Total war

Main article: Total War

Historians have explored how the Napoleonic wars be-came total wars. Most historians argue that the escala-

17

tion in size and scope came from two sources. First wasthe ideological clash between revolutionary/equalitarianand conservative/hierarchical belief systems. Second wasthe emerging nationalism in France, Germany, Spain,and elsewhere that made these “people’s wars” insteadof contests between monarchs.[100] Bell has argued thateven more important than ideology and nationalism werethe intellectual transformations in the culture of war thatcame about through The Enlightenment.[101] One factor,he says, is that war was no longer a routine event buta transforming experience for societies—a total experi-ence. Secondly the military emerged in its own right asa separate sphere of society distinct from the ordinarycivilian world. The French Revolution made every civil-ian a part of the war machine, either as a soldier throughuniversal conscription, or as a vital cog in the home frontmachinery supporting and supplying the army. Out ofthat, says Bell, came “militarism,” the belief that the mil-itary role was morally superior to the civilian role in timesof great national crisis. The fighting army representedthe essence of the nation’s soul.[102] As Napoleon him-self proclaimed, “It is the soldier who founds a Republicand it is the soldier who maintains it.”[103]

14 Last veterans

• Geert Adriaans Boomgaard (1788–1899) was thelast surviving veteran. He fought for France in the33ème Régiment Léger[104]

• Josephine Mazurkewicz (1794–1896) was the lastfemale veteran. She was an assistant surgeonin Napoleon’s army and later participated in theCrimean War.

• Pvt Morris Shea (1795–1892) of the 73rd Footwas the last British veteran.[105]

• Pictures of French veterans in uniform

15 In fiction

• Leo Tolstoy's epic novel, War and Peace recountsNapoleon’s wars between 1805 and 1812 (especiallythe disastrous 1812 invasion of Russia and subse-quent retreat) from a Russian perspective.

• Stendhal's novel The Charterhouse of Parma openswith a ground-level recounting of the Battle of Wa-terloo and the subsequent chaotic retreat of Frenchforces.

• Les Misérables by Victor Hugo takes place againstthe backdrop of the NapoleonicWar and subsequentdecades, and in its unabridged form contains an epictelling of the Battle of Waterloo.

• Adieu is a novella by Honoré de Balzac in whichcan be found a short description of the French re-treat fromRussia, particularly the battle of Berezina,where the fictional couple of the story are tragicallyseparated. Years later after imprisonment, the hus-band returns to find his wife still in a state of uttershock and amnesia. He has the battle and their sep-aration reenacted, hoping the memory will heal herstate.

• William Makepeace Thackeray's novel Vanity Fairtakes place during the Napoleonic Wars—one of itsprotagonists dies at the Battle of Waterloo.

• The Duel, a short story by Joseph Conrad, recountsthe story based on true events of two French Hussarofficers who carry a long grudge and fight in duelseach time they meet during the Napoleonic wars.The short story was adapted by director Ridley Scottinto the 1977 Cannes Film Festival's Best FirstWork award winning film The Duellists.

• Le Colonel Chabert by Honoré de Balzac. Afterbeing severely wounded during the battle of Eylau(1807), Chabert, a famous colonel of the cuirassiers,was erroneously recorded as dead and buried un-conscious with French casualties. After extricatinghimself from his own grave and being nursed backto health by local peasants, it takes several yearsfor him to recover. When he returns in the Parisof the Bourbon Restoration, he discovers that his“widow”, a former prostitute that Chabert made richand honourable, has married the wealthy Count Fer-raud. She has also liquidated all of Chabert’s be-longings and pretends to not recognize her first hus-band. Seeking to regain his name and monies thatwere wrongly given away as inheritance, he hiresDerville, an attorney, to win back his money and hishonor.

• A poem Borodino by Mikhail Lermontov describesthe Battle of Borodino from the perspective of poet’suncle, a Russian officer.

• The Count of Monte Cristo by Alexandre Dumas,père starts during the tail-end of the NapoleonicWars. The main character, Edmond Dantès, suffersimprisonment following false accusations of Bona-partist leanings.

• The novelist Jane Austen lived much of her life dur-ing the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars,and two of her brothers served in the Royal Navy.Austen almost never refers to specific dates or histor-ical events in her novels, but wartime England formspart of the general backdrop to several of them: inPride and Prejudice (1813, but possibly written dur-ing the 1790s), the local militia (civilian volunteers)has been called up for home defence and its offi-cers play an important role in the plot; in Mansfield

18 15 IN FICTION

Park (1814), Fanny Price’s brother William is amidshipman (officer in training) in the Royal Navy;and in Persuasion (1818), Frederic Wentworth andseveral other characters are naval officers recentlyreturned from service.

• Charlotte Brontë's novel Shirley (1849), set duringthe Napoleonic Wars, explores some of the eco-nomic effects of war on rural Yorkshire.

• Sir Arthur Conan Doyle's Brigadier Gerard servesas a French soldier during the Napoleonic Wars

• Fyodor Dostoevsky's book The Idiot had a character,General Ivolgin, who witnessed and recounted hisrelationship with Napoleon during the Campaign ofRussia.

• The Hornblower books by C.S. Forester followthe naval career of Horatio Hornblower during theNapoleonic Wars.

• The Aubrey–Maturin series of novels is a sequenceof 20 historical novels by Patrick O'Brian portrayingthe rise of Jack Aubrey from Lieutenant to Rear Ad-miral during the Napoleonic Wars. The film MasterandCommander: The Far Side of theWorld starringRussell Crowe and directed by Peter Weir is basedon this series of books.

• The Sharpe series by Bernard Cornwell star the char-acter Richard Sharpe, a soldier in the British Army,who fights throughout the Napoleonic Wars.

• The Bloody Jack book series by Louis A. Meyer isset during the Second Coalition of the NapoleonicWars, and retells many famous battles of the age.The heroine, Jacky, soon meets none other thanBonaparte himself.

• The Napoleonic Wars provide the backdrop for TheEmperor, The Victory, The Regency and The Cam-paigners, Volumes 11, 12, 13 and 14 respectively ofThe Morland Dynasty, a series of historical novelsby author Cynthia Harrod-Eagles.

• The Richard Bolitho series by Alexander Kent nov-els portray this period of history from a naval per-spective.

• Dinah Dean's series of historical novels are setagainst the background of the Napoleonic Wars andare told from a Russian perspective – “The Roadto Kaluga”, “Flight From the Eagle”, “The Eagle’sFate”, “The Wheel of Fortune”, “The Green Gal-lant” – follow a small group of soldiers (and theirrelatives) over months of campaigning from the fallof Moscow up to the liberation of Paris, the last 3books – “The Ice King”, “Tatya’s Story”, “The Riverof Time” – fall some years later but have the samecast of characters.

• Julian Stockwin's Thomas Kydd series portrays oneman’s journey from pressed man to Admiral in thetime of the French and Napoleonic Wars

• Simon Scarrow – Napoleonic series. Rise ofNapoleon and Wellington from humble beginningsto history’s most remarkable and notable leaders. 4books in the series.

• The Lord Ramage series by Dudley Pope takes placeduring the Napoleonic Wars.

• JeanetteWinterson's 1987 novel The Passion (book)

• Georgette Heyer's 1937 novel An Infamous Armyrecounts the fortunes of a family in the run up to,and during the course of, the Battle of Waterloo.Heyer’s novel is noted for its meticulous research onthe progress of the battle, combining her noted pe-riod romance writing with her detailed research intoregency history.

• The Battle (French: La Bataille) is a historical novelby the French author Patrick Rambaud that was firstpublished in 1997 and again in English in 2000. Thebook describes the 1809 Battle of Aspern-Esslingbetween the French Empire under Napoleon andthe Austrian Empire. The novel was awarded thePrix Goncourt and the Grand Prix du roman del'Académie française for 1997.

Science fiction and fantasy

• Bryan Talbot's graphic novel Grandville is set inan alternate history in which France won theNapoleonicWar, invaded Britain and guillotined theBritish Royal Family.

• The Temeraire series by Naomi Novik takes place inalternate-universe Napoleonic Wars where dragonsexist and serve in combat.

• Susanna Clarke's historical fantasy novel, JonathanStrange & Mr. Norrell, takes place during theNapoleonic Wars. Much of the plot is driven byMr. Norrell’s successful campaign to convince theBritish government that magic can be employed toprosecute the Peninsular War.

Video games

• Napoleon: Total War is a strategy game focusingon the Napoleonic Wars, allowing the player to fightreal-time battles.

• Age of Empires III: The Napoleonic Era is an un-official modification of the history-based real timestrategy game for PC by Ensemble Studios, Age ofEmpires III, that focuses on the Napoleonic Wars.The game peaks in 1815 which marks the end of

19

the Napoleonic Era and Wars which, according tothe creators, are the influential military events dur-ing the time period of the original Age of EmpiresIII which focuses on the colonization of America.

16 See also• British Army during the Napoleonic Wars

• Coalition forces of the Napoleonic Wars

• Imperial and Royal Army during the NapoleonicWars

• Royal Prussian Army of the Napoleonic Wars

• List of Napoleonic battles

• Battle of Waterloo

• Military career of Napoleon Bonaparte

• Uniforms of La Grande Armée

17 Notes

18 Further reading• Bell, David A. The First Total War: Napoleon’s Eu-

rope and the Birth of Warfare as We Know It (2008)excerpt and text search

• Bruce, Robert B. et al. Fighting Techniques of theNapoleonic Age 1792–1815: Equipment, CombatSkills, and Tactics (2008) excerpt and text search

• Chandler, David G. The Campaigns of Napoleon(1973) 1172 pp; a detailed guide to all major bat-tles excerpt and text search

• Chandler, David G., ed. Napoleon’s Marshals(1987) short scholarly biographies

• Dupuy, Trevor N. and Dupuy, R. Ernest. The En-cyclopedia of Military History (2nd ed. 1970) pp730–770

• Dwyer, Philip. Napoleon: The Path to Power (2008)excerpt vol 1; Citizen Emperor: Napoleon in Power(2013) excerpt and text search v 2; most recentscholarly biography

• Elting, John R. Swords Around a Throne:Napoleon’s Grand Armee (1988).

• Esdaile, Charles. Napoleon’sWars: An InternationalHistory 1803-1815 (2008), 621pp

• Forrest, Alan I. Napoleon’s Men: The Soldiers of theEmpire Revolution and Empire (2002).

• Forrest, Alan. Conscripts and Deserters: The Armyand French Society during Revolution and the Empire(1989) excerpt and text search

• Gates, David. The Napoleonic Wars 1803-1815(NY: Random House, 2011)

• Griffith, Paddy. The Art of War of RevolutionaryFrance, 1789–1802 (1998) excerpt and text search

• Hall, Christopher D. British Strategy in theNapoleonic War, 1803–15 (1992)

• Harvey, Robert (2013). The War of Wars. Con-stable & Robinson. p. 328., well-written popularsurvey of these wars

• Haythornthwaite, Philip J. Napoleon’s Military Ma-chine (1995) excerpt and text search

• Hazen, Charles Downer. The French Revolution andNapoleon (1917) online free

• Kagan, Frederick W. The End of the Old Order:Napoleon and Europe, 1801-1805 (2007)

• McLynn, Frank. Napoleon: A Biography (1997)• Parker, Harold T. “Why Did Napoleon Invade Rus-sia? A Study in Motivation and the Interrelations ofPersonality and Social Structure,” Journal of Mili-tary History (1990) 54#2 pp 131–46 in JSTOR.

• Pope, Stephen (1999). The Cassel Dictionary of theNapoleonic Wars. Cassel. ISBN 0-304-35229-2.

• Rapport, Mike. The Napoleonic Wars: A Very ShortIntroduction (Oxford UP, 2013)

• Riley, Jonathon P. Napoleon as a General (Hamble-don Press, 2007)

• Roberts, Andrew. Napoleon: A Life (2014) Majornew biography by a leading British Historian

• Rothenberg, Gunther E. (1988). “The Origins,Causes, and Extension of the Wars of the FrenchRevolution and Napoleon”. Journal of Interdisci-plinary History 18 (4): 771–793. JSTOR 204824

• Rothenberg, E. Gunther. The Art of Warfare in theAge of Napoleon (1977)

• Schneid, Frederick C. (2011). The French Revolu-tionary and Napoleonic Wars. Mainz: Institute ofEuropean History.

• Schneid, Frederick C. Napoleon’s Conquest of Eu-rope: The War of the Third Coalition (2005) excerptand text search

• Schroeder, Paul W. The Transformation of Euro-pean Politics 1763–1848 (1994) 920pp; online; ad-vanced analysis of diplomacy

• Smith, Digby George. The Greenhill NapoleonicWars Data Book: Actions and Losses in Personnel,Colours, Standards and Artillery (1998)

20 19 REFERENCES

18.1 British, Austrian & Russian roles

• Bryant, Arthur. Years of Endurance 1793–1802(1942); and Years of Victory, 1802–1812 (1944)well-written surveys of the British story

• Christie, Ian R.Wars and Revolutions Britain, 1760–1815 (1982)

• Ehrman, John. The Younger Pitt: The ConsumingStruggle (Volume 3) (1996)

• Esdaile, Charles. Napoleon’sWars: An InternationalHistory, 1803–1815 (2008); 645pp excerpt and textsearch a standard scholarly history

• Glover, Richard. Peninsular Preparation: The Re-form of the British Army 1795–1809 (1963) excerptand text search

• Godechot, Jacques; Béatrice Fry Hyslop; DavidLloyd Dowd et al. (1971). The Napoleonic era inEurope. Holt, Rinehart and Winston.

• Haythornthwaite, Philip J.Wellington’s Military Ma-chine, 1792–1815 (1989)

• Haythornthwaite, Philip J. The Russian Army of theNapoleonic Wars (1987) vol 1: Infantry 1799–1814;vol 2: Cavalry, 1799–1814

• Lavery, Brian. Nelson’s Navy, Revised and Up-dated: The Ships, Men, and Organization, 1793–1815 (2nd ed. 2012)

• Lieven, D. C. “Russia and the Defeat of Napoleon(1812–14),” Kritika: Explorations in Russian andEurasian History (2006) 7#2 pp 283–308.

• Muir, Rory. Britain and the Defeat of Napoleon:1807–1815 (1996)

• Muir, Rory. Wellington: The Path to Victory 1769–1814 (2013) vol 1 of two-volume scholarly biogra-phy excerpt and text search

• Ross, Steven T. European Diplomatic History,1789–1815: France Against Europe (1969)

• Rothenberg, Gunther E. Napoleon’s Great Adver-saries: The Archduke Charles and the Austrian Army1792–1814 (1982)

18.2 Historiography and memory

• Esdaile, Charles. “The Napoleonic Period: SomeThoughts on Recent Historiography,” European His-tory Quarterly, (1993) 23: 415–32 online

• Forrest, Alan et al. eds. War Memories: The Revo-lutionary and Napoleonic Wars in Modern EuropeanCulture (2013)

• Hyatt, AlbertM.J. “TheOrigins of NapoleonicWar-fare: A Survey of Interpretations.” Military Affairs(1966) 30#4 pp 177–185.

• Messenger, Charles, ed. (2013). Reader’s Guide toMilitary History. Routledge. pp. 391–427.; evalua-tion of the major books

• Lieven, D. C. “Russia and the Defeat of Napoleon(1812–14).” Kritika: Explorations in Russian andEurasian History (2006) 7#2 pp 283–308.

• Messenger, Charles, ed. (2001). Reader’s Guide toMilitary History. Routledge. pp. 391–427. evalua-tion of the major books on Napoleon and his warspublished by 2001.

• Mikaberidze, Alexander. “Recent Trends in theRussian Historiography of the Napoleonic Wars,”Journal of Military History (2010) 74#1 pp 189–194.

• Ross, Steven T. The A to Z of the Wars of the FrenchRevolution (Rowman & Littlefield, 2010); 1st edi-tion was Historical dictionary of the wars of theFrench Revolution (Scarecrow Press, 1998)

• Schneid, Frederick C. Napoleonic Wars: The Essen-tial Bibliography (2012) excerpt and text search 121pp. online review in H-FRANCE

18.3 Primary sources

• Dwyer, Philip G. “Public remembering, privatereminiscing: French military memoirs and the rev-olutionary and Napoleonic wars,” French HistoricalStudies (2010) 33#2 pp. 231–258 online

• Kennedy, Catriona. Narratives of the Revolutionaryand Napoleonic Wars: Military and Civilian Expe-rience in Britain and Ireland (Palgrave Macmillan,2013)

• Leighton, James. Witnessing the Revolutionary andNapoleonic Wars in German Central Europe (2013),diaries, letters and accounts by civilians Online re-view

19 References[1] The term “Austrian Empire” came into use after Napoleon

crowned himself Emperor of the French in 1804, wherebyFrancis II, Holy Roman Emperor took the title Emperorof Austria (Kaiser von Österreich) in response. The HolyRoman Empire was dissolved in 1806, and consequently“Emperor of Austria” became Francis’ primary title. Forthis reason, “Austrian Empire” is often used instead of“Holy Roman Empire” for brevity’s sake when speakingof the Napoleonic Wars, even though the two entities arenot synonymous.

21

[2] Both Austria and Prussia briefly became allies of Franceand contributed forces to the French invasion of Russia in1812.

[3] Russia became an ally of France following the Treatyof Tilsit in 1807. The alliance broke down in 1810,which led to the French invasion in 1812. During thattime Russia waged war against Sweden (1808–1809) andthe Ottoman Empire (1806–1812), and nominally againstBritain (1807–1812).

[4] Spain was an ally of France until a stealthy French invasionin 1808, then fought France in the Peninsular War.

[5] Nominally, Sweden declared war against the United King-dom after its defeat by Russia in the Finnish War (1808–1809).

[6] Sicily remained in personal union withNaples until Naplesbecame a French client-republic following the Battle ofCampo Tenese in 1806.

[7] The Ottoman Empire fought against Napoleon in theFrench Campaign in Egypt and Syria as part of the FrenchRevolutionary Wars. During the Napoleonic era of 1803to 1815, the Empire participated in two wars againstthe Allies: against Britain in the Anglo-Turkish War(1807–1809) and against Russia in the Russo-TurkishWar (1806–1812). However, Russia was allied withNapoleon 1807–1810.

[8] Qajar dynasty fought against Russia from 1804 to 1813;the Russians were allied with Napoleon 1807–1812.

[9] Napoleon established the Duchy of Warsaw, ruled by theKingdom of Saxony in 1807. Polish Legions had alreadybeen serving in the French armies beforehand.

[10] Napoleon established the Duchy of Warsaw, ruled by theKingdom of Saxony in 1807. Polish Legions had alreadybeen serving in the French armies beforehand.

[11] The French Empire annexed the Kingdom of Holland in1810. Dutch troops fought against Napoleon during theHundred Days in 1815.

[12] The French Empire annexed the Kingdom of Etruria in1807.

[13] The Kingdom of Naples, briefly allied with Austria in1814, allied with France again and fought against Austriaduring the Neapolitan War in 1815.

[14] Sixteen of France’s allies among the German states(including Bavaria and Württemberg) established theConfederation of the Rhine in July 1806 following theBattle of Austerlitz (December 1805). Following theBattle of Jena-Auerstedt (October 1806), various otherGerman states that had previously fought alongside theanti-French allies, including Saxony and Westphalia, alsoallied with France and joined the Confederation. Saxonychanged sides again in 1813 during the Battle of Leipzig,causing most other member-states to quickly follow suitand declare war on France.

[15] These four states were the leading nations of the Confed-eration,but the Confederation was made up of a total of43 principalities, kingdoms, and duchies.

[16] Denmark-Norway remained neutral until the Battle ofCopenhagen (1807). Denmark was compelled to cedeNorway to Sweden by the Treaty of Kiel in 1814. Fol-lowing a brief Swedish campaign against Norway, Norwayentered a personal union with Sweden.

[17] Was a commander for the French Empire, as MarshalJean-Baptiste Bernadotte, 1804–1810.

[18] Joseph Bonaparte ruled as Joseph I of Naples and Sicilyfrom 30 March 1806 to 6 June 1808, and of Spain from8 June 1808 to 11 December 1813. He also served as aFrench commander before and after these two reigns.

[19] His losses came at Siege of Acre (1799), Battle of Aspern-Essling (1809), Battle of Leipzig (1813), Battle of LaRothière (1814), Battle of Laon (1814), Battle of Arcis-sur-Aube (1814), and Battle of Waterloo (1815). AndrewRoberts, “Why Napoleon merits the title 'the Great,'" BBCHistory Magazine (1 November 2014)

[20] Ferguson, Niall (2004). Empire, The rise and demise ofthe British world order and the lessons for global power.Basic Books. ISBN 0-465-02328-2.

[21] Frank McLynn, Napoleon (1998). p 215.

[22] Spencer C. Tucker (2012). The Encyclopedia of the WarOf 1812. ABC-CLIO. p. 499.

[23] Arthur H. Buffinton, The Second Hundred Years’ War,1689–1815 (1929). See also: Francois Crouzet, “TheSecond Hundred Years War: Some Reflections”. FrenchHistory 10 (1996), pp. 432–450. and H. M. Scott, “Re-view: The Second 'Hundred YearsWar' 1689–1815”. TheHistorical Journal 35 (1992), pp. 443–469.

[24] France - Les guerres de la Révolution et de l'Empire.Herodote.net. Retrieved on 2013-07-12.

[25] Chandler, David (1966). The Campaigns of Napoleon.The Mind and Method of History’s Greatest Soldier. NewYork: Macmillan.

[26] Sutherland, Donald M. G. (2008). The French Revolutionand Empire: The Quest for a Civic Order. Wiley. p. 356.

[27] McConachy, Bruce (2001). “The Roots of ArtilleryDoctrine: Napoleonic Artillery Tactics Reconsidered”.Journal of Military History 65 (3): 617–640. JSTOR2677528. McConachy rejects the alternative theory thatgrowing reliance on artillery by the French army begin-ning in 1807 was an outgrowth of the declining quality ofthe French infantry and, later, France’s inferiority in cav-alry numbers.

[28] Annual Register... for the Year 1803 (1805)

[29] Mahan, A.T. The influence of sea power on the FrenchRevolution and Empire Vol. II (1892) pp. 106-107

[30] Andrew Roberts, Napoleon: A Life (2014) p 316

[31] Frederick Kagan, The End of the Old Order: Napoleonand Europe, 1801-1805 (2007) pp 42-43

[32] Roberts, Napoleon: A Life (2014) p 309

22 19 REFERENCES

[33] John D. Grainger, Amiens Truce: Britain & Bonaparte,1801-1803 (2004) has a well-balanced analysis of bothsides

[34] Arthur Bryant, Years of victory: 1802-1812 (1944), pp 1-52, although older, is a well-regarded interpretation fromthe British perspective

[35] Kagan, The End of the Old Order: Napoleon and Europe,1801-1805 (2007) pp 1-50 stresses Napoleon’s initiatives.

[36] Paul Schroeder, The Transformation of European politics1763-1848 (1994) pp 231-45 is highly analytical and hos-tile to Napoleon

[37] Jean Tulard, Napoleon: The Myth of the Saviour (1984) p351.

[38] Colin S. Gray (2007). War, Peace and International Rela-tions: An Introduction to Strategic History. Routledge. p.47.

[39] Robin Neillands (2003). Wellington & Napoleon: Clashof Arms. Pen and Sword. p. 22.

[40] Alistair Horne in Robert Cowley, ed. (2000). WhatIf?: The World’s Foremost Historians Imagine What MightHave Been. Penguin. p. 161.

[41] Steve Chan (2013). Looking for Balance: China, theUnited States, and Power Balancing in East Asia. StanfordUP. p. 55.

[42] Martin Malia (2008). History’s Locomotives: Revolutionsand the Making of the Modern World. Yale UP. p. 205.

[43] Annual Register... for the Year 1806) (1808) pp. 172-186

[44] Schroeder, The Transformation of European Politics1763–1848 (1994) pp 307–10

[45] Paul Kennedy, The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers –economic change and military conflict from 1500 to 2000(1989), pp. 128–9

[46] JohnM. Sherwig,Guineas and Gunpowder British ForeignAid in the War with France, 1793–1815 (1969)

[47] Alan Palmer, Alexander I (1974) p 86

[48] Asa Briggs, The Making of Modern England 1783–1867:The Age of Improvement (1959) p 143

[49] Élie Halévy, A History of the English People in 1815(1924) vol 2 p 205–28

[50] Roger Knight, Britain Against Napoleon: The Organisa-tion of Victory, 1793–1815 (2013)

[51] J. Steven Watson, The Reign of George III 1760–1815(1960), 374-77, 406-7, 463-71,

[52] “Auguste Mayer’s picture as described by the official web-site of the Musée national de la Marine (in French)".Musee-marine.fr. Retrieved 21 May 2011.

[53] Paul W. Schroeder, The Transformation of European Pol-itics 1763–1848 (1994) pp 231–86

[54] Frederick Kagan (2007). The End of the Old Order:Napoleon and Europe, 1801–1805. Da Capo Press. pp.141ff.

[55] “Invasion of Britain – National Maritime Museum”.Nmm.ac.uk. Retrieved 21 May 2011.

[56] “O'Meara’s account of Napoleon on the invasion of theEngland”. Napoleon.org. Retrieved 21 May 2011.

[57] Esdaille, Napoleon’s Wars, pp 252-53

[58] A. N. Ryan, “The Causes of the British Attack uponCopenhagen in 1807.” English Historical Review (1953):37-55. in JSTOR

[59] ThomasMunch-Petersen,Defying Napoleon: How BritainBombarded Copenhagen and Seized the Danish Fleet in1807 (2007)

[60] Otto Pivka (2012). Napoleon’s Polish Troops. OspreyPublishing. pp. 8–10.

[61] J. P. Riley, Napoleon and the WorldWar of 1813: Lessonsin Coalition Warfighting (2000) pp 27–8.

[62] Alexander Grab, Napoleon and the Transformation of Eu-rope (2003) pp 176–87

[63] J. M. Thompson, Napoleon Bonaparte: His rise and fall(1951) pp 235-40

[64] Gregory Fremont-Barnes, The Napoleonic Wars (3): ThePeninsular War 1807-1814 (2014)

[65] David Gates, The Spanish Ulcer: A History of the Penin-sular War (1986)

[66] John Lawrence Tone, “Partisan Warfare in Spain andTotal War,” in Roger Chickering and Stig Förster, eds.(2010). War in an Age of Revolution, 1775–1815. Cam-bridge UP. p. 243.

[67] Jeremy Black, The War of 1812 in the Age of Napoleon(2009)

[68] Alan Palmer, Alexander I: Tsar of War and Peace (1974)

[69] Charles Esdaile, Napoleon’s Wars: An International His-tory, 1803–1815 (2007) p 438

[70] Schroeder, The Transformation of European Politics:1763 – 1848 (1994) p 419

[71] Richard K. Riehn, 1812: Napoleon’s Russian campaign(1990)

[72] Riehn, 1812, pp. 138–140

[73] Reihn, 1812, p.185

[74] Philip Haythornthwaite, Borodino 1812; Napoleon’s greatgamble (2012).

[75] Reihn, 1812, pp. 253–254

[76] With Napoleon in Russia, The Memoirs of GeneralCoulaincourt, Chapter VI 'The Fire' pp. 109–107 Pub.William Morrow and Co 1945

23

[77] The Wordsworth Pocket Encyclopedia, page 17, Hertford-shire 1993

[78] Philip Dwyer, Citizen Emperor: Napoleon in Power(2013), pp 431-74

[79] Michael Glover, Wellington’s Peninsular Victories:Busaco, Salamanca, Vitoria, Nivelle (1963).

[80] Peter Hofschroer, Leipzig 1813: The Battle of the Nations(1993)Him him him

[81] Philip Dwyer, Citizen Emperor: Napoleon In Power(2013) pp 464-98

[82] Peter Hofschroer, The Waterloo Campaign: Wellington,His GermanAllies and the Battles of Ligny andQuatre Bras(2006)

[83] Jacques Godechot, et al. The Napoleonic era in Europe(1971)

[84] Benjamin Keen and Keith Haynes, A History of LatinAmerica (2012) ch 8

[85] Drew Keeling, “The Transportation Revolution andTransatlantic Migration,” Research in Economic History19 (1999), p. 39.

[86] Franklin D. Scott, The Peopling of America: Perspectivesof Immigration (1984), p. 24. Marcus Hansen, The At-lantic Migration (1940), pp. 79-106, termed this a “newbeginning” for American immigration. For further back-ground context, see “North Atlantic, 1815-19”. Migrationas a travel business. Retrieved 3 June 2015.

[87] Drew Keeling, “Transport Capacity Management andTransatlantic Migration, 1900-1914.” Research in Eco-nomic History 25 (2008), pp. 267-68.

[88] Maldwyn Jones, American Immigration (1992, 2nd ed.)‚p. 79. Jones referred to this unprecedented migration as“one of the wonders of the age” (p. 78).

[89] “Napoleon’s Total War”. HistoryNet.com. Retrieved 18November 2008.

[90] David A.Bell, The First TotalWar: Napoleon’s Europe andthe Birth of Warfare as We Know It (2007) p 7

[91] Paul Kennedy, The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers Eco-nomic Change and Military Conflict from 1500 to 2000(1987) pp 99–100

[92] Colin McEvedy and Richard M. Jones, Atlas of WorldPopulation History (1978) pp 41–222

[93] John France (2011). Perilous Glory: The Rise of WesternMilitary Power. Yale UP. p. 351.

[94] Chappell, p. 8

[95] Chandler & Beckett, p. 132

[96] Blücher, scourge of Napoleon, Leggiere

[97] Christopher David Hall (1992). British Strategy in theNapoleonic War, 1803–15. Manchester U.P. p. 28.

[98] Geoffrey Wawro (2002). Warfare and Society in Europe,1792–1914. Routledge. p. 9.

[99] R. R. Palmer (1941). Twelve Who Ruled: The Year of theTerror in the French Revolution. Princeton UP. pp. 81–83.

[100] Donald Stoker et al. (2008). Conscription in theNapoleonic Era: A Revolution in Military Affairs?. Rout-ledge. pp. 24, 31–32, 38.

[101] Bell, The First Total War (2008) pp 7–13

[102] Many historians say it was not the “first” total war;for a critique of Bell see Frederick C. Schneid (2012).Napoleonic Wars. Potomac Books. p. 1802.

[103] Robert Harvey (2013). The War of Wars. Constable &Robinson. p. 328.

[104] “Derniers vétérans de l'Armée napoléonienne, PremierEmpire”. Derniersveterans.free.fr. Retrieved 15 January2009.

[105] “Photos of Napoleonic War Veterans in Wars in HistoryChannel”. Boards.historychannel.com. 31 May 2008.Retrieved 15 January 2009.

[106] James R. Arnold: Napoleon Conquers Austria: The 1809Campaign for Vienna, ABC-Clio, 2003

[107] The Austrian Imperial-Royal Army (Kaiserliche-Königliche Heer) 1805 – 1809: The Hungarian RoyalArmy

[108] Todd Fisher: The Napoleonic Wars: The Empires FightBack 1808–1812, Oshray Publishing, 2001

20 External links• The Legend of Bonaparte

• The Napoleonic Wars Exhibition held by The Euro-pean Library

• 15th Kings Light Dragoons (Hussars) Re-enactmentRegiment

• 2nd Bt. 95th Rifles Reenactment and Living HistorySociety

• The Napoleonic Wars Collection Website

• Napoleon, His Army and Enemies

• Napoleonic Guide

• War and Peace by Leo Tolstoy

• Napoleonic Wars

24 21 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

21 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

21.1 Text• Napoleonic Wars Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars?oldid=676500365 Contributors: ClaudeMuncey, Joakim

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• File:Flag_of_the_Kingdom_of_Prussia_(1803-1892).svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c1/Flag_of_the_Kingdom_of_Prussia_%281803-1892%29.svg License: Copyrighted free use Contributors: Own Work, Custom Creation accordingdesign specifications of the previous file Original artist: Drawing created by David Liuzzo

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• File:Flag_of_the_Kingdom_of_the_Two_Sicilies_(1816).svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/78/Flag_of_the_Kingdom_of_the_Two_Sicilies_%281816%29.svg License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors:

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• File:Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/35/Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire.svg License: Public domain Contributors:http://www.vicmart.com/ext/en/exrw/item=1416 - Ottoman medal from 1850 Original artist: <a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Dsmurat' title='User:Dsmurat'>DsMurat</a><a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User_talk:Dsmurat' title='Usertalk:Dsmurat'>talk</a>

• File:Flag_of_the_Papal_States_(pre_1808).svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/29/Flag_of_the_Papal_States_%28pre_1808%29.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Himasaram

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• File:Flag_of_the_Principality_of_Lucca_(1805-1809).svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/84/Flag_of_the_Principality_of_Lucca_%281805-1809%29.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Hierakares

• File:Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg Li-cense: PD Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:Flagge_Herzogtum_Braunschweig.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3e/Flagge_Herzogtum_Braunschweig.svg License: Public domain Contributors: I, the copyright holder of this work, release this work into the public domain.This applies worldwide.In some countries this may not be legally possible; if so:I grant anyone the right to use this work for any purpose, without any conditions, unless such conditions are required by law. Original artist:David Liuzzo

• File:Flagge_Königreich_Württemberg.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/14/Flagge_K%C3%B6nigreich_W%C3%BCrttemberg.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: David Liuzzo

• File:Friedland_mazurovsky.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/07/Friedland_mazurovsky.jpg License:Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

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• File:NapoleonicWars.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c2/NapoleonicWars.png License: CC BY 3.0Contributors: Own work Original artist: Gabagool

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28 21 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

• File:Russparis.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a7/Russparis.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:http://www.pravoslavie.ru/sas/image/101702/170222.b.jpg?0.64294786863029 Original artist: Unknown

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