Myers’ PSYCHOLOGY

(6th Ed)

Chapter 9

Memory

James A. McCubbin, PhDClemson University

Worth Publishers

Droodles and Common Cents

http://www.exploratorium.edu/memory/index.html

 

                            

Memory

Memory persistence of learning over

time via the storage and retrieval of information

Flashbulb Memory a clear memory of an

emotionally significant moment or event

Memory

Memory as Information Processing similar to a computer

write to filesave to diskread from disk

Encoding the processing of information into

the memory system

Memory

Storage the retention of encoded

information over timeRetrieval

process of getting information out of memory

Memory

Sensory Memory the immediate, initial recording

of sensory information in the memory system

Working Memory focuses more on the processing

of briefly stored information

MemoryShort Term Memory

activated memory that holds a few items briefly

look up a phone number, then quickly dial before the information is forgotten

Long Term Memory the relatively permanent and limitless

storehouse of the memory system

A Simplified Memory Model

Externalevents

Sensorymemory

Short-termmemory

Long-termmemory

Sensory inputAttention to importantor novel information

Encoding

Encoding

Retrieving

Encoding- Getting Information In

Encoding

Effortful Automatic

EncodingAutomatic Processing

unconscious encoding of incidental informationspacetimefrequency

well-learned informationword meanings

Encoding

Effortful Processing requires attention and conscious

effortRehearsal

conscious repetition of informationto maintain it in consciousness to encode it for storage

Encoding

Ebbinghaus used nonsense syllables TUV ZOF GEK WAV the more times practiced on Day 1, the

fewer repetitions to relearn on Day 2

Spacing Effect distributed practice yields better long

term retention than massed practice

Encoding

20

15

10

5

08 16 24 32 42 53 64

Time in minutestaken to relearnlist on day 2

Number of repetitions of list on day 1

Encoding-Serial Position Effect

12

Percentage of

words recalled

0

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

Position of word in list1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

What Do We Encode?

Semantic Encoding encoding of meaning including meaning of words

Acoustic Encoding encoding of sound especially sound of words

Visual Encoding encoding of picture images

Encoding

Encoding

Imagery mental pictures a powerful aid to effortful processing,

especially when combined with semantic encoding

Mnemonics memory aids especially those techniques that use vivid

imagery and organizational devices

Encoding

Chunking organizing items into familiar, manageable

unitslike horizontal organization-

1776149218121941

often occurs automatically use of acronyms

HOMES- Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, SuperiorARITHMETIC- A Rat In Tom’s House Might Eat

Tom’s Ice Cream

Encoding- ChunkingOrganized information is more easily recalled

Encoding Hierarchies

complex information broken down into broad concepts and further subdivided into categories and subcategories Encoding

(automatic or effortful)

Imagery(visualEncoding)

Meaning(semanticEncoding)

Organization

Chunks Hierarchies

Storage-Retaining InformationSensory Memory

the immediate, initial recording of sensory information in the memory system

Iconic Memory a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli a photographic or picture image memory lasting less

than a second. Registration of exact representation of a scene

Echoic Memory momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli

Storage-Short Term Memory

Short Term Memory

limited in duration and capacity

“magical” number 7+/-2

Storage-Short Term Memory

0102030405060708090

3 6 9 12 15 18

Time in seconds between presentationof contestants and recall request

(no rehearsal allowed)

Percentagewho recalledconsonants

Storage-Long Term Memory

How does storage work? Karl Lashley (1950)

rats learn mazelesion cortex test memory

Synaptic changes Long-term Potentiation

increase in synapse’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation

Strong emotions make for stronger memories some stress hormones boost learning and

retention

Storage-Long Term Memory

Amnesia- the loss of memoryExplicit Memory

memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and declare

hippocampus- neural center in limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage

Implicit Memory retention without conscious recollection motor and cognitive skills dispositions- conditioning

Storage- Long Term Memory Subsystems

Types oflong-termmemories

Explicit(declarative)

With consciousrecall

Implicit(nondeclarative)

Without conscious recall

Facts-generalknowledge(“semanticmemory”)

Personally experienced

events(“episodic memory”)

Skills-motorand cognitive

Dispositions-classical and

operant conditioning

effects

Storage-Long Term Memory

MRI scan of hippocampus (in red)

Hippocampus

Retrieval- Getting Information Out

Recall the ability to retrieve info learned

earlier and not in conscious awareness-like fill in the blank test

Recognition the ability to identify previously

learned items-like on a multiple choice test

Retrieval

Relearning amount of time saved when

relearning previously learned information

Priming activation, often

unconsciously, of particular associations in memory

Retrieval Cues

Reminders of information we could not otherwise recall

Guides to where to look for info Context Effects

memory works better in the context of original learning

Retrieval Cues

0

10

20

30

40

Water/land

Land/water

Water/water

Different contexts for hearing and recall

Same contexts for hearing and recall

Land/land

Percentage ofwords recalled

Retrieval Cues

Deja Vu- (French) already seen cues from the current situation may subconsciously

trigger retrieval of an earlier similar experience "I've experienced this before"

Mood Congruent Memory tendency to recall experiences that are consistent

with one’s current mood memory, emotions or moods serve as retrieval cues State Dependent Memory

what is learned in one state (while one is high, drunk or depressed) can more easily be remembered when in same state

Retrieval Cues

After learning to move a mobile by kicking, infants had their learning reactivated most strongly when retested in the same rather than a different context (Butler & Rovee-Collier, 1989).

Forgetting

Forgetting as encoding failure Information never enters the memory

systemAttention is selective

we cannot attend to everything in our environment

William James said that we would be as bad off if we remembered everything as we would be if we remembered nothing

Forgetting as Encoding Failure

Externalevents

Sensorymemory

Short-term

memory

Long-term

memory

Attention

Encoding

Encoding

Encodingfailure leadsto forgetting

Forgetting Ebbinghaus-

forgetting curve over 30 days initially

rapid, then levels off with time

12345 10 15 20 25 30

10

20

30

40

50

60

0

Time in days since learning list

Percentage oflist retainedwhen relearning

Forgetting The forgetting curve for Spanish learned in school

Retentiondrops,

then levels off

1 3 5 9½ 14½ 25 35½ 49½Time in years after completion of Spanish course

100%

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

Percentage oforiginal

vocabularyretained

RetrievalForgetting can result from failure to

retrieve information from long-term memory

Externalevents

Attention

Encoding

Encoding

Retrieval failureleads to forgetting

Retrieval

Sensorymemory

Short-termmemory

Long-termmemory

Forgetting as Interference

Learning some items may disrupt retrieval of other information Proactive(forward acting) Interference

disruptive effect of prior learning on recall of new information

Retroactive (backwards acting) Interferencedisruptive effect of new learning on

recall of old information

Forgetting as Interference

Forgetting

Retroactive Interference

Without interferingevents, recall isbetter

After sleep

After remaining awake

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8Hours elapsed after learning syllables

90%

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

Percentageof syllables

recalled

Forgetting

Forgetting can occur at any memory stage

As we process information, we filter, alter, or lose much of it.

Forgetting

Sensory memory - the senses momentarily register amazing detail

Short term memory - a few items are both noticed and encoded

Long-term storage - Some itemsare altered or lost

Retrieval from long-term memory - depending on interference, retrieval cuesmoods and motives, some things get retrieved, some don’t Information bits

Forgetting- InterferenceMotivated Forgetting

people unknowingly revise historyRepression

defense mechanism that banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories

Positive Transfer sometimes old information facilitates our

learning of new information knowledge of Latin may help us to learn

French

Memory Construction

We filter information and fill in missing pieces

Misinformation Effect incorporating misleading information

into one's memory of an eventSource Amnesia

attributing to the wrong source an event that we experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined (misattribution)

Memory Construction

Eyewitnesses reconstruct memories when questioned

Depiction of actual accident

Leading question:“About how fast were the carsgoing when they smashed intoeach other?”

Memoryconstruction

Memory Construction

People fill in memory gaps with plausible guesses and assumptions

Imagining events can create false memories

Children's eyewitness recall Child sexual abuse does occur Some innocent people suffer false

accusations Some guilty cast doubt on true testimony

Memory Construction

Memories of Abuse Repressed or Constructed?

Child sexual abuse does occurSome adults do actually forget such episodes

False Memory Syndrome condition in which a person’s identity and

relationships center around a false but strongly believed memory of traumatic experience

sometimes induced by well-meaning therapists

Memory Construction

Most people can agree on the following: Injustice happens Incest happens Forgetting happens Recovered memories are commonplace Memories recovered under hypnosis or drugs

are unreliable Memories of things happening before age 3

are unreliable Memories, whether false or real, are upsetting

Improve Your Memory

Study repeatedly to boost recallSpend more time rehearsing or

actively thinking about the materialMake material personally

meaningfulUse mnemonic devices

associate with peg words- something already stored make up story chunk-acronyms SQ3R: Survey, Question, Read, Rehearse, Review

Improve Your Memory

Activate retrieval cues- mentally recreate situation and mood

Recall events while they are fresh- write down before interference

Minimize interference Test your own knowledge

rehearse determine what you do not yet know