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Muslims of West Bengal: An Analysisof the Educational Status of a MinorityCommunity in IndiaNazmul HussainPublished online: 09 Jul 2009.

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Muslims of West Bengal: An Analysis of the EducationalStatus of a Minority Community in India

NAZMUL HUSSAIN

Abstract

Education is a crucial social factor that initiates the process of social, economic and

cultural development of communities. Muslims are the second largest religious group

in West Bengal and the largest minority in this Indian state. With a population of

over 20 million in absolute numbers, Muslims constitute 25% of the total population

of the state. The main objective of this study is to analyze the regional imbalances in

the distributional pattern of Muslims, including the trend of the Muslim population

over the past century and in the future and the concentration patterns of the Muslim

population across the state, in the context of developing an educational profile of

Muslims inWest Bengal. Since the religion wise data on any other educational indi-

cator are not available at district level, this study utilizes only the data on literacy to

examine the level of educational development of Muslims across the region. Finally,

the study examines the relationship between literacy level and concentration of

Muslim population in West Bengal. The relative backwardness of the Muslim

community, particularly in education, is noted as a factor in the relative economic

backwardness observed among the Muslim population in India.

Introduction

Following the independence of India in 1947 much emphasis has been placed on pro-

moting education in the country and there is little doubt that in 60 years since indepen-

dence the country has made tremendous progress in this regard. In the contemporary

technology driven knowledge, economy, literacy and education are like oxygen for the

human beings. Hence, illiteracy may generally be assumed as the root cause of under

development. Level of literacy is highly associated with the role of the state in providing

education to all. No country in the world has been able to educate all its children without

state assistance and intervention.1 Education plays a dominant role in influencing the

quality of human resources2 as it is the medium of exchange for ideas, thoughts and

beliefs over time and space. Only education can break through the social barriers and

prejudices and can bring social change as well as cultural advancement by enhancing

potentialities through achieving knowledge, skill and information for better job opportu-

nities through which follows social and economic development.

Three sets of factors are important that influence school attendance and enrolment

in rural India, i.e. parental literacy, economic status, and caste discrimination that con-

tinues to prevail. Consequently disparities of region, caste, community and gender

remain important factors in educational attainment.3 Drezy and Kingdon identified

factors affecting school enrolment and grade attainment and observed a strong effect

of parental education on school attainment with father’s education being more impor-

tant for boys and mothers education for girls.4 Jayachandran observed that the school

Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs, Vol. 29, No. 2, June 2009

ISSN 1360-2004 print/ISSN 1469-9591 online/09/020249-12# 2009 Institute of MuslimMinority Affairs

DOI: 10.1080/13602000902943724

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attendance rate was affected by adult literacy and female work participation rate

(positively); poverty and house hold size (negatively); caste (only for girls); and

school accessibility.5 Broach and Iyar6 and Kumar7 attempted to focus on the impact

of religion and caste on education. Ahmed8 and Ansari9 have also examined the

problems of Muslim educational backwardness in contemporary India. In his study

Ansari highlighted the educational status of the Muslims as well as the socio-cultural

constraints which they are facing in the context of educational upliftment among

them.10

The authors of the Indian constitution perhaps recognized that certain sections of the

Indian population that have been disadvantaged for centuries, may not be able to partici-

pate either in education or the economic development of the country if their interests are

not safeguarded and special provisions are not made for them in the constitution. Thus,

provisions have been made for giving incentives to weaker sections of population so as to

provide facilities for them to fully participate in education along with other sections of

the population. However, despite various provisions in the Constitution the reality is

that many sections of the society are still lagging behind in education and a considerable

proportion of children from these sections of population are still out of school. Thus, lack

of their participation in education becomes a stumbling block in achieving the goal of

universal education. It may be noted that wherever provisions have been promised for

‘Programme of Action’ (POA) in education for the backward minorities, especially

Muslims, these were more or less on an ad-hoc basis. There was hardly any serious

attempt made to plan for the education of Muslim minority communities either at

national level or at state level. Because of the lack of reliable data in the country on

religion with respect to educational statistics, the researcher has been handicapped in

studying the problems and planning related to the education of Muslims. On the basis

of the literacy rates the Ministry of Home Affairs has declared Muslims and

Buddhists as educationally backward minorities in the POA 1986. However, it is clear

that lack of data on various aspects, particularly relating to religious minorities, has

created an obstacle in planning for their education.

In India Muslim literacy rates are only 59.1% nationwide which is far below the

national average of 65.38%.11 Zaidi analyzed literacy figures of Census 2001 and

reached the conclusion that in most of the states and districts Muslims are educationally

backward, though it varies from one state to another and from one district to another.12

Muslims are educationally most backward in Haryana, Punjab and Assam. However,

Muslim literacy is a serious concern in Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Jammu and

Kashmir and Bihar. In West Bengal it is 57.47% among Muslims which is about 10 per-

centage points less than that of the state average of 68.64%. Educational inequalities do

not merely persist but are also increasing day by day. Growing inter-group educational

disparities is one of the challenges. Low levels of literacy among Muslim community

reflect its backwardness which is directly associated with the backwardness of the low

socio-economic status of Muslims in the country. M. K. A. Siddiqui pointed out that

the backwardness of the Muslims and their continued downward mobility in the field

of education, particularly in a great metropolis such as Calcutta, an important centre

of learning, would, perhaps, appear paradoxical.13 Hasan and Menon focused on

various factors that are responsible for Muslim educational backwardness in West

Bengal.14 Generally, very high rural poverty and high concentration of Muslims in

rural areas is an important factor in the low educational status of Muslims. Again, as

reported in the Sachar Report of November 2006 prepared by the Prime Minister’s

High Level Committee under the chairmanship of Justice Rajinder Sachar, “Muslims

250 Nazmul Hussain

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are at a double disadvantage with low level of education combined with low quality edu-

cation, their deprivation increases manifold as the level of education rises”.15

The low level of literacy among Muslims as well as among the Scheduled Castes/

Scheduled Tribes (SC/ST) in India is well documented in research studies. The

present paper is a modest diagnostic study on literacy levels among Muslims. An

attempt has been made to analyze the status of Muslim education in terms of literacy

rate as available in the 2001 census of India. The findings are more significant when

the district is taken as the unit of study; it is the best representative of the ground

reality, exhibiting larger heterogeneity within a smaller regional boundary which inspires

planners as well as academicians. It further highlights whether Muslims are truly edu-

cationally backward or it is simply a myth.

Objectives

The main objectives of the present study are to:

i) examine the trends of Muslim population growth in West Bengal,

ii) estimate the concentration index of Muslim population in the districts,

iii) measure the variations among literacy rates across region and religion, and

iv) examine the inter-relationship between literacy level and concentration of

Muslim population in West Bengal.

Study Area

West Bengal is one among the 28 Indian states and it is situated in the eastern part of the

country (see Figure 1). It lies between 858500E and 898500E longitude, the latitudinal

extent of the state is from 218100N to 278380N. It has a total land area of 88,752

square kilometers with a population of 80.18 million, out of which Muslims constitute

20.24 million, that is, 25.2% of the total state population. In terms of overall population

FIGURE 1. Map of the West Bengal Region.

Muslims of West Bengal 251

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size, West Bengal stands fourth amongst the larger states of India. It is surrounded by

three countries: Bhutan and Nepal in the north and Bangladesh in the east. On its

north-east lies the green valley of the state of Assam; on the western side Bihar and Jhark-

hand states; while to the south-west lays the state of Orrisa. The Bay of Bengal lies on its

South. The state of West Bengal has been divided into three sub-divisions which together

consist of 19 districts.

The literacy rate among the Muslims in the state is 57.47% which is approximately 12

percentage points less than the state average and much below the literacy rate of Hindus

which is 72.44%. If we compare the literacy rate of both Hindus and Muslims then it is

clear that Muslims are lagging behind the Hindus in literacy by 15 percentage points.

The most disheartening fact is that the literacy rates among Muslims of West Bengal

are also lower in Muslim concentrated districts.

Database and Methodology

The paper used only the districts and state religious data of census of India 2001. Both

simple and standard statistical techniques have been used to analyze the secondary infor-

mation obtained from census of India 2001. Simple percentage method has been used to

show decennial growth rate of population and share of community wise population in the

study area. Arithmetic method of population projection has been used to project com-

munity wise population, thus:

P ¼ P1 ¼ ðr � tÞ

r ¼ ðP2� P1Þ=10

where P is the projected population; P1 is the population of base year; P2 is the popu-

lation of succeeding year of base year; r is the annual growth rate of population of two

consecutive years (i.e. P1 and P2); t is the time interval between base year and the

year of which population would be projected.

The method of locational quotient has been employed to estimate the concentration

index of Muslim population in each district of West Bengal.

The model is thus:

LQ ¼Mpd

Tpd�

100=Mps

Tps� 100

where LQ is the index of concentration; Mpd is the Muslim population in the district i;

Tpd is the total population in the district i; Mps is the Muslim population in the state;

Tps is the total population in the state.

To examine the reciprocal relationship between literacy and other socio-economic

determinants a correlation matrix based on Karl Pearson’s technique of product

moment coefficient of correlation has been established and students’ t-test technique

has been adopted to identify the level of significance of their correlation.

Trends of Community Wide Population

This section presents data on Muslims population growth along with that of other reli-

gious communities in West Bengal, with a historical review over the past 50 years and

252 Nazmul Hussain

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projections into the future trends. India, since ancient times, has been multi-cultural,

multi-ethnic and multi-lingual and West Bengal is no exception. There have been

several groups of people belonging to various religion, race, and culture, speaking differ-

ent languages, who ruled Bengal for several hundred years. The Aryans inhabited Bengal

during post Vedic period. Then the people of Bengal were ruled by the Palas, Pundras,

and the Sens, who were overthrown by Muslims in thirteenth century. The long Muslim

rule profoundly influenced the socio-religious structure of the Bengali people. The

British arrived in Bengal in 1690 for trade. But gradually their increased influence

resulted in conflicts with the Muslim Nawab in Bengal and with diplomatic efforts

and series of conspiracies the British displaced the Nawab and captured power in

Bengal. In 1905 the British for the first time partitioned Bengal on the basis of religion

into West Bengal and East Bengal. Again in 1947 at the time of Independence the pro-

vince had been divided into two halves between India and Pakistan on the basis of same

religious considerations. The Hindu-majority West Bengal became a part of Indian

union and Muslim-majority East Bengal became a part of Pakistan known then as

East Pakistan which later emerged as a sovereign independent state of Bangladesh in

1971.

In West Bengal Hindus constitute the majority community with a population of 58

million (72.47%), while Muslims constitute the largest minority community with 20

million (25.25%). The Muslims in West Bengal reside across the state and their concen-

tration varies substantially through the region. These two communities, Hindus and

Muslims, share more than 97% of the total state population. Table 1 reveals the trends

of population (1951–2041) by different religious communities in West Bengal and

shows that in 1951 Hindu population accounted for 78.45% followed by Muslim popu-

lation of 19.85%. It also demonstrates that the dominating position of the share of Hindu

population continued to remain, but their share declined from 78.45% in 1951 to

72.47% in 2001. Although all religious communities made absolute gain in numbers,

Muslims have experienced positive growth in terms of percentage shares to the total

population. If similar trends in growth rates continue, the share of Muslim population

by 2041 is estimated to reach 29.36% and the share of Hindu population is estimated

to decline to 69.28%. The break in decreasing trend of share of Hindu population in

1981 is mainly due to the immigration of Hindu population in India from Bangladesh

during Indo-Pak War in 1971. Overall it has been observed that Muslims have been

TABLE 1. Percent of Population by Religious Community in West Bengal (1951–2041)

Year Hindu Muslim Christian Sikh Buddhist Jain

1951 78.45 19.85 0.71 0.12 0.33 0.08

1961 78.80 20.00 0.59 0.10 0.32 0.08

1971 78.11 20.46 0.57 0.08 0.27 0.07

1981 76.96 21.52 0.59 0.09 0.29 0.07

1991 74.72 23.61 0.56 0.08 0.30 0.05

2001 72.47 25.25 0.64 0.08 0.30 0.07

2011(P) 71.93 26.86 0.71 0.08 0.31 0.08

2021(P) 70.85 27.89 0.71 0.08 0.31 0.09

2031(P) 69.98 28.70 0.75 0.09 0.09 0.10

2041(P) 69.28 29.36 0.79 0.09 0.09 0.11

Note: (P), Projected.

Source: Census of India, 2001.

Muslims of West Bengal 253

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experiencing higher population growth rates than the Hindus who constitute the

majority in the state. It may be said that the higher growth rate among Muslims is

mainly due to their higher fertility rate which to some extent can be associated with

their lower socio-economic status. Further in terms of the time lag and delayed

changes in proximate variables between different religious groups in undergoing demo-

graphic transition, Muslims have remained socially and economically backward.

Distribution of Muslim Population

Muslims occupy an important position in society and culture. Muslims are in minority

both numerically as well as in terms of their position in greater socio-economic and pol-

itical structure of the country. They are socially backward, economically poor and politi-

cally powerless.16 According to 2001 census Muslims constitute the second largest

religious group in West Bengal and thus they are the largest religious minority. With

regards to the geographical distribution, Muslims are unevenly distributed across dis-

tricts throughout the state. The lowest percentage of Muslim population with only 5%

is found in the Darjeeling district, whereas the district of Murshidabad has the highest

percentage, with 63.67%. Three clusters of districts are made according to concentration

index and presented in Table 2 below. These are represented graphically in Figure 2.

It may be taken into account that the districts where the concentration index is more

than one may be seen as high Muslim concentration districts; further the districts where

the concentration index is less than 0.50 may be low Muslim concentrated districts. It is

evident from the table that the districts in which the Muslim concentration index scores

over 1.00 are observed in Murshidabad (2.52) followed by Malda (1.96) Uttar Dinajpur

(1.87), Birbhum (1.87), South 24 Parganas (1.31), and Nadia (1.00). Together they

form a region of high concentration of Muslim population. During the period of

Muslim rule in Bengal, Iliyas Shah’s Kingdom at Gour and Sultan Nasiruddin and

Hasan Shah’s at Gour and Pandua of presently Malda district, and Nawab Shiraj-ud–

Daula’s Kingdom in presently Murshidabad district, attracted Muslim communities,

which explains the higher concentration of Muslims in central part of West Bengal

(i.e. districts of Malda, Murshidabad, Uttar Dinajpur and Birbhum). Demographic con-

centration ofMuslims in this region may be significant for their socio-economic and edu-

cational development if sincere efforts are made. However, out of these six districts only

Murshidabad records more than 50% of Muslim population in actual figure.

The concentration index of medium category ranges from 0.50 to 1.00, Table 2

depicts that six districts namely Koch Behar (0.96); North 24 Parganas (0.95);

Dakshin Dinajpur (0.94); Kolkata (0.80); Bardhaman (0.78); and Haora (0.57) come

TABLE 2. Concentration of Muslim Population in West Bengal by District, 2001

Concentration

Concentration

Index Districts

High More than 1.25 Murshidabad (2.52), Malda (1.96), Uttar Dinajpur (1.87),

Birbhum (1.87), South 24 Parganas (1.31), and Nadia (1.00).

Medium 0.50–1.25 Koch Behar (0.96), North 24 Parganas (0.95), Dakshin Dinajpur

(0.94), Kolkata (0.80) and Bardhaman(0.78), Howra (0.57).

Low Less than 0.50 Mednipur (0.44), Jalpaiguri (0.42), Bankura (0.29), Purulia

(0.28), Darjeeling (0.21) and Hugli (0.03)

Source: Computed by Author from Census of India, 2001.

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under this category. Remaining six districts fall under ‘low index of Muslim concen-

tration and these districts form a notable region. According to their concentration

index these are: Mednipur (0.44); Jalpaiguri (0.42); Bankura (0.29); Purulia (0.28);

Darjeeling (0.21); and the lowest concentration index is found in Hugli (0.03) district.

Literacy Rate in Muslim Population

Education is like oxygen for multidimensional development for both individual and

society. Since the religion wise data on any other educational indicator are not available

at the district level, the paper used only literacy figures to see the level of educational

FIGURE 2. Concentration Index of Muslim Population in West Bengal.

Muslims of West Bengal 255

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development of Muslims. Literacy rates vary from region to region and from one group

to another. The literacy rate among theMuslims in India was 59.1% in 2001; which is far

below the national average of 65.1%. Literacy rate inWest Bengal is not as low and in fact

it is higher than the national average. Moreover, according to 2001 census West Bengal

ranked 12th position in literacy rate among various states in India. The literacy rate in

West Bengal is 68.64%. If we examine the variations in Muslim rates across religious

communities with district boundary in West Bengal there seems to emerge an interesting

pattern. It is interesting in the sense that, the 25.25% of the total population of West

Bengal are Muslims but they only account for 13.75% of the total literate population

in the state. Moreover, the literacy rate among Muslims is reported as 57.47% which

is far below (11.7 percentage points) the average literacy rate of 68.64% in West

Bengal.17 There is no educational indicator except literacy rate on which data are avail-

able to show the status of Muslims or for any other religious group. This is serious con-

straint in planning for the education of Muslims. Muslims in West Bengal are mainly

landless agricultural laborers, artisans and poor craftsmen in rural areas or in urban

areas they are unskilled laborers, factory workers or mill hands. The situation has

been exacerbated with the steady decline of industry in the west.18 Thus, Muslims are

almost totally dependent on the state for education, and this has made for some unex-

pected and poignant outcomes.

It is also interesting to note that, the gap between general literacy rate of the district

and Muslim literacy rate in the district varies significantly. It is clear in Table 3 below

that, Kolkata accounted for the highest gap, where the general literacy rate of 80.86%

was matched by only 68.08% for Muslims in the city. Furthermore, out of 18 districts

in West Bengal, there are four where the Muslim literacy rate is below 50%. Another

glaring feature is observed in Darjeeling where the difference between Muslim literacy

TABLE 3. Percent Variation of Muslim Literacy Rate, West Bengal, 2001

Name of the district Muslim population

Literacy rate

All religions Muslims Difference

1 Darjeeling 5.30 71.79 50.38 –21.41

2 Jalpaiguri 10.85 62.85 55.34 –7.51

3 Koch Bihar 24.23 66.30 56.07 –10.23

4 Uttar Dinajpur 47.36 47.89 36.04 –11.85

5 Dakshin Dinajpur 23.93 63.59 67.21 þ3.62

6 Malda 49.72 50.28 45.30 –4.98

7 Murshidabad 63.67 54.35 48.63 –5.72

8 Birbhum 35.08 61.48 59.86 –1.62

9 Barddhaman 19.78 70.18 68.79 –1.39

10 Nadia 25.41 66.14 49.41 –16.73

11 North 24Parganas 24.22 78.07 65.05 –13.02

12 Hugli 15.14 75.10 73.50 –1.60

13 Bankura 7.50 63.44 54.54 –8.90

14 Puruliya 7.12 55.57 53.44 –2.13

15 Medinipur 11.35 74.90 64.97 –9.93

16 Haora 24.44 77.01 67.80 –9.21

17 Kolkata 20.05 80.86 68.06 –12.80

18 South 24Parganas 33.24 69.45 59.83 –9.62

West Bengal 25.25 68.64 57.47 –11.17

Source: Census of India 2001, Final Population, West Bengal.

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and general literacy is about 22%, and where the literacy for all religions is recorded at

71.79% placing it at 6th rank but the Muslim community with literacy rate of only

50.38% is placed at 14th rank. However, in the district of Hugli this difference is

found to be only 1.6%, placing it in 4th position in the general literacy and first in

Muslim literacy. It can be inferred from this table that, as far as major districts are con-

cerned, Muslims are the most backward in Uttar Dinajpur, Malda, Murshidabad, and

Nadia, all of them having less than 50% literacy. Indeed the state government needs

to pay special attention towards the education of Muslims in these districts.

It may be again noted that, in Dakshin Dinajpur where Muslims registered a literacy

rate of 67.21, they are 3.62 percentage points higher than the literacy rate among the

general population of the district which is 63.59%. Furthermore, there are only two dis-

tricts, Barddhaman and Hugli, where the literacy rate for Muslims is slightly higher than

the general literacy rate for the state, even though they lag behind slightly in the rates for

their respective districts. The highest literacy rate among theMuslims is 73.50% inHugli

(Table 3), making it one of the two districts where the literacy rate of Muslims is slightly

higher than the literacy of general population. Thus, the statistics on literacy by state and

districts and by religious affiliation shows that Muslims are educationally backward in

West Bengal as their literacy rate is less than the general literacy rate in most districts.

Table 4 demonstrates the inter-religious disparity in literacy levels among six religious

communities, i.e. Hindu, Muslim, Christian, Sikh, Buddhists and Jain. The situation of

Muslims is worse than that of the other five religious communities of the state, as they

recorded lowest literacy rate at only 57% being literate. Muslims have scored not only

less than the state’s average but also less than the national average literacy level and

also national Muslim average literacy rate, where only 64% of males and 49% of

females are literate. In other words, Muslims are the most illiterate religious community

in the state of West Bengal.

At 92.81%, the highest literacy level is found among the Jain, while the Sikhs enjoyed

87.73% literacy rate. The Buddhists, the Hindus and the Christians, with literacy rates

of 74.73, 72.44 and 69.72%, respectively, attained third and fourth and fifth positions

among the six religious groups. The Muslims came in last with only 57.47%.19

One of the important indicators of educational development for any section of the

population is the female literacy rate. Table 4 shows that the Muslim female literacy

rate at 49.75% is lower by 9.86 percentage points compared to the general female literacy

rate of 59.61%. Also, in comparison to Muslim male literacy rate of 64.61% in West

Bengal, Muslim female literacy rate is very low at only 49.75%. As per the findings in

this paper, Indian Muslims have four principal problems, related to educational,

TABLE 4. Religious Communities and Comparative Literacy Rates in West Bengal

Religious communities Population Male Female

Hindu 72.44 81.12 63.09

Muslim 57.47 64.61 49.75

Christian 69.72 77.20 62.30

Sikh 87.19 91.37 81.98

Buddhist 74.73 83.09 66.22

Jain 92.81 96.46 88.87

Total� 68.64 77.02 59.61

Note: �Total population includes “Others” and “Religion not stated”.

Source: Census of India 2001, Final Population, West Bengal.

Muslims of West Bengal 257

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economic and socio-political aspirations of the Muslim community, which are the real

obstacles in their overall development.

Concentration of Muslim Population and Literacy Scenario

Out of several indicators used to see the level of educational development of any area or

any group of population, the literacy rate comprises the most basic indicator. Data

disaggregated by religion have been presented to determine the level of educational

development of Muslims in West Bengal. This part of the paper focuses on a casual

relationship between concentration of Muslim population (X) as cause (independent

variable) and literacy rate of all religious population (Y1) as effect (dependent variable)

and again with literacy rate among Muslim community (Y2) as an effect (dependent

variable). Their relationship is based on the data in Tables 1 and 3 and has been

examined using Karl Pearson’s technique of Coefficient of Correlation.

The analysis reveals that both, the concentration of Muslim population and literacy

rate of all religious people and the literacy rate amongMuslim community, are negatively

correlated with each other, with r values of –0.596 and –0.528 at 1.0% level of signifi-

cance among Y1 and Y2, respectively. It may be asserted from the analysis that higher

concentration of Muslim population is associated with low rate of literacy in a region.

In other words in densely populated concentrations Muslims are suffering from higher

rates of illiteracy and remain educationally backward. Therefore, in those districts

where the concentration of Muslim population is higher there is a need for intensifying

efforts and focus on the education of Muslims in general and improvement of their

literacy rates in particular.

It is generally recognized that the low level of literacy in a community is caused by their

poor socio-economic condition, while poor socio-economic condition may be the conse-

quence of low level of literacy rate of that community resulting in a circular relationship.

For the investigation of facts associated with literacy rate and socio economic character,

community wide detailed study of both aspects is highly indicated and should form the

basis of diagnostic planning for future social development.

Conclusion

According to the Census of 2001, West Bengal is the home of 20.24 millionMuslims in a

total state population of 80.18 million. Although Muslims constitute 25% of the popu-

lation of the state, their concentration in six districts (where they form more than 25% of

the population of the district) is of much significance. The data shows generally, lower

the percentage of Muslims in a district; higher is their level of literacy and interestingly,

further analysis of data revels that the districts where the Muslim population concen-

tration is low, in percentage as well as in actual number (having less then 10% of the

total population) they also recorded lower than the general literacy of the state except

in Darjeeling. So, one may ask, does the concentration of Muslims in one place

prevent them from acquiring education or does the government discriminate against

those areas where the Muslims are concentrated and deprives them of the opportunities

they deserve?

On the surface it might be perceived that Muslim community is the problem in achiev-

ing socio-economic development, as analysis shows high concentration of Muslims

related to low levels of literacy, which is the root cause of socio-economic underdevelop-

ment of the region. Thus, we may surmise that mass illiteracy prevailing amongMuslims

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is the basic cause of their underdevelopment and backwardness, which may or may not

well be self imposed.

In this studyMuslims have been statistically identified as the most backward section of

society, standing at the bottom position in the level of literacy, which appears to be the

main cause of backwardness of Muslim community in West Bengal. Raising the level of

literacy, and hence the standard of education, is the only way to raise awareness and

social consciousness among the Muslims. Indeed, the entire socio-economic develop-

ment of Muslim community depends on the effectiveness of raising their literacy rates,

which would go a long way in diminishing the grave social disparities that currently

exist among the Indian population, as observed more closely in the case of West Bengal.

Indeed, West Bengal cannot claim to be a “just society” or a powerful state while one

quarter of its population and its largest minority community remains deprived of edu-

cational and related opportunities and remains handicapped and marginalized. Hence

there is urgent need to take meaningful steps to uplift the Muslims in West Bengal, as

most are currently living in abject poverty. One may expect that if Muslim literacy

rates are raised and their socio-economic condition uplifted, group disparities in

society would be reduced and there would follow a balanced socio-economic development

across religious communities and regions, which would constitute long-term success.

Acknowledgement

The author is very grateful to Professor Farasat Ali Siddiqui, from the Department of

Geography at Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, for support and encouragement,

and research advice to study any aspect of geography with a pragmatic view.

NOTES

1. Amartya Sen, The Hindu, December 20, 2007, p. 1.

2. F. A. Siddiqui and Yasmeen Naseer, “Educational Development and Structure of Employment in

Western Uttar Pradesh”, Population Geography, Vol. 26, Nos 1 & 2, 2004, p. 25.

3. V. K. Ramachandran, M. Swaminathan and V. Rawal, Barriers to Expansion of Mass Literacy and

Primary Schooling in West Bengal: A Study Based on Primary Data from Selected Villages (Working

Paper No. 345). Thiruvananthapuram, India: Centre for Development Studies, 2003.

4. J. Dreze and G.G. Kingdon, “School Participation in Rural India”, Review of Development Economics,

Vol. 5, No. 1, 2001, pp. 1–24.

5. U. Jayachandran, Socio-Economic Determinants of School Attendance in India, Working Paper No. 103,

Center for Development Economics, Delhi School of Economics, June 2002.

6. V. K. Broach and Sriya Iyar, “The Influence of Religion and Caste on Education in Rural India”,

Journal of Development Studies, Vol. 41, No. 8, 2005.

7. K. Srinivasan and Sanjay Kumar, “Economic and Caste Criteria in Definition of Backwardness”,

Economic and Political Weekly, No. 10, 1999, pp. 16–23.

8. Imtiaz Ahmed, “Muslim Educational Backwardness—An Inferential Analysis”, Economic Political

Weekly, Vol. 16, 1981, pp. 1457–1465.

9. Ansari A. Iqbal, ed. “Muslim Educational Backwardness”, The Muslim Situation in India, New Delhi:

Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd, 1989, pp. 88–97.

10. Ibid.

11. Census of India, “Final Population Totals, West Bengal”, in Census of India 2001, Government of

India, 2001.

12. S. M. I. A. Zaidi, “Status of Muslims’ Education in India: an Analysis of 2001 Census Literacy

Data”, inMuslims of Uttar Pradesh, ed. Abdul Waheed, Aligarh: Centre for Promotion of Educational

and Central Advancement of Muslims, 2007.

13. M. K. A. Siddiqui,Muslims in Free India Their Social Profile and Problems, New Delhi: Qazi Publishers

& Distributors, 1998.

Muslims of West Bengal 259

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14. Zoya Hasan and RituMenon, EducatingMuslim Girls—AComparison of Five Indian Cities, NewDelhi:

Women Unlimited, 2005. See also, Zoya Hasan and Ritu Menon, In a Minority: Essays on Muslim

Women in India, New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2005.

15. Government of India, Social, Economic and Educational Status of Muslim Community of India—

A Report, New Delhi: Prime Minister’s High Level Committee, Cabinet Secretariat, Government

of India (Chairperson Justice Rajendar Sachar), 2006.

16. Md. Mainuddin, “Socio-Economic Conditions of Muslims in West Bengal”, unpublished M.Phil.

Dissertation, Department of Sociology and Social Work, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh,

September 2008.

17. Census of India 2001, “Final population Totals”, op. cit.

18. West Bengal Human Development Report 2004, Development and Planning Department, Government

of West Bengal, available online at www.wbplan.gov.in, 2004, p. 3.

19. Census of India, “Report on Religious Data, West Bengal”, in Census of India 2001, Government of

India, 2001.

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