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The science of psychology

Dr.Tahira Jibeen


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Psychology

Scientific investigation of behaviour and

mental processes

Behaviour includes all of our outward or

overt behaviour, such as talking, facial

expressions, and movement.


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Psychology

Mental processes refers to all the internal,

covert activity of our minds (thinking,

feeling and remembering.

Research in psychology seeks to understand

and explain thought, emotion & behaviour.

Observation is used to study behaviour &

mental processes in both animals & human.


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Psychologys Goals

Every science has goals. In Physics, the

goals concern learning how the physical

world works. In psychology there are fourgoals that aim at uncovering the mysteries

of human and animal behaviour.

1-Description .....what is happening? Itinvolves observing a behaviour and noting

everything about it...


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Psychologys Goals

What is happening? Where it happens, to

whom it happens and under what

circumstances it seems to happen?

2-Explanation: why is it happening?

It refers to looking for explanation of

behaviour. Finding explanation forbehaviour is very important step in the

process of forming theories of behaviour.


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Psychologys Goals

A theory is a general explanation of a set of

observation or facts. The goal of description

provides the observations, and the goal ofexplanation helps to build the theory....(if

all tests indicate that the young girl has a

learning problem, the next step would betrying to predict what is likely to happen if

the situation stay the same.


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Psychologys Goals

3-Prediction... Determining what will

happen in the future is a prediction. In the

example, the psychologist or counsellorwould predict that this little that this little

girl will probably continue to do poorly in

her schoolwork and may never be able toreach her full learning potential.


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Psychologys Goals

Clearly something needs to be done to

change this prediction , & that is the last

point of the last of the four goals ofpsychology: changing or modifying

behaviour.

4-Control: How it can be changed. Thegoal is to change a behaviour from an


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Psychologys Goals

undesirable (failing in the school) one to a

desirable (academic success) one.

Not all psychological investigations will try

to meet all four of these goals. For example

a personality theorist may want to know

what people are like(description) and whatthey might do in certain situation

(prediction)


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The History of Psychology

Before Psychology

The word psychology is derived from the

Greek wordpsyche

, meaning 'soul' ormind.

Psychology is a relatively new field in the

realm of science, only about 125 years old.


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Psychology evolved out of both philosophy

and biology. Such discussions of the two

subjects date as far back as the early Greekthinkers such as Aristotle and Socrates.

Aristotle (384-322 B.C) wrote about the

relationship of the soul to the body (withthe two being aspects of the same

underlying structure)


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Plato (his teacher) suggested "dualism

the concept that soul and body are separate

and distinct.

Rene Descartes (seventeen century, French

philosopher and mathematician) agrees with

Plato and believed that pineal gland (a

small organ at the base of the brain) was the

seat of the soul.


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Philosophers tried to understand or explain

the human mind and its connection to the

physical body, while medical doctors Andphysiologist wondered about the physical

connection between the body and the brain.

Fechner performed scientific experimentsthat formed a basis for experimentations in

psychology with his studies of perception.


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Herman von Helmholtz performed

groundbreaking experiments in visual&

auditory perception.


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Schools of Thought

Psychology quickly diversified from the late 19thcentury, leading to a number of distinct schools:

Throughout psychology's history, a number of

different schools of thought have formed toexplain human thought and behaviour. Theseschools of thought often rise to dominance for aperiod of time. While these schools of thought

are sometimes perceived as competing forces,each perspective has contributed to ourunderstanding of psychology.


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Wilhelm Wundt (1879)

The field and study of psychology was truly bornwhen established the first psychology lab inWilhelm Wundt Leipzig, Germany.

Mind is made up of thoughts, experiences,emotions, and other basic elements

In order to inspect these nonphysical elements, it

is important to learn to think objectively about

their own thoughts.


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Wilhelm Wundt (1879)

This perspective relied heavily on the analysis(examining and measuring) of sensations andfeelings through the use ofobjective

introspection, a highly subjective process.Wundt believed that properly trainedindividuals would be able to accuratelyidentify the mental processes that

accompanied feelings, and sensations.


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Edward B. Tichener and Structuralism in

America

One of Wundt's students, an man named

Edward B. Tichener, would later go on to

formally establish and name structuralism,although he broke away from many of

Wundt's ideas.

He focused on breaking down mental processesinto the most basic components.


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Edward B. Tichener and Structuralism in

America Every emotion could be broken down into its

individual emotions and sensations.

Focused that Consciousness , the state of beingaware of external events, could be broken down

into its individual emotions and sensations.

And introspection method could be used on

thoughts just as it was on physical sensations.


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Criticism of Structuralism

By todays scientific standards, the experimental

methods used to study the structures of the mind

were too subjectivethe use of introspection ledto a lack of reliability in results.

Structuralism was too concerned with internal

behaviour, For example Wundt will give a rock

into the hand of his student and ask him telleverything that he was feeling as a result of having

the rock in his hand.


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Criticism of Structuralism

Structuralism was a dominating force in the

early days of psychology, but it eventually

died out in the early 1900s, as thestructuralists were fighting among

themselves over just which key elements of

experience were the most important.


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2. Functionalism (William James, Harvard

University (1842-1910)

Formed as a reaction to the structuralismand was heavily influenced by the work of

William James and the evolutionary theory

of Charles Darwin.


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2. Functionalism

Functionalists sought to explain the mental

processes in a more systematic & accurate

manner.

Rather than focusing on the elements ofconsciousness, functionalists focused on the

purpose of consciousness and behaviour.

investigate purpose/function/use of consciousness

It emphasized individual differences, which had a

profound impact on education.


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2. Functionalism

James focused on how mind allows people

to function in the real worldhow people

work, play and adapt to their circumstancesor surroundings. Animals and people whose

behaviour helped them to survive would

pass those traits onto their off springs,perhaps by teaching or even by some

mechanism of heredity.


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Strengths of Functionalism

Influenced behaviourism and appliedpsychology (educational and industrial

psychology)

Influenced the educational system,especially with regards to John Deweys

belief that children should learn at the level

for which they are developmentally

prepared.


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Gestalt Psychology (Max Wertheimer)

Gestalt is German word meaning good form or

good figure.

He suggested that psychological events such as

perceiving and sensing could not be brokendown into any smaller elements .

We see an effect of the whole event, not

contained in the sum of the parts. For example a

melody is made up of individual notes and can

only be understood if the notes are in their correct


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Gestalt Psychology

relationship to one another, so perception can only

be understood as a whole , entire event.

we are built to experience the structured whole aswell as the individual sensations. And not only do

we have the ability to do so, we have a strong

tendency to do so. We even add structure to

events which do not have gestalt structuralqualities.


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Gestalt Psychology

According to Gestalt psychology, the whole is

different than the sum of its parts. Based upon this

belief, Gestalt psychologists developed a set ofprinciples to explain perceptual organization, or

how smaller objects are grouped to form larger

ones. These principles are often referred to as the

"laws of perceptual organization."


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Example

Have you ever noticed how a series of flashing

lights often appears to be moving, such as strands

of Christmas lights? According to Gestalt

psychology, this apparent movement happensbecause our minds fill in missing information.


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The Psychoanalytic Approach

Sigmund Freud (AustriaKey features (1):

Mind has 3 parts: conscious, unconscious andpreconscious

conscious: thoughts and perceptions

preconscious: available to consciousness, e.g.memories and stored knowledge

unconscious: wishes and desires formed inchildhood, biological urges. Determines most ofbehavior


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The Psychodynamic Approach

Personality has 3 components - id, ego &superego

id: unconscious, urges needing instant gratification

ego: develops in childhood, rational. Chooses

between id and external demands

superego: conscience, places restrictions onbehavior.


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The unconscious mental process

Much of the human mental activity occurs outside

of awareness

These activity influences behaviour and conscious

thoughts but not available to voluntary recall

The unconscious process represents drives,

instincts and wishes, impulses, fantasies

considered unacceptable.


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Freud suggested that repressed urges , in

trying to surface, creates the nervous

disorders in his patients. Freud stressed theimportance of early six years of life , and if

there were problems must have begun in

those early years. Freudian psychoanalysis, is basis of much

modern psychotherapy.


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Psychic determinism

All mental activity is meaningful and is

connected with previous life experiences.

No mental activity is accidental ormeaningless.


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John Watson (1913) and Behaviorism

In early 1900s, Watson challenged structuralisms

functionalism and psychoanalysis.

Psychology is the scientific study of observable

behavior. (The Science of Behavior)

Behavior: any overt (observable) response or

activity by an organism

Subject of study is the objectively measurable

behaviour (but internal behaviour-emotions and

cognition could be monitor with instrumentation)


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Watson proposed all learning is due to the result of

classical conditioning. Influenced by Pavlov.

Differences in experiences alone account fordifferences in behavior.

Behaviorism- Stimulus-Response Psychology

Stimulus- any detectable input from the environment

Behavior = an association between an event (stimulus)& subsequent behavior (response).


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emphasized the role of the environment in guiding

behavior or learning

verifiability, objective observation ,empirism &

experimentation


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Pavlovs Classical conditioning Paradigm

Pavlovs example include teaching a dog to

salivate in response to the sound of bell

Response (salivation) that is customarilyelicited by a given stimulus (food) will also

be elicited by a substitute stimulus (bell) if

the substitute is presented just prior to theoriginal


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Normally, if hungry, a dog will salivate at

the sight of food (Unconditioned)

the food is unconditioned stimulus (US orUCS) and the salivation in response to the

food is the unconditioned response

Presence of food ----> salivation

US/UCS ---->UR


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The conditioning model looks like this:

bell---> presence of food---->salivation

after repeated association

bell----> salivation

CS--->CR


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Edward Thorndike (1898)

influenced the behaviour theory by studying thelearning behaviour of animals (cats) using puzzle

boxes

The boxes allowed the animals to obtain a rewards or

to escape from the box by performing a simple act

The laws he found applicable to animals learning

would apply equally to human learning and called the

learning pattern typical of both trial and error learning.

The experimental subject would normally try many

types of responses. Those proved effective in

achieving the reward would be repeated and those

were ineffective were eliminated


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B. F.Skinner

Introduced Operant Conditioning

A response that is voluntarily emitted and learned

as the result of environmental consequences(rewards, costs) that follow it. Behaviour is

determined by its consequences

By contrast respondent occur as a result of pairing

b/w unconditioned and conditioned stimuli.

An event that increases a behaviour is reinforcer

Positive mean stimulus is applied/ negative mean

stimulus is removed.


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Evaluation:

Its practical focus has led to usefulapplications

It has influenced theory development, e.g. inthe area of learning

It developed a standard scientificmethodology, through the use of hypothesistesting and experimental control

Its criticised for being mechanistic (ignoringmental processes) and overlyenvironmentally determinist (it ignoresbiology)


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The Psychodynamic Approach

Evaluation:

Significant impact:

theories of personality, motivation, development

therapeutic techniques in clinical and counsellingpsychology

captured the popular imagination, providing anaccessible framework for everyday understanding

Unscientific?

methodologically poor

untestable (e.g. concept of denial)

Limited impact on scientific psychology


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The Humanistic Approach (C. Rogers)

Key features (1):

Rejects determinism, and emphasizes freewill

Rejects the positivism of science(investigating others as detached objectiveobservers)

Investigates phenomena from the subjectiveexperience of individuals

An emphasis on holism: the need to study thewhole person


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The Humanistic Approach

School of thought that emphasizes the unique

qualities of humans especially their freedoms and

their potential for personal growth

People strive for actualization

Human behavior governed largely by ones

sense of self (self-concept)

Rogers: the self-concept consists of a perceived

self and an ideal self. Psychological health is

achieved when the two match


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Maslow: Basic human need to evolve and fulfill

ones potential.

people have a hierarchy of needs. The goal ofpsychological growth is to meet the need to

achieve self-actualization


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Evaluation: Considerable influence on counseling

development of client-centred therapy

helped establish counseling as an independent

profession development of research techniques to evaluate the

effectiveness of treatment

Unscientific

Limited impact on mainstream psychology Limited evidence for theories


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Evolution of Psychology: Recent Perspectives

The Cognitive Approach (mid-1950s)

Key features:

The main approach to experimental psychology

emphasis on the comprehension of behavior and

experience understanding how people acquire,store, and process information.

cognition- the mental process involves in acquiring

information (mental images important in things like

decision making, reasoning, and problem solving)


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The Cognitive Approach

Emphasizes active mental processes

the brain is seen as an information processor,using the analogy of mind to computers

mental processes are based on discrete modules

Uses experimental methods, but alsocomputer modeling and neuropsychology

cognitive psychology, which investigates memory,language, perception, problem solving

but also used for other areas, e.g. social,developmental psychology areas)


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Evaluation (1):

Has had a significant impact across experimentalpsychology

Has led to useful applications, e.g. cognitive therapy

Has introduced a range of rigorous research methods

can compare results from different methods, and so

have more faith in research findings


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Evaluation (2):

Lacks ecological validity

based on artificial laboratory research

but do the results apply to the real world?

Has no overall framework

there are separate theories in different areas, but there isno one framework for explaining cognition

Doubts about the underlying metaphor is the mind really like a computer?


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The Physiological Approach

Investigates:

brain function in healthy and impaired individuals

brain chemistry and psychology, e.g. serotonin & mood

genes and psychology, e.g. twin studies & intelligence

The common assumption is that biology underlies behavior

much of an organisms functioning can be explained in

terms of bodily structures and biochemical processes that

underlie behavior

primary nature of the brain in behavior and

experience

electrical stimulation of the brain


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Reductionist and deterministic reductionist: explanations at a more basic level

deterministic: behavior directly determined by biology

Evaluation (1):

Productive has provided explanations in a range of areas of

psychology, e.g. mental health, individual differences,social behaviour

has provided therapeutic interventions, e.g. drugtreatments for depression


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Popular

has caught the public imagination

genetic theories provide an accessible framework forunderstanding ourselves

Overly reductionist

it seems to replace explanations at a psychological level

Problems with evolutionary explanations

they ignore or underplay the effects of the environment

they may naturalize behaviors that should bediscouraged, e.g. sexual violence

there is often limited evidence for evolutionary theories


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Social Constructionist Approach

Key features:

Challenges mainstream psychology

Believes we construct our view of the worldthrough social interaction

Believes our constructions affect our actions

e.g. construction of female affects view of femalebehaviour

Investigates our constructions of the worldthrough the analysis of language


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Evolutionary Psychology:

Human Adaptations Natural selection occurs for behavioral, as

well as physical, characteristics

Buss, Daly & Wilson, Cosmides & Tooby

80s and 90s

Mating preferences, jealousy, aggression, sexualbehavior, language, decision making, personality,

and development


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Positive Psychology

Humanist concerns revisited

Uses theory and research to better

understand the positive, creative, andfulfilling aspects of human existence

Positive subjective experiences

Positive individual traitsPositive institutions and communities

P h l T d


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Psychology Today:

A Thriving Science and Profession

Research: Seven major areas

Applied Psychology: Four major areas


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Psychology Today:

Research Areas

Developmental

Social

Experimental

Physiological

Cognitive

Personality

Psychometrics


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Psychology Today:

Professional Areas

Clinical

Counseling

Educational and School

Industrial and Organizational


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Clinical Psychology

Area of psychology concerned with the diagnosis, treatment, and

prevention of psychological disorders and disturbances

Mental health disorders & conditions

Alcohol/Drug addiction

Addiction

Depression

psychotherapy

Down syndrome

Mental retardation

ADD/ADHD

Eating disorders

Alcohol/Drug addiction


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Industrial and Organizational Psychologist

Studies the behavior and mental processes than take place in organizational

settings (typically work situations), and the human factors that influence the

work environment

Sexual harassment

Successful employment of workers with disabilities

Workplace culture

Workplace aggression

Leadership behaviors of management

Personality traits in the hiring process

Selection of law enforcement officers

absenteeism


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Counseling Psychology

Area of psychology that maintains an emphasis on

the positive aspects of human development and

are focused on exploring and facilitating the

strengths and assets of individuals, groups, and

organizational units

Emphasizes the development of self-direction,

life-stage coping skills, and educational strategiesfor change


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Figure 1.9 Principal professional specialties in contemporary psychology


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Counseling Psychology

Coping with personal, school, & community crises

Role of feelings & emotional states in the learning process

Consulting with parents & teachers

Perfectionism

Development & implementation of educational strategies

Enhancement of self-awareness, & social & interpersonal

skills in students


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School/Educational Psychology

Study of learning, & the conditions under

which it happens best

School psychologists focus more oncreating environments that support learning

Educational psychologists work to

understand how humans learn, & then todevelop methods & materials to make

learning happen


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School/Educational Psychology

Prejudice, Diversity

Self & Social Identity

Group Behavior

Conflict Resolution

Interpersonal Relations

Gender

Social Influence Prosocial Behavior

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