Mycological research in Thailand

Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. (Plant Sci.), Vol. 96, No. 5, November 1986, pp. 343-355. (t) Printed in India.

Mycological research in Thailand

POONPILAI SUWANARIT Dcpartment of Microbiology, Faculty of Sciences, Kasetsart University, Bangkhen, Bangkok 10900, Thailand

Abstraer. Mycological research activity in Thailand were widely spread in almost every field in biological science. This report reviewed some research activities concerning fungal flora in Tropics, agricultural area, industrial area and biodeterioration. In agricultuml area, the review included plant pathology, seed borne pathogen and aflatoxin, composting, mushroom cultivation, mycorrhiza and biological control. In industrial area, fermentation for citric acid, soy sauce, kaomag (sweetened ricek alcohol and pigment production were covered. Problcms in each topic were discusscd.

Keywords. Mycological research; Thailand.

1. Introduction

The floristic studies of fungi in Thailand has not been as advanced as it would be, because the government provided more budget for applied science than for basic science. Recent papers on funga! taxonomy were accordingly scarce. In 1976, Thailand lnstitute of Scientific and Technological Research (TISTR) culture collection was appointed by UNESCO to serve as Microbiological Resources Center for Southeast Asia (Bangkok MIRCEN). Activities of the MIRCEN at Bangkok included development of culture collections in the region, exchange of economically microbial strain and promotion of research on organistas in areas of microbiology (Atthasampunna et al !985).

Most of the research on applied mycology were in the ag¡ field. The other fields were industrial and medical. In agricultural field, researchers t ¡ to use fungi a s a tool to increase productivity of agricultural product such as to control fungal plant diseases, seed born diseases, post harvest diseases. Mycorrhiza and fungi which cause disease to pest insect were used to increase crop yields. Agricultural wastes were used for compost making and mushroom cultivation.

In the industrial field, fungi are involved in many industrial fermentation areas such as production of alcohol, citric acid, soy sauce, kaomag (sweetened rice), single cell protein from yeast for animal feed, red rice and pigment. The objectives of research on the fungi were to increase the yield of the product by improvement of techniques and the strains of fungi involved.

Collaboration between Asian countries will strengthen mycological knowledge. Collaborative research, training courses in fungal taxonomy and workshop of the region will be very valuable for Asian countries.

2. Basic mycology

2.1 Distribution of microfi.lyi

Ecological studies on the distribution of fungi at Sakaerat forest soil were conducted by Wongsecnin and Sundhagul (1973). It was found that open and dense dry

343

344 Poonpilai Suwanarit

evergreen forcsts were different in fungal density as well as fungal composition. The fungal number was higher in the dense community where the soil was richer in nutrients. Most of the fungŸ found were common to both types of forests. They are Penicillium, Asperyillus, Trichoderma, Gliocladium, Gonyonella and Scopulariopsis. Certain other fungi, such as Ahsitlia and number of mycelia sterilia, were restricted to the dense forest soil while Cylindrocladium were to the open forest soil. Sundhagul and Klinsukont (1971) studied cellulose composition of the soils of an open dry dipterocarp forest a n d a dense dry evergreen forest in Thailand. The decomposition occurred at the faster rate in dry evergreen forest than in the open dipterocarp forest. The rate of decomposition was influenced by soil moisture content and was highest during the heavy rainfall period. Penicillium was found to be the primary colonizer and was later joined by the other fungi.

Manoch et al (1984) reported about the distribution of microfungi from soil, water, air caster bean factory and from dungs of various kinds of rodents. The results were combined in table 1. Manoch and Ponoretong (1983) also isolated fungi from rhizosphere soil of the rotted root of Citrus reticulata. The genera of fungi found were Asperyillus spp., Botryodiplodia theobromae Pal., Cephaliophora tropica thaxter, Chloridium spp., Cladosporium spp., Cunninyhamella spp.. Cur~;ularia spp., Drechslera

Table 1. List of microfungi isolated from various habitats in Thailand.

Genera of fungi found in different habitats

Soil Air Water Rodents dung

Asperyillus Bys,sochlamys Circinella Cladosporium Chaetomium Coniochaeta Curvularia lunata Dictyoarthrinium

sacchari Diheterospora

catenulata Eupenicillium Fusarium Gelasinospora M yrothecium Mucor Niyrospora Penicillium Periconia Pethomyces Rhizopus Sartorya Sordaria Spe9azzinia Talaromyces Thamnidium Thielat, ia Trichoderma

A. niyer Chytrid Ascobolus A. fumigatus Al lomyces Circinella Cladosporium A c h l y a Cephaliophora Curvularia Dict yuchus tropica

lunata Pythium Mucor Monodictys Neuronectria Chaetomium Niyrospora Scutell inia Rhizopus Pestalotia Saccobolus Z ygosporium Sordaria

maronii Sporormia

M ycological Research in Thailand 345

spp., Fusarium lateritum Nees, Fusarium oxysporum Schiecht., F. roseum, F. solani (Mart) Appel and Wr., Gliocladium sp., Gongonelta spp., Myrothecium spp., Nigrospora sp., Penicillium spp., Phoma spp., Pithomyces sp., Podospora sp., Rhinocladiella spp., Thielat;ia spp. and Westerdykella multispora.

Rakvidhyasastra et al (1973) obtained 62 isolates of fungi and tested for the possibility of being mycoparasite on 3 species of Phytophthora. None of those fungi could be considered a s a potential mycoparasite. Some species of Penicillium and Aspergillus showed inhibitory reactions to the growth of Phytophthora in various degree. Chewduang et al (1985) tried to isolate and identify the genus Trichoderma from various areas for using as biological control of Sclerotium roifsii and Rhizoctonia solani.

The isolation and identification were also made on the species of fungi which caused plant diseases, such as Sclerotium and Rhizoctonia (Khamhaengritthirong et al 1985), weed rust (Lausuwan and Tantiyaporn 1985) and pyenidial forming fungi (Pienpak et al 1985). Pienpak et al (1985) found Phyllosticta spp., Phamopsis, Pobillardo, Ascochyta, Phoma and Didymella.

2.2 Distribution of macr@m~i

The distribution of macrofungi in both types of forests, i.e. dry evergreen and dry dipterocarp at Sakaerat forests were also carried out (Suwanarit et al 1979). The macrofungi were collected in July and October. In July, 37 and 74 species of mactofungi were found in dry dipterocarp and dry evergreen forests, respectively. In October 7 65 and 78 species were found in the dry dipterocarp and dry evergreen forests, respectively. The species of macrofungi found were shown in table 2. The species of macrofungi were influenced by types of forests and sa'mpling time. This was due to variation in the environmental factors such as moisture, temperature, light and the species of trees in each type of forests.

Chandrasrikul et al (1983) identified the species of Amanitas in Thailand. Three

Table 2. List of macrofungi collected in July andOctober ~omdry evergreenforest and dry dipterocarp forest.

Dry evcrgreen I orest Dry dipterocarp forest

July October July October

Crateretlus Termitomyces

Polyporus Russula spp. Boletus spp. Pholiota Tricholoma Amanita vaqinata Rusmda Lepiota Amanita caesarea Maht,~mius L~wtarius Russula Balet us C ant herellus Le piot a Lact arius Bolet , s A r Fusoboletinus X ylaria Coprinus Tremales Gleo.qlossum CanthereUus Schizophylhon Craterellus Chwaria Clararia 3,'1 ycentt H ypholoma L yc oper don G alerina X ylaria Gea.ster Cup fungi Scleroderma


edible groups of Amanita were A. vaginata Fr. Vett var. alba., A. calyptroderma Atkinson and Bailen and A. princeps Corner and Bas sp.nov. The group of unknown edibility are included A. praegraveolens (Murrill) Sing., A. vir9inia Mass., A. angustellamellata (Hohn) Boed and A. Hemibapha (Berk and Br.) Sace. sub sp. subtilis. Chandrasrikul et al (1984) had also reported a list of Thai Lepiotas. Lepiota was a very prominant group of Thai mushroom. Chandrasrikul et al (1984) reported 9 specimens of Lepiotas including Chlorophyllum molypditis Mars., L. procera (Scop.) Quel and L. rachodes (Vitt) Quel.

In addition to Amanita verna (Fr. Quel.) reported by Chandrasrikul et al (1983), other poisonous mushroom in Thailand were reported by Chandrasrikul et al (1978a). They were Chlorophyllum molybditio Mass. Lactariuspiperatus (Fr.) S.F. Gray. Lactariusflavidulus Imai. Russula spp. and Hebeloma sociale.

Some macrofungi were reported to be used as the medicine (Chandrasrikul et al 1978b) such as Lophoria papyracea Jungh. Reid. Fomes rimosus. (Berk) Cooke, Ganoderma japonicus Imaz., Polyporus sacer Fries., Calvaria craniformis (Schw.) Fr., Auricularia auricularis (S.F.) Gray Martin., Tremella filsiJbrmis Berk, Dictyophora indusiata (Pers.) Fisch. M onascus purpureas Wentii Xylaria ni.qripes., Chlorosplenium aeruoenescens. (Nyl.) Karst., Cordycep sinensis (Berk.) Sacc., Ustilago maydis (De.) Corda.

3. Applied mycology

Research on applied mycology in Thailand were mostly concentrated on ag¡ and industrial areas. Some research were on biodeterioration.

3.1 Agricultural arca

3.la Plant pathology: Research on plant pathology were mostly conducted by the Division of Plant Pathology and Microbiology of the Department of Agriculture; the Department of Plant Pathology, Faculty of Agriculture at Kasetsart University; Chiangmai University; and Khon-Khen University. The research activities were emphasized on epidemiology, Ioss assessment, ecological study and plant breeding for resistance varieties.

The most important fungal disease for economic crops were: Blast of rice, white leaf of sugarcane (Ustilago scitaminea). Downy mildew of com (Selerospora sogli and S. spontaneum) and root and collar not of citrus (Phytophthora nicotiana) var para- sitica (Chandrasrikul ! 981).

3.1 b Seed borne fungi and mycotoxin: Topark-ngam et al (1973) diagnosed seed borne diseases of economic seeds. The list of seeds and dominant genera of fungi found were shown in table 3. Buangsuwan et al (1978) published a iist of seed borne diseases in Thailand.

Survey on the presence of Aflatoxin on various kinds of agricultural products were conducted by Tonbun-ake (1976) Wong-urai et al (1981a), Wong-urai et al (1981b), Hemasuji et al (1981). Aflatoxin was found in some samples of cereal and legume seeds, sucia as corn, groundnut and other products such as chilli, multiple onions and garlic. Kanjanatthiti and Punsittikul (1977) detected aflatoxin from groundnut,

Mycoloyical Research in Thailand

Table 3, The list of dominant genera of fungi found in various kinds of seed.

347

Kinds of seed Dominant genera of fungŸ

Rice Corn Sorghum Soybean Mung bean Pea nut Long bean {r pea) Fute ChiUi Sunflower

Trichoconis podwickii, Curvularia lunata Fusarium mon~~rme, Curvularia lunata Curvularia lunata, C. pallescense, F. moniforme F. mon!forme, Curvularia lunata Botrytis cinerea F. mon~Jrme Botrytis Curvularia lunata, Fusarium sp., Memmoniella Botrytis, Curvularia, Collectotricham, Memmonielht Fusarium, Curvularia, Cephalosporium

fermented soybean paste, fermented soybean, dry chilli, onion and garlic. Groundnut is the most favorable substrate. The Glinsukon (1979) reported about the aflatoxin Bt-producing strain of Aspeigellus flavus var. columnaris isolated from prepared infant food. This strain of A. flavus var columnaris produced aflatoxin B t and B2 at higher quantity.

Kosatat (1973) suggested that the moldy animal feed should be treated with hydrogen peroxide at pH 9-5, 80~ for hall ah hour. The treatment was good to detoxify the aflatoxin. Ammonia and sodium hydroxide or formaldehyde were also recommended for detoxification treatment. Srikumlaithong and Munsakul (1981) studied detoxification of aflatoxin in peanut oil by using bleaching clay at 0"3% by weight. The data showed that 0-3% by weight of the clay reduced the toxin from 76/~g/kg to 7-85/~g/kg. Kanjanutthiti and Punsittikul (1977) found that mixing of NaCI in fungal media reduced the productive of aflatoxin of fungi, and if the salt concentration was as high as 15% w/v. The production of aflatoxin was absolutely inhibited. The extract of garlic also had the inhibitory activity to fungi. If the extraction had a concentration about 0-83-1.3 mg/cm 3. The fungi could not grow and no aflatoxin produced.

3.1c Compostiny: The Department of Land Development has a research project on organic matter for soil improvement. The project covers various aspects such as optimization of composting condition using different raw materials and acceleration of composting using different active microorganisms and stimulants such as Aspergillus oryzae, Fugita, Agromax and Cellostate. Decomposing rate was found to be faster when microbial starter was used (Lotong 1983).

Many researchers tried to isolate efficient microorganisms for decomposition such as thermophilic fungi (Cruesrisawath et al 1979; Manoch and Cruesrisawath 1984). Thitatharn et al (1981) isolated Asper9illus fumigatus, A. niger, Bacillus sp. and Actinomycetes group. Thitatharn et al (1981) found that fungi was the most effective in degradating cellulose.

The supplement of nitrogen source proved to stimulate the decomposition. Sarutanon et al (1974) found that addition of nitrogen in the forro of urea 0-3% and 1% of lime to the compost enhanced better decomposition.

3.Id Mushroom cultivation: Mushroom cultivation is an example of very successful technological implementation. The technology is now well known and


used by the farmers. Pakdeedindan et al (1974a) grew Tricholoma mushroom on mixtures of composts and chemical fertilizer. Several kinds of mushroom sprawn were studied, such as Lentinus edodes (Pakdeedindan et al 1973), Pleurotus (Pakdeedindan 1975a), Agaricus bisporus (Pakdeedindan 1974b) and Volvarilla volvaceae.

The studies were also made on the isolation of bacteria in order to stimulate the primordia production. Puttipinyo et al (1975) used Bacillus me9aterium and Rhizobium japonicum to increase the yield of button mushroom. No positive results were observed. Puttipinyo et al (1978) isolated 20 isolates of bacteria and tested for primordia stimulation. AII 20 isolates of bacteria did not show any stimulating effect.

3.le Mycorrhiza--(i) Distribution of vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhiza: The research on endomyeorrhiza were conducted only in vesicular arbuscular (VA) mycorrhizae type. Suwanarit and Chettanachittara (1976) examined the infection of VA mycorrhizal fungi in com root and detected the spore in the soil. Suwanarit et al (1982) collected various types of spore of VA mycorrhizal fungi from com planting arca. Chewatanarak and Suwanarit (1984) studied distribution of VA mycorrhizal fungi in agricultural and forest soils. Results were shown in table 4. Wanleenuwat et al (1984) also studied the dist¡ of VA mycorrhizal fungi around citrus root. Most of them were in genus Glomus such as Glomus etunicatus, G. multicaulis, G. macrocarpus, G. fasciculatus, G. mossae, G. microcarpus, G. tortuosum and G. ao9re9atum. The rest were in genus Sclerocystis, Acaulospora and Gi9aspora.

(ii) Spore production: So far it had been known that VA mycorrhizal fungi could not grow in any artificial media. Suwana¡ et al (1981b) tried to inoculate the spore of VA mycorrhizal fungi to com root under aseptic condition by using white's culture medium but the fungi did not infect root culture. Suwanarit et al (1981b) tried to use nitrogen and phosphorus deficient culture medium but did not succeed and reproduced various types of VA mycorrhizal fungi in pot culture (Suwana¡ et al 1982). Entrophospora sp. was the genus which could be produced in pot culture. Suwanarit et al (1984a) isolated 25 species of VA mycorrhizal fungi and reproduced in pot culture. Ordy 4 species of fungi namely Acaulospora spinosa, Gioaspora gi9antia, Gi9aspora margarita, Entrophospora sp. produced spores in pot. Suwanarit

Table 4. Distribution of VA mycorrhizal fungi in dry evergreen and dry dipterocarp forest.

Dry evergreen Dry dipterocarp VA mycorrhizaZ fungi forest forest

A c a u l o s p o r a scrabicu la ta + +

Gi.qaspora heterof fama + +

Gigaspora auri.qloba - +

Gigaspora ,qreqaria - 4-

G iyaspora pel lucida - +

Glomus ma9nicaul i s + -

GIomus monosporus - +

Sc l e rocys t i s rubiJbrmis + -

Sc lerocys t i s c lar ispora + -

M ycological Research in Thailand 349

et al (1985) succeeded to produce other 6 species of VA mycorrhizal fungi in pot culture namely Acaulospora scrobiculata, Gigaspora heterogama, Gigaspora sp., Entrophospora sp. No. 2., Entrophospora sp. No. 3 and G. mossae.

(iii) Effect of VA mycorrhizal fungi on plant growth: The effect of mycorrhizal fungi on the growth of plant were carried out mostly on field crops. Suwana¡ et al (198 la) studied the effect of VA mycorrhizal fungi in association with Rhizobium on the growth of soybean. The results showed that treatment inoculated with both mycorrhizal fungi plus Rhizobium was very much superior to treatment with uninoculation and treatment with Rhizobium only in growth, nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium uptake of the plants. Significant difference was not found between treatment with both inoculated myeorrhizal fungi and Rhizobium and treatment with mycorrhizal fungi. Fungkajorn et al (1983) studied the effect of non-symbiotic nitrogen fixing bacteria in association with VA mycorrhizal fungi on the growth of fast growing seedling of Tetrameles nudiflora tree. The results showed that the nitrogenase activities of treatments inoculated with mycorrhizal fungi were higher than those inoculated with the bacte¡ and those of uninoculated treatment. Mycorrhizal fungi showed a tendency to show nitrogen fixing activity. The growth of Tetrameles nudiflora seedlings inoculated with both mycorrhizal fungi and bacteria were higher than those inoculated with bacte¡ and of control but was not significantly different from the seedlings inoculated with rnycorrhizal fungi. Nopamornbodi (1982) reported that the growth of com inoculated with mycorrhiza was significantly increased as compared to uninoculated com. Nopamornbodi et al (1985) showed that the 'use of pesticide such as Azodrin, Benlate Captan, Furadon, Maneb, Ridorill and Terrachlor for seed treatment of soybean did not show any effect on the growth of soybean and on the infection of VA mycorrhizal fungi. Suwanarit et al (1985) studied the comparative effect of 4 species of VA mycorrhizal fungŸ namely Acaulospora spinosa, Gi#aspora gigantia, Gigaspora margarita and Entrophospora sp. on the growth of com. Acaulospora spinosa proved to be the most effective strain. The growth of com inoculated with Acaulospora spinosa were significantly better than control.

For VA mycorrhizal research arca, production of inoculum is still the important problem because VA mycorrhizal fungŸ could germinate on the agar medium but could not survive. The inoculum production by pot culture still have some problem with purity of the culture.

Some research on Ectomycorrhiza were conducted by Faculty of Forestry, Kasetsart University and Department of Royal Forestry for replantation project.

(iv) Biological control by fungal insect pathogen: The use of fungi for biological control of pests/insects has been developed since 1958. Komej (1958) studied the fungi Metarhizium anisophiae which caused green muscardine disease to the beetle (Oryctes rhinoceros). The fungi grew well on tomato dextrose agar, bean ¡ bran agar. Punyarachun (1980) used 5 kinds of grains, namely rice, com, mungbean, soybean and corn flour as the substrates for culturing the fungi. Punyarachun and Tantichodok (1978) reported fungus diseases of insects in Thailand caused by Entomophthora, Beauveria, Paecilomyces, Nomuraea, Asptrgillus, Cordyceps and Sphaerostillbe. Studies were also made on the influence of physicaI factors on the


germination of the spore of Nomurea rileyi which caused a disease to the insect Trichoplusia sp. It was found that optimum temperature for germination of the fungus were 25-30~ and humidity 90-100% RH. Effects of insecticides which was normally used to control the insect on the germination of Nomurea spore were also studied. The results showed that 4 insecticides, Toxaphene/DDT, Endrex, Lannate and Tamaron did not inhibit the germination of spore while two fungicides, i.e. Captan and Maneb inhibited the germination of N. rileyi. Chaikhom (1975-76) reported about Beauveria brassiana caused white muscardine disease of teak beehole borer. The dist¡ of fungi in nature is quite low. Artificial inoculation by spraying conidia of the fungi into the insect hole increased the infection from 0-001-95%.

The use of fungi for biological controls of the inseets in the fieid still faces some problems, because the establishment of fungi need specifie environmental conditions such as relative humidity of about 90-100%. In the field, it is difficult to adjust conditions to suit fungal growth.

3.2 "Industrial area

Research of fungŸ used for industrial area was made in many aspects, such as citric acid fermentation, Kaomag (sweetened rice), alcohol fermentation, soy sauce fermentation, enzyme production and pigment production.

3.2a Citric acid fermentation: Research on citric acid fermentation were to improve product yields and product technique. Lohwongwatana and Lotong (1982) selected mutant strain of Aspergillus niger which produced higher amylase activity and/or higher yields of citric acid. To increase production yield, fermentation with mixed cultures of strain producing high amylase activity and efficient in converting sugar to acid is now being investigated. Production of spore inoculum by using plastic bag has been proved practical (Lotong and Suwanarit 1983).

3.2b Alcohol fermentation: Research on alcohol fermentation were concentrated mostly in selection strains of Saccharomyces cereviseae suitable for alcohol fermentation. Kumnuanta et al (1979) selected strains of yeast suitable for alcohol fermentation at high temperature. The results showed that some strains were still active at 40~ Among these only one strain of yeast could produce as high as 8% ethanol within 2 days of fermentation. Kumnuanta et al (1981) also isolated a strain of flocculation yeast from molasses (Saccharomyces cereviseae N.327). This strain of yeast fermented well at 35-37~ Flocculated cells can be used for another batches of fermentation without prepa¡ new starter. After fermentation, the flocculated cells could be separated easily by sedimentation and could be used for animal feed. Punpeng (1983) studied alcohol fermentation from raw cassava by using mixed culture of Asperoillus niger and Saccharomyces cereviseae.

3.2c Kaomcul (sweetened rice): Microorganisms in loogpang kaomag (mold bran of swectened ¡ were isolat•d by Jatikasatien (1977), Kulprccha (1978), Pongpoon (1980). Microorganisms found in Loogpang Kaomag were Amylomyces sp., Rhizopus

Mycological Research in Thailand 351

sp., Mucor sp., Absidia sp., Aspergillus sp., Penicillium sp. and Hyalodendron sp., Endomycopsis .fibuligera, Hansenula sp. and Saccharomyces sp. Sirintornthep and Kootin (1981), found that mixed culture of Amylomyces rouxii AH 3, Endomycopsis fibuliqera ERIO and Hansenula quomala, made a good kaomag. Sukumavasee (1975) studied enzyme activity of Endomycopsis fibuligera isolated from Loopang kaomag. Amylase enzyme had 3 fraetions, namely ~t-amylase, isoamylase and glucoamylase. Glucoamylase were produced in a large amount when compared to the others.

3.2d Soy sauce fermentation: Research on soy sauce fermentation were conducted to improve the local soy sauce manufacturing techniques under the ASEAN cooperative protein research project. Collaborative effort was made among institution in Thailand. The project included surveying, isolation and selection of local strain of Aspergillus, developing and distributing of an approp¡ inexpensive technique for spore inoculum production by using plastic bags as culture vessels which has now been successfully practiced in some facto¡ (Lotong 1983). Suwanamena et al (1978) studied role of fungi in soy sauce fermentation. Aspergillus and Rhizopus were the dominant fungi in soy sauce koji. The screening were made by detection of amylase and protease enzyme of isolated fungi. It had been proved that Aspergillus oryzae was the best fungal strain in soy sauce fermentation. Flegel et al (1981) isolated Aspergillus fla~'us var columnaris from soy sauce koji with high protease activity. Lotong and Suwanarit (1983) develop the spore production technique by using inexpensive autoclavable and reuseable plastic bag enclosures as culture vessels. After growth, the spore mass could be dried and packaged in the same bag. A s a result of adopting the improved technique and the selected strain, koji incubation has been shortened from 5-7 days to only 2 days and the sauce produced is superior in the terms of amino acid contents and its organoleptical acceptance (Lotong 1983).

3.2e Pigment formation: lsolation of red pigment from Monascus sp. were studied by Yongsmith et al (1983). Selection of Monascus strain which produced extracellular pigment in cassava medium were made. The selected strain of Monascus were immobilized with Calcium alginate gels before cultivated in the medium. The red pigment was found in the supernatant after 4 days of cultivation. Yongsmith and Tabloka (1985) cuitured extracellular pigment Monascus in a medium containing cassava starch as main carbon source in both submerged and solid state conditions. Red pigment was stable at pH range of 4-1 l and temperature range of 0-100~

3.3 Biodeterioration

Biodete¡ research was conducted by collaboration between Kasetsart University and the Department of Fine Arts. Suwanarit et al (1983a) isolated genera of fungi from monuments at Sukothai Historical Park. The dominant genus was Axper.qillus. Aspergillus niger was particularly found to distribute in most of the samples. Emericellopsis sp. was found only in the samples collected from stupa. Most spccies of fungi produced pigmented spores and mycelium. Studies were also made on effects of fungicides on the isolated fungi. The results showed that Dowicide A and B napthol at concentration around 1.5-2-0% and HgCI 2 at concentration


around 0"1-0.5% were the most effective fungicides. Fungal isolates from Sukothai monument were studied on organic acid production (Suwanarit and Tungsuk 1983b). It was concluded that some fungal species were able to produce organic acids. Most of fungi which produced organic acid were in genera Asper#illus and Penicilliumo Production of organic acid by these fungi would enhance the deterioration of the building materials that composed of lale¡

Chaisrisuk et al (1983) studied deterioration of mural painting at Wat Pras¡ Dominant genera of fungi isolated from mural painting were Asper#illus niger, Aspergillus spp., Penicillium spp., Trichoderma, Syncephalastrum sp., Emericella spp., Curvularia spp., Helminthosporium and Paecilomyces spp.

The growth of aU fungal isolates on painting materials were studied. All fungal isolates grew best on tamarind's seed glue and less in Acacia tree glue. Most of fungal isolates could not grow in aU 6 powder pigments but some of the Aspergillus and those unidentified sterile hypha isolates could. Growth of some of the fungi caused some effect on powder pigments. For example Emericella grew well and produced cleistothecia on Prussian blue, making the mural pigments looking dirty. Some unidentified sterile hypha changed ultramarine to white, cobolt blue to pale blue, Prussian blue to pale blue and decolorized black at different degree to white. Cilaisrisuk et al (1984) also worked on effect of fungicides on fungal species isolated from mural painting. The results showed that Dazomet and Dowicide A were the most effective fungicides.

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Myco log ica l Research in Thailand 353

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Cruesfisawath A, Puttipinyo V and Mekwattanakarn P 1979 Effeet of Environmental factors and their interactions on compost making; Annu. Res. Rep. (Plant Pathol. and Microbiol. Div., Department of Agriculture, Thailand)

Flegel T W, Bhumiratana A, Impoolsup A, Takada N, Gshima Y and Okada H 1981 Studies on Aspergillus flavus var. columnaris in soy sauce kloji. Microbiol Utilization of Renewable Resources; JSPS-NRCT Seminar on A#roindustry Includin# Microbiol technolo~ly, 5-8 January, Songkhla Thailand (International Center of Cooperative and Development in Mierobiol Engineering, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan) vol. 2, pp 59-63

Fungkajorn L C, Chettanachittara, Panichsakpattana S and Suwanarit P 1983 Studies on the effect of Aerobic, Nonsymbiotic Nitrogen Fixing Bacteria plus Vesicular-Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi on the Growth of Tetrameles nudiflora R. Rr. Scedling; 2lst Annual Academic Conference, Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand

Glinsukon T 1979 Aflatoxin B, Producing Strain of Asperyitlusflavus var. columnaris;, d. Natl. Res. Counc. Thailand 11 17-23

Hemasuji P, Wong-urai A, Tongthamachart N and Buangsuwan D 1981 lncidence of Aflatoxin in Pre and Post Harvested Com; Annu. Res. Rep. (Plant. Pathol. and Microbiol., Department of Agriculture, Thailand)

Jatikasatien C 1977 Selection of Mold and Yeast Strains in Loogpang for Kaomag Fermentation, M.Sc. thesis, Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand

Kanjanatthiti P and Punsittikul S 1977 lnhibition of Aflatoxin Production; Sci. News Lett. 31 64--67 Khamhaengritthirong T, Lausuwan C, Ardharn T, Siengkong S and Tantayaporn S 1985 CoUection of

Sclerotium spp. and Rhizoctonia spp. Identification; Annu. Res. Rep. (Plant Pathol. and Microbiol. Div., Department of Agriculture, Thailand)

Klomej C 1958 Culturing of some insect pathogenic fungi in different kinds of media, B.Sc. thesis, Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand

Kosatat S 1973 Aflatoxin, toxie animal fe~d; Agriculture 46 67-72 Kulprecha S 1978 Effect of Different kinds of Media on Spore Production of Rhizopus sp. in loogpang, M.Sc.

thesis, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand Kumnuanta J, Punpeng B and Komagata K 1979 Selection of Yeasts for Alcohol Fermentatiort at High

Temperature; Annual Report of Internationat Center of Cooperative Research and DeveIopment in Microbiol Engineerin~l, (Osaka University, Osaka, Japan) rol. 2, p 307

Kumnuanta J, Punpeng B, Vongsuv.anlert V, Komagata K and Taguchi H 1981 Ethanol Fermentation by Flocculating Yeast. Microbiol Utilization of Renewable Resources; JSPS-NRCT Seminar on Agroindustry lncluding Microbiol Technology, 5-8 January, Songkhla, Thailand (International Center of Cooperative and Development in Microbiol Engineering, Osaka Uni~/ersity, Osaka, Japan) rol. 2, pp 176-179

Lausuwan C and Tantayaporn S 1985 Morphology and Taxonomy of Economic Plants and Weed Rust; Annu. Res. Rep. (Plant Pathology Division, Department of Ag¡ Thailand)

Lohwongwatana J and Lotong N 1982 Strains Selection and Production of Citric Aeid Using Solid Waste from Tapioca Starch Factories as Raw Material; 8th Conference on Science and Technology for National Development, Bangkok, Thailand

Lotong N and Suwanarit P 1983 Production of Spore Inoculum of Soy Sauce Koji Molds in Plastic Bags; Appl. Environ~ Microbiol. 46 1224-1226

Lotong N 1983 Solid Substrate Fermentation Teehnology in Thailand; Proceedings of the third ASEAN Workshop on Solid Substrate Fermentation, 3-90ctober, Cebu City, Philippines

Manoch L and Ponoretong S 1983 Rhizosphere fungŸ of root-rotted Citrus reticulata Blanco cv. Som- Khiewwan, 3rd International Mycotogical Congress, 28 August-3 September, Tokyo, Japan

Manoch L and Crues¡ A 1984 A preliminary list of Thermophilic Fungi in Thailand, 5th tnternational Congress of Culture Collection, 25 November-I December, Bangkok, Thailand

Manoch L, Suthabutra T and Ponoretong S 1984 Microfungi in Thailand; 5th International Congress of Culture Collection, 25 November-I December, Bangkok, Thailand

Nopamornbodi O 1982 Role of VA Mycorrhiza on Growth and Nut¡ Absorption of Com; Provisional report No. 12 (Training course of Mycorrhiza Research Techniques, Serdang, Malaysia) (lnternational Foundation for Science, Sweden) pp 260-265

Nopamornbodi A, Thamasurakul S, Chareonsuk S and Vasuwatt Y 1985 Effect of Pesticides on

354 Poonpilai Suwanari t

Mycorrhizal Growth and lnfectivity in Soybean; Annu. Res. Rep. (Soil Div., Department of Agri- culture. Thailandl

Pakdeedindan P, Nimsiri P and Parkaetkarm P 1973 Mushroom Growing Lentinus edodes, shitabe; Annu. Res. Rep. (Plant Pathol. Div., Department of Agriculture, Thailand)

Pakdeedindan P, Nimsiri P, Parkaetkarm P and Aungkhorom S 1974a Studies on Growing Tricholoma Mushroom; Annu. Res. Rep. (Plant Pathol. Div., Department of Agriculture, Thailand)

Pakdcedindan P, Nimsiri P, Parkaetkarm P and Aungkhorom S 1974b Studies on Growing Button Mushroom; Annu. Re.~. Rep. (Plant Pathol. Div., Department of Agriculture, Thailand)

Pakdeedindan P, Auetrakul A and Dissara A 1975 Study on Cultivation me~hods of Pleurotus and Study on spawn making technique for Pleurotus sp; Annu. Res. Rep. (Plant Pathol. Div., Department of Agricuhure, Thailand)

Pienpak K, Chubumrung V and Nongkay V 1985 Study on Pycnidial Formation Fungi, Annu. Res. Rr (Plant Pathol. Div., Department of Agriculture. Thailand)

Pongpoon P 1980 Study on Biolo#y ~f Looypanq Kaoma.q (Bangkok: National Research Council) Punpeng B 1983 Alcohol Fermentation from Raw Cassava; J. Alcohol Ferment. Soc. Thailand 2 18 Punyarachun M and Tantichodok A 1978 Fungal Diseases of Insects in Thailand and the lnfluence of

Environmental conditions on its germination Annn. Res. Rep. (Entomol. and Zool. Div., Depanment of Agriculture, Thailand)

Punyarachun M 1980 Production of Metarrhizium anisopliae (Metch) Sorok. on Artificial media Annu. Re.~. Rep. (Entomol. and Zool. Div., Department of Agriculture, Thailand)

Puttipinyo V. Cruesriswath A, Angkhorom S and Pukdeedindan P 1975 Experiment on lncreasing Yield of Button Mushroom by Microorganism; Annu. Res. Rep. {Plant Pathol. and Microbiol. Div., Department of Agriculture, Thailand)

Puttipinyo V, Cruesriswath A and Pukdeedindan P 1978 Study on Microorganism that increased the yield of mushroom; Annu. Res. Rep. (Plant Pathol. and Microbiol. Div., Department of Agriculture, Thailand)

Rakvidhyasastra V. Angsirikul P and Manoch L 1973 Studies on Mycoparasitism of Economic lmportant Fungi; Res. Rep. {Kasetsart University, Thailand) p 45

Sarul:mon S, Nimsiri P. Parkaetkarm P, Angkhorom S and Pakdeedindan P 197d Studies on Relationships of Temperature, Acidity, Alkalinity and Cellulose Decomposing Organista to composl used in growing Tricholoma and Pleurotus astreatus Mushroom; Annu. Re.~. Rep. (Plant Pathol. and M icrobiol. Div., Department of Agriculture, Thailand)

Sirintornthep (Pakdisupapol) Towprayoon and Surat Sootin 1981 Fcrmentation of Sweetened Rice by Pure Culture. Microbiol Utilization of Renewable Resources; 3SPS-NRCT Seminar on Agroindustry Including Microbiol Technology, January 5-8, Songkhla, Thailand (lnternational Center of Cooperative Research and Development in Microbiol Enginee¡ Osaka University, Osaka, Japan) vol. 2, pp 20-23

Srikumlaitong S and Munsakul S 1981 Detoxification of Aflatoxin in Peanut Oil; 19th Ammal Academic Conference, Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand

Sukumavasee J 1975 Study on Enzyme Activities of Looflpang, (mold bran) M.Sc. Thesis, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand

Sundhagul M and Klinsukont C 1971 Studies on Cellulose Decomposition in the Soil at Sakaerat Experiment Station; ASRCT Technical Reports 1971-74 (Compiled by Thai National Documentation Center)

Suwanamena K, Suwanarit P and Lotong N 1978 A study on Fungi in Soy Sauce Fermentation; 16th Annual AcademU' Conj› Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand

Suwanarit P and Chcttanachittara C 1976 Studies on Mycorrhizal FungŸ of Maize in Thailand. Thailand National com and Sorghum program; Annu. Rep. (Department of Agriculture, Thailand)

Suwanarit P, Chettanachittam C, Kumnuama J and Dangsupha W 1979 Ecological Studies on the Species of Mushroom at Sakaevat Forest; 17th Annual Academic Conference, Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand

Suwanarit P, Palikomol A and Chettanachittara C 1981a Distribution of Vesicular Arbuscular Mycorrhiza in some Important Field Crops and Vesicular Arbuscular Mycorrhiza-Rhizobium interaction on lhe growth of soybean- Re~lional Work.~hop on Research Advances in Agricultural Microbiology in Southea.~t Asia, Novcmber 24-27, Bogor, lndonesia

Suwanarit P, Tcetanuchai V and Chettanachittara C 1981b Studies on Mycorrhiza of Com. Thailand National Corp and Sorghum Program; Annu. Rep. Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand

M ycoloyical Research in Thailand 355

Suwanarit P, Chewatanarak R, Punwan N and Chettanachittara C 1982 Collection and Spore Production by Pot Culture of Vesicular Arbuscular Mycorrhizal fungi of corn. Thailand National Corn and Sorghum Program; Annu. Rep. Ministry of Agricuhure and Kasetsart University, Thailand

Suwanarit P, Noparamaraporn N, Sripleng A and Arunyanark C 1983a Studies on Fungal Species Causing Deterioration of the Monument at Sukothai Historieal Park and Effect of Fungicides on them. 3rd lnternational Mycological Contlress, 28 August-3 September, Tokyo, Japan

Suwanarit P and Tungsuk W 1983b Production of Organic Acid by Fungat Species Isolated from Sukothai Monuments; The second meeting of the workiny group on the scientific research fi~r the con.servation of Sukothai Monumenls, I--4 July, Japan

Suwanarit P, Chewatanarak R and Chantanao A 1984 Spore Production of 25 Species of VA Mycorrhizal Fungi, Thailand National Com and Sorghum Program; Annu. Rep. (Kasetsart University and Department of Agriculture, Thailand)

Suwanarit P, Chewatanarak R and Chantanao A 1985 Comparative Effect of Four species of VA Myeorrhizal FungŸ on the Growth of Corn: 16th Thailand National Corn and Sor.qhum reportint.i session, 22-26 April, Phuket, Thailand

Topark-ngam A, Napeerong N, Tunbun-ake P, Therapava V and Chantarasiri A 1973 Seed health inspection (1) Fungus inspeclion (21 Nematode, Annu. Res. Rep. (Plant Pathol. and Microbiol. Div., Department of Agriculture, Thailand)

Thitatharn V, Sinthipong P and Vasuwatt Y 1981 Preliminary study on Efl'ectiveness of Cellulolytic Microorganism, Annu. Res. Rep. (Plant Pathol. and Microbiol. Div., Department of Agriculture, Thailand)

Tunbun-ake P, Buangsuwan D and Sukcharoen T 1976 Studies on Aflatoxin in Moldy Cereal and Legume seed; Annu. Res. Rep. (Plant Pathol. and Microbiol. Div., Department of Agriculture, Thailand)

Wanleenuwat G, Manoch L, Attathom S and Suwanarit P 1984 Vesicular-arbuscular Mycorrhiza of Citrus and their Effects on Citrus Seedlings; 5th lnternational Con.qress of Culture Collection, 25 November-I Deeember, Bangkok, Thailand

Wong-Urai A, Hemsuji P and Buangsuwan D 1981a Incidente of Aflatoxin in Pre and Host Harvested Groundnuts, Amm. Res. Rep. (Plant Pathol. Div., Department of Agriculture, Thailand)

Wong-Urai H, Hemsuji P and Buangsuwan D 1981b Aflatoxin Produced by A.flavus in Chili, Multiple Onions and Garlic; Annu. Res. Rep. (Plant Pathol. Div., Department of Agriculture, Thailand~

Wongseenin Pand Sundhagul M 1973 Soil and root fungi in Sakaerat dry evergreen forest: Kasetsart J. 7 109-116

Yongsmith B, Sonomoto K and Tanaka A 1983 Production of Monascus Pigment by lmmobilized cell system; Annu. Rep. of lnternational Center of Cooperatit, e Research and Det,elopment in Microbh~l En qineerin.q (Osaka University, Osaka, Japan) vol. 6 p 247

Yongsmith B and Tabloka W 1985 Food Colors Fermentation from Cassava by Monascus sp; Kasetsart J. {Natural Sci.) 19 45--50

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Mycological research in Thailand