MURDOCH RESEARCH REPOSITORY · Climate change has been explored in the coastal tourism context by Zeppel (2012), Zeppel and Beaumont (2011), and by Scott, Hall, and Gössling (2012)

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Rutherford, J., Newsome, D. and Kobryn, H. (2015)

Interpretation as a vital ingredient of geotourism in coastal environments: The geology of sea level change, Rottnest Island,

Western Australia. Tourism in Marine Environments, 11 (1). pp. 55-72.

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1

and landforms unique to a natural area (e.g., Newsome

& Dowling, 2010). Dowling (2011) asserts that

geotourism is the third dimension in natural area

tourism, when combined with its two other com-

ponents the biotic elements (flora and fauna), as

it illustrates the geological foundation on which

these elements exist in nature. Offering tourists and

locals access to geological features and processes

Introduction

Geotourism is a tourism activity that centers on

the appreciation of, and conservation of, geologi-

cal resources through accurate interpretation of the

Earth’s processes and landforms (Dowling, 2011).

The focus of this form of nature-based tourism

therefore is on highlighting geosites, landscapes,

Address correspondence to David Newsome, Environment and Conservation Science Group, Veterinary and Life Sciences, Murdoch

University, Perth, Western Australia. E-mail: [email protected]

INTERPRETATION AS A VITAL INGREDIENT OF GEOTOURISM

IN COASTAL ENVIRONEMENTS: THE GEOLOGY OF SEA LEVEL

CHANGE, ROTTNEST ISLAND, WESTERN AUSTRALIA

JESSICA RUTHERFORD, DAVID NEWSOME, AND HALINA KOBRYN

Environment and Conservation Science Group, Veterinary and Life Sciences,

Murdoch University, Perth, Western Australia

At a time of increasing global awareness of the exploitation of the Earth’s resources and the envi-

ronmental impacts of human activity, this article stresses the importance of geological education. It

highlights that in a tourism hot spot containing globally significant geological features and processes,

it is essential to create educational interpretative themes that provide engaging scientific information

to generate appreciation and awareness of climate change. Appropriate literature is reviewed, which

includes a brief account of the geology of Rottnest Island. The review emphasizes the interpretive

importance of carbonate geological features displaying evidence of sea level change events, expo-

sures of Late Pleistocene aeolionite, and Holocene dune formations. Sea level change is regarded as

an especially relevant geological theme for interpretative product development on the island. Such

a theme provides the foundation for the interpretation of scientific data that can link the visitor to

the significance of environmental change. The article concludes that educative geological themes,

as presented via tourism, can provide a dialogue between the public, scientists, and the media about

global climate change.

Key words: Geotourism; Coastal tourism; Interpretation; Sea level change

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2 RUTHERFORD AND NEWSOME

(risk, access) through multiple-criteria evaluation

to identify areas most suitable for geotourism.

The relevance of Rottnest Island in the global

context lies in the island’s evidence for sea level

fluctuations in response to global climate change.

Climate change has been explored in the coastal

tourism context by Zeppel (2012), Zeppel and

Beaumont (2011), and by Scott, Hall, and Gössling

(2012). Moreover, Zeppel and Beaumont (2011),

from an analysis of Australian Sustainable Tourism

Cooperative Research Centre Reports, note that a

key recommended action is to “increase credibil-

ity and awareness that climate change is occurring”

(p. 8). Zeppel (2012) reiterates this in the context of

the Great Barrier Marine Park, where customer edu-

cation has also been a focus. The development of

climate change-related interpretive content is thus

a timely strategy for the Rottnest Island Authority.

Accordingly, this article, through a review of the

relevant interpretation and geological literature,

will assess the significance of interpretation, espe-

cially in regard to climate change, for geotourism

on Rottnest Island. In doing so, it will identify the

island’s specific geological resources and highlight

key interpretive themes that raise awareness about

climate change in coastal environments.

Rottnest Island as an Existing Tourism Destination

Rottnest Island (Fig. 1) is located approximately

18 km west of Fremantle, Western Australia, and

contains important geological, biophysical, cultural,

and wildlife resources for researchers, the local

visiting public, and international tourists (Brooke,

Creasey, & Sexton, 2010; Palmer & Newsome,

2010; Playford, 1988). The island attracts over

560,000 visitors annually, is a tourism hotspot in

Western Australia, and is recognized internation-

ally as an iconic tourism destination (RIA, 2011).

Rottnest Island has been operating as a tourism des-

tination since the 1900s and was recognized as an

A-class nature reserve for tourism in 1997 under

the Western Australian Land Management Act 1997

(Playford, 1988; RIA, 2009). Forty-eight percent of

the annual tourists are repeat visitors (RIA, 2011).

Of these visitors, 70% are from Western Austra-

lia, 15% from interstate, and 16% from overseas,

highlighting its attractiveness as a local holiday

destination (RIA, 2009, 2011). The majority of the

in natural or urban environments, geotourism has

the potential to achieve sustainable geoconserva-

tion by generating awareness and interest, while at

the same time creating economic benefits for com-

munities through tourism opportunities (Dowling,

2011; Newsome & Dowling, 2010).

Given that Rottnest Island contains world-class

geological features such as stromatolites, salt lakes,

evidence of sea level change, exposures of aeolian

Tamala Limestone, and Late Pleistocene/Holocene

dunes (Playford, 1988), an opportunity exists to

interpret these for Rottnest Island. In doing so, the

nature-based tourism profile that Rottnest Island cur-

rently offers can be expanded with a view to raising the

geosciences and ecological literacy of the public and

policymakers. Furthermore, Palmer and Newsome

(2010) highlight the need to invest in developing

geologic interpretive material and opportunities and

for Rottnest Island management to capitalize on the

increasing international interest in geotourism.

It has been previously acknowledged that there is

a lack of geological interpretive information along

tourist routes on the island (Palmer & Newsome,

2010) and Rottnest Island Authority (RIA), which

manages tourism on the island, would benefit

from further research on the tourism value of the

island’s geologic features. Currently, any geotour-

ism is limited to the complex and outdated geologi-

cal education material being used by the museum

and there is a lack of appropriate interpretative sig-

nage (Palmer & Newsome, 2010). The only geol-

ogy guidebook for Rottnest Island is the work of

Playford (1988), which is essentially a researcher’s

field guide and is likely to be too complex and

detailed for the tourist. The guide, however, offers

substantial and detailed description of the geology

of Rottnest Island. Moreover, Rottnest Island Man-

agement would benefit from expanding and modi-

fying Playford’s (1988) work to produce an updated

guidebook that provides simplified, accurate inter-

pretation of specific geosites. The geological con-

tent for the proposed guidebook can be modified

for other applications such as interpretive panels,

maps, and displays within the museum. All of these

applications have the ability to generate revenue

while enhancing the island’s local and international

tourism status. Rutherford, Kobryn, and Newsome

(2014) have recently evaluated scientific (environ-

mental and geology) and management-related data

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INTERPRETATION AS A VITAL INGREDIENT OF GEOTOURISM 3

this work has recently been completed by Rutherford

et al. (2014), who mapped areas of geotourism

interest in the context of environmental factors

and risks such as erosion, access to transport, and

profile of the visitor (able to walk long distances

through to limited mobility).

Geology of Rottnest Island and the

Legacy of Sea Level Change

Rottnest Island is part of one of the world’s most

extensive Quaternary aeolian (windblown) lime-

stone dune systems (Brooke et al., 2010; Playford,

1997) and is part of a chain of calcareous coastal

dunes occurring along the south-western coastline

of Western Australia (Hearty, 2003; Hearty, Hollin,

Neummann, O’Leary, & McCulloche, 2007; Playford,

1988). The island is composed of bays and beaches

separated by rocky limestone cliffs that back onto

undulating active parabolic dunes (Gozzard, 2011;

Playford, 1997). The coastline is fringed by shallow

marine platforms that cut into Pleistocene aeolian-

ite, comprising the cross-bedded Tamala Limestone

(Fig. 2A). The island has an extensive system of

saline lakes containing stromatolites, algal mats,

and marine molluscan assemblages (e.g., Herschell

Limestone). Specifically, the Herschell Limestone

stratigraphy, elevated platforms, notches, and

visors in the Tamala Limestone along the inland

lakes provide evidence of Quaternary sea level

visitors stay for 1–3 days, arriving by commer-

cial boats and private air charters. There are three

settlements located at the eastern end of the island,

offering accommodation, service facilities, and the

port of entry to the island at Thompson Bay. The

remainder of the island is only accessible by foot,

bicycle, or the island bus service. With the excep-

tion of the RIA service vehicles, no private vehicles

are allowed on the island (RIA, 2011).

The island offers an array of recreation opportu-

nities, the majority of which involve marine activi-

ties including boating, fishing, surfing, swimming,

snorkeling, and diving (Richardson, Mathews,

& Heap, 2005; Smallwood, Beckley, & Sumner,

2006). Additionally, walking, cycling, bird watch-

ing, and wildlife touring are popular activities.

There is one eco-boat tour operator that provides

visitors with two daily tours during the summer

season. This tour offers visitors the opportunity

to view marine wildlife: however, it provides lim-

ited explanation of the island’s geological features

(Palmer & Newsome, 2010). Furthermore, the

Rottnest Island management plan for 2009–2014

aims to encourage the development and creation

of new sustainable and educational tourism oppor-

tunities that will generate an extended and deeper

tourism interest in the island (RIA, 2009). Under

the Tourism and Recreation Strategy section of

the management plan, investing in geotourism

research is strongly supported. The first stage of

Figure 1. Rottnest Island study area, 18 km off the Western Australia coast.

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Figure 2. A selection of photographs from various locations on Rottnest Island showing the range of geology and coastal

geomorphology available for geotourism opportunities.

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deposition of sediments (e.g., Rottnest Limestone,

Tamala Limestone, and Herschell Limestone)

on Rottnest Island, as illustrated by the modified

graph of Chappell and Shackleton (1986) as seen in

Playford (1988) (Fig. 3).

Furthermore, Quaternary sea level fluctuations

are also evident in the island’s fossil reefs, which

are exposed 2–3 m above present sea level, as

seen in the elevated platforms and double notches

in the limestone cliffs around the island (Kendrick,

Wyrwoll, & Szabo, 1991). Furthermore, geological

features that extend below present sea level (e.g.,

the sub-marine dunes of Tamala Limestone, fossil

roots that extend into the limestone, and the doline

hole structures of the salt lakes) mark the changes

in successive sea levels over the Pleistocene and

Holocene (Playford, 1988, 1997). The timing of

Rottnest Island Quaternary sea level features cor-

respond to those of other islands (e.g., Bahamas,

Bermuda, and the Yucatán Peninsula, Mexico)

located in regions at similar latitudinal locations in

the world (Carew & Mylroie, 1997; Szabo, 1978;

Vacher & Quinn, 2004; Vacher & Rowe, 1997).

The shell deposits in the lakes and the deposits

found in Lake Herschell and the Lake Vincent

quarry (Fig. 2D) also provide timing evidence

change (Fig. 2B, 2C). Although there is still some

debate regarding the exact details of Quaternary

sea level change along the south-west coastline

of Western Australia, including Rottnest Island, it

is agreed that sea level fluctuation has been sig-

nificant (Brooke et al., 2010; Hearty et al., 2007;

Hearty & O’Leary, 2008; Wyrwoll, Zhu, Kendrick,

Collins, & Eisenhauer, 1995). Global research and

geological records show that ~120,000 years ago,

during the last interglacial period, sea level was

at its peak at around 6–9 m higher than at pres-

ent (Braganza & Church, 2011; Church & White,

2006; Hearty et al., 2007; Intergovernmental Panel

on Climate Change [IPPC], 2007; Spooner, Deckker,

Barrows, &Fitfield, 2011; The Royal Society, 2010).

At around 130,000 years ago the south-western

coastline of Australia was 10 km further inland than

it is today and extensive sand deposits derived from

fluctu ating interglacial sea levels form the Tamala

Limestone/Spearwood Sands of Swan Coastal Plain

on the present day mainland. During the last glacial

maximum 20,000 years ago, sea level retreated

approximately 120–140 m below present levels and

the coastline was about 12 km west of Rottnest Island

(Braganza & Church, 2011; Playford, 1988, 1997).

The global sea level changes correlate with the

Figure 3. Sea level curve in relation to limestone deposition on Rottnest Island. Source: (Playford, 1988).

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Table 1

Description of the Geology and Geological Features Supporting Evidence of Historical Sea Level Changes

Description Source

Geology & geomorphology

Coastal shoreline Weathering and erosion forms the distinct shoreline storm benches,

platforms, visor, and notches.

Rocky calcarenite headlands, bays and shallow platforms (extending

~200 m from the shore) cut into the Late Pleistocene and early Holocene

dunes (coastal Tamala Limestone) which occur as shoreline notches and lie

just below the overhanging visors.

The bays with less wave action display horizontal platforms and storm

benches close to the water, where the highest platforms are found at head-

lands facing the predominant southwest swells.

Coastal Tamala Limestone consist of a hard calcrete top layer underlain

with softer limestone containing cemented calcite root systems (rhizoliths)

which forms a brittle and fragile coastline.

Semeniuk and Searle

(1987), Playford

(1988, 1997),

Masselink and

Hughes (2003),

Short (2005)

Salt lakes

& brackish

swamps

Salt lakes thought to be collapsed cave system or doline that formed during

the Pleistocene epoch, contain shell deposits (Herschell Limestone), algal

sediment layers and living cyanobacteria (stromatolites).

Lake salinity range from 15,000 mg/L to 68,000 mg/L, due to thick sedi-

ment and algae layer forming a sealant preventing ground water to flow in.

Playford (1988),

Backhouse (1993),

Playford (1997)

Sand dunes Part of the Quindalup and Spearwood Dune complex of the Late Pleistocene

and Holocene eras (~125–10 K years ago).

Exposed dunes are subaerial accumulations of weathered Tamala

Limestone, composed of calcium carbonate minerals, quartz sand,

and molluscan fragments.

Playford (1997),

Hearty (2003),

Hearty and O’Leary

(2008)

Stratigraphy (geological sedimentation)

Tamala Limestone Predominant geological feature of Western Australian islands and coastline

from Shark Bay to the south coast.

Remnants of Pleistocene and Holocene dunes (Spearwood and Quindalup)

composed of aeolian quartz sand and shell fragments (molluscan fauna)

which forms by cross-bedded accumulation followed by subsequent

cementation processes.

Lithification strengths will vary depending on the extent of natural erosion

and the presence of fossilized root structures (rhizoliths) and solution

pipes.

Playford (1988, 1997),

Brooke (2001), Haig

(2002), Tapsell,

Newsome, and

Bastian (2003), Short

(2005), Lane (2011)

Herschell

Limestone

Composed of weakly lithified Holocene marine shell deposits of some 220

plus molluscan fauna species and lime sand that formed in tidal zones

when sea level was ~2.4 m higher than today.

Stratigraphy is divided into two formations: upper Baghdad member at

0.6 m thickness and the Vincent Member below at ~0.55 m.

Some of the molluscan species are not found in the waters of Rottnest today.

Playford (1988),

Gozzard (2011)

Rottnest Limestone Interlayer of coral limestone and shelly calcarenites found between layers of

Tamala Limestone, formed around the interglacial period ~120,000 years

BP, when sea level was ~6–9 m higher than today.

Contains fossilized Staghorn, Brain, and Tubular corals, and cemented

mollusc/gastropods, prominent coral species Acropora sp.

Szabo (1978), Playford

(1988, 1997),

Greenstein and

Pandolfi (2008)

Sea level change (late Pleistocene & Quaternary)

Elevated fossil

coral

Exposed fossilized coral are predominant interpellations of past sea level

changes in a carbonate setting, and fossils of the last interglacial period

have been documented around the world, including the Bahamas and

Australia.

Exposed fossil corals are found ~ 3 m above the high tide line at Fairbridge

Bluff on Rottnest Island, suggesting sea level would have been ≥3 m

higher than today, as the coral would have been submerged in meters of

water to have grown to such the extent.

Kendrick et al. (1991),

Carew and Mylroie

(1997), Playford

(1997), Vacher and

Rowe (1997), Vacher

and Quinn (2004)

Elevated platforms

& double notches

Elevated platforms and double notches in limestone around the lakes are

consistent with sea levels being ~2.4 m higher than today.

Playford (1988),

Hearty et al. (2007),


(2008)

(Continued)

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section is therefore to review pertinent literature

that forms the background and basis for develop-

ing interpretive content and recommendations for

geotourism on Rottnest Island.

The Importance of Interpretation in Geotourism

Interpreting complicated scientific information

and providing environmental education for tour-

ists is an important part of quality natural area

tourism operations (Ham, 1992; Moscardo, 2000;

Pastorelli, 2003). Hughes and Ballantyne (2010)

emphasize the importance of communicating ideas

and concepts to inspire, entertain, and interest

visitors through interpretation. Geological inter-

pretation requires explaining what can be seen as

somewhat “dry” and complicated geological fea-

tures, unlike other aspects of nature-based tourism

that are more appealing to learn about, such as flora

and fauna (Hlad & MacFayden, 2003). Accord-

ingly, interpretation is important for the visitor

because it is a way to increase visitor knowledge,

appreciation, and satisfaction as well as the provi-

sion of safety information during tourism activi-

ties that take place in the natural environment

(e.g., Moscardo, 2000). Communication during the

of the sea level changes that correlates with the

Quaternary sea level curve described by Play-

ford (1988). Table 1 summarizes the geology and

major geological features that provide evidence of

fluctuating sea levels on Rottnest Island.

Rottnest Island thus contains an extensive array

of classic carbonate features, and according to the

geoheritage “significance” grading system outlined

in Brocx (2008), its geological attributes range

from global to local significance. For example,

the fossilized corals found ~3 m above the present

high-tide line (Fig. 2E) and the elevated shoreline

feature around the inland lakes (Fig. 2B) provide

evidence of sea level change events of global rel-

evance (Playford, 1988). The extensive limestone

cliffs rich in marine assemblages and fossil root

channels, and the active parabolic dune terrain, are

locally important because they explain the geologi-

cal processes occurring in that region (Brocx, 2008;

Brocx & Semeniuk, 2007).

Given that Rottnest Island contains world-class

geological features, with particular illustrations of

Quaternary sea level change events, its geotourism

profile can be realized by developing geological

educational content through the design of appro-

priate interpretative products. The aim of the next

Table 1 (Continued)

Description Source

Shell deposits

(Herschell

Limestone)

Natural shell deposits in the lakes and the deposits of Mount Herschell

and Lake Vincent quarry date back to 4,800 to 5,900 years old and found

~1.3 m above present sea level, indicates the sea was 1 m higher than

present levels.

Gastropods Turbo intercostalis deposits found on some headland around the

island have been investigated for possible Aboriginal origin, yet research

suggests this is inconsistent with the islands connection to the mainland,

which was cut off 6,500 years ago, indicating that these deposits are natu-

ral or bird deposits.

Sommerville (1921),

Bindon, Dortch, and

Kendrick (1978),

Backhouse (1993),

Playford (1997)

Sub-marine dunes

and parallel

ridges

Bathymetry shows three sub-marine ridges (shoreline, inner and outer shelf)

within the Swan Coastal Plain and Rottnest Shelf

The shoreline sub-marine limestone ridge sits parallel to the modern shore-

line, showing a remnant dune barriers complex which form when sea level

was high around the last interglacial period.

The inner coastal dune barrier complex when the sea level were 30 m lower,

and the ridge on the outer shelf is thought to have formed when there was

a sea level 60 m below present levels.

Hearty et al. (2007),

Brooke et al. (2010)

Fossil root chan-

nels (rhizoliths &

solution pipes)

Rhizoliths (small roots) and solution pipes (large tap roots) are remnants

of root structures that decayed due to lime precipitation around the roots

of plants of the original dunes, which have been replaced by calcium

carbonate and fragments of rocks, sandstone, debris.

The extent of rhizolith and solution channels within the cross-bedded

limestone contribute to the fragility of the limestone.

Playford (1988),


(2008)

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The DOC (2005) and Hughes and Ballantyne

(2010) state that interpretative communication

should be enjoyable, colorful, fun, and interac-

tive so it is easy for the visitor to remain engaged.

There are several interpretive techniques that will

automatically attract the visitor’s attention, these

include the use of color, using comparisons and

metaphors, humor, and surprise to help the visitor

connect and engage with the subject.

Museums and visitor centers are public areas that

can facilitate multiple interpretive media. They are

generally the focal point and front line for the deliv-

ery of information on an area. They usually contain

sections that can accommodate a large variety of vis-

itor interests and have more than one theme (DOC,

2005; Newsome et al., 2013). The Pinnacles Desert

Visitor Centre in Namburg National Park, north of

Perth, Western Australia, provides detailed informa-

tion specific to the history, cultural significance, and

theories of formation of the limestone Pinnacles (see

Newsome, Dowling, and Leung, 2012). The major

advantage of an interpretative center is that it is a

central locality that can house a range of interpreta-

tive applications, and it is where visitors know that

information can be obtained. Visitor centers usually

have staff to answer questions or help obtain infor-

mation for the visitor. Interpretive centers also have

drawbacks: for example the initial cost of building a

visitor center or museum can be high, and upgrades

to displays and maintenance of the facility can be

limited if the center does not have adequate funding

(Newsome et al., 2013). Furthermore, the staff who

provide support and educational services for a visitor

center need to be trained to accommodate the visi-

tors’ needs and be knowledgeable about the location

and its natural resources.

Guided interpretation is the face-to-face delivery

of information and ranges from guided cave tours

to eco-boardwalk tours, vehicle tours, and in-house

presentations and talks. It is regarded as an effective

and powerful interpretation technique (e.g., Black &

Weiler, 2005; DOC, 2005; Pastorelli, 2003; Wearing

& Neil, 1999). Key advantages are that tour guides

can encourage active engagement with visitors

and the information and knowledge a tour guide

possesses can easily be updated (Newsome et al.,

2013). Often such interpretation is carried out by

visitor-center staff, eco-tour operators, or, as in the

case of most of the Rottnest Island, guided tours

interpretive process involves cognitive processes

that inform and orient people by creating interest,

a sense of place, and attachment (e.g., Hughes &

Ballantyne, 2010; Newsome, Moore, & Dowling,

2013; Orams, 1995).

Tilden’s 1957 and 1977 definition and principles

are the foundation by which to understand interpre-

tation. Tilden (1957) described interpretation as an

art and communication designed to accommodate

visitor expectations, needs, and attitudes. Core prin-

ciples were originally presented by Tilden (1957)

and these have subsequently refined and expanded

upon by others (e.g., Crabtree, 2000; Ham, 1992).

These principles emphasize the importance of inter-

pretation having a theme and associated messages,

active involvement by the tourist, employment of

maximum use of the senses, the fostering of self-

discovered insights, and that the tourist finds the

whole learning experience of relevance and use-

ful. The precontact, actual, and postcontact stages

of the interpretive experience have been succinctly

discussed by Orams (1995) and Fennell (1999).

The precontact phase is of particular importance

as it is at this stage that the visitor lacks informa-

tion and interpretation can be tailored to furnish

answers to questions that may have been generated

before the actual on-site interpretation takes place

(see Fennell, 1999).

Interpretative techniques can be applied in various

forms such as presentations, displays, information

panels, interactive activities, guided tours, websites,

and publications (e.g., Ham, 1992). The Department

of Conservation (DOC, 2005) notes that creating

interpretive media requires research, knowledge,

management, and a vision to combine science and

art in order to provide visitors with clear communi-

cation and the best interpretation techniques. When

assessing suitable interpretative design, Hughes

and Ballantyne (2010) emphasize the importance

of developing an interpretation plan. Such a plan

includes identifying the target audience, establishing

an objective and theme that highlights the unique

characteristic that is the subject of interpretation, and

determining the best interpretive medium/design.

Furthermore, any natural-area tourism interpretive

endeavor should assess the prevailing environmental

conditions and determine if there are management

concerns and constraints involved at the chosen site

(Hughes & Ballantyne, 2010).

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(e.g., Copp, 2001; Lane, 2011; Turner, Kelman,

Ulmi, & Turner, 2010).

Although guidebooks can provide visitors with

precontact, contact, and postcontact information,

and can be kept as a souvenir, they have various

limitations. For example, guidebooks and similar

publications do not allow for visitor interaction or

help to answer any specific questions that might be

raised about an area. For some tourists, such as the

multiday hiker, the size and weight of a guidebook

will override the decision to obtain one, regardless

of the valuable information the guide may con-

tain. Compact versions, which can complement

any existing interpretive panels along the route,

are a useful compromise. The Western Australian

Department of Environment and Conservation has

published a collection of pocket-sized guides on

various topics including marine and terrestrial ecol-

ogy, wildflowers, and geology. The small, compact

size makes them ideal to carry while at the same

time providing comprehensive information that

enhances visitor knowledge. However, publishing

and updating such guides often requires time and

additional funding.

Interpretive panels are used in natural area tour-

ism as they are a cost-effective means of commu-

nicating information to a large number of visitors

in both indoor and outdoor settings (Hughes &

Ballantyne, 2010). They are usually permanent free

standing, self-explanatory boards that often contain

colorful illustrations, diagrams, pictures, and words

to highlight ideas, concepts, and themes (DOC,

2005; Hughes & Ballantyne, 2010; Moscardo et

al., 2007). Hughes and Ballantyne (2010) provide a

useful account of the design of interpretative panels

for geotourism, stating that that the main criteria

for interpretive information involves the creation

of a theme that encourages the visitor to seek fur-

ther information on the content being interpreted.

Moscardo, Ballantyne, and Hughes (2007) and

Hughes and Ballantyne (2010) recommend that the

content should tell a story using metaphors, humor,

and educative analogs to convey information and

connect the visitor to the geotourism site. Layering

of interpretative content can be done by creating

blocks of information with headings and subhead-

ings associated with illustrations and this approach

provides the visitor with the opportunity to choose

the level of detail they want to read while on site.

by volunteers. Tour guides can use a wide range of

interpretation styles, and can help enhance the visi-

tor experience by supplying in-situ information on

geology and landscapes as well as catering to their

specific needs and interests. Guided tours can also

include nature walks, bird watching, marine mam-

mal observation, and snorkeling, and the tour can

take place on a boat, by vehicle, or on foot, the last

of these being the most common mode. Such tours

are able to cater for all audiences and interactive

communication between the guides and visitor is

achieved by asking visitors questions and getting

them actively involved in the interpretive experi-

ence. Guided tours can provide the tourists with the

opportunity to visit remote and difficult to access

areas and in such situations tour guides can be pro-

active in regard to visitor management or safety

issues (e.g., DOC, 2005). The disadvantages of tour

guiding as an interpretive strategy are that effective

interpreters need to be trained and committed to

communicating necessary content to the audience.

This is essential for effective interpretation and visi-

tor satisfaction. Time and resources are thus required

for the education and training of guides in effective

interpretation skills (Newsome et al., 2013).

Maps are a good way to highlight geological

points of interest within an area. They can be tailored

to follow a specific route and can be a tool to direct

approved access and thus aid in visitor management

(e.g., Kranendonk & Johnston, 2009; Norman &

Whitfield, 2006). Geotour maps are a cost effective

and portable form of interpretive information that

can be distributed through many avenues. Publica-

tions such as guidebooks and brochures can provide

visitors with initial orientation of a natural area and

can be used as a reference for further learning. They

usually contain information on geology, landscapes,

plants, and wildlife and they often include maps,

photos, diagrams, and illustrations (Dowling, 2011;

Newsome & Dowling, 2010).

Geology guidebooks are used to explain histori-

cal and regional geology such as landforms, miner-

als, rocks, and processes and are frequently termed

“geo-tour guides” (Dowling, 2011). Publications

are an effective portable means of distributing

information to the tourist and are a cost-effective

interpretative technique (Newsome et al., 2013).

Guidebooks can be tailored to various levels of

understanding and designed for specific purposes

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are numbered and marked along the route. Users

can click on the point of interest on their device

and information on that site then becomes visible

on screen. This provides direct information and

convenience for tourists. Virtual tour apps are also

being employed in museum and visitor center inter-

active strategies.

Another means of linking information to people

through mobile devices is to use QR codes (Lyne,

2011). The QR (quick response) code is a bar code

image that can be read by mobile phones and trans-

fer or link you to another site, such as a webpage.

It is a purpose-built bar code that has a URL code

(website link) built into it and by scanning or tak-

ing a picture of the code on your mobile; the code

directs the user to the URL site. QR codes are a

simple way to transfer information because they

can provide links to URL sites, geocoordinates,

and information text. For geotourism this means

providing geological content for the apps, interac-

tive websites, virtual tours, and links to URL sites

using QR-code technology. Inserting a QR code on

an interpretive panel, map, or guidebook will allow

for the visitor to access further information on the

area or topic. QR codes can easily be created and

updated without changing interpretive signage.

The Importance of Interpretation in Geotourism

Development on Rottnest Island

The island’s extraordinary carbonate geologic

features (stromatolites, evidence of sea level change,

exposures of Late Pleistocene aeolianite, and

Holocene dunes) present examples of geological

phenomena, particularly relating to global climate

change (Playford, 1988). Both past and current

tourism have not capitalized on the geological value

on the island in an engagement/educational sense.

This is in contrast to many other areas of Western

Australia where interpretive panels and landscape

viewing points have been installed to engage the

visiting public with deep landscape history via the

provision of information about geological features

(e.g., Figs. 4 and 5). Furthermore, in the global

context, tourism during the last 10 years has seen a

rapid growth in visitor interest in geology and sites

that explain the nature of geological phenomena.

This is exemplified in the rapid rise of the Euro-

pean and global Geopark movement (particularly

There are both advantages and disadvantages

with the application of interpretative panels (DOC,

2005; Hughes & Ballantyne, 2010; Newsome et

al., 2013) The major advantage of interpretative

panels is that they can be implemented in remote

areas where visitor centers are not practical, and

they are more cost effective than tour guides.

Panels can be used to highlight significant wild-

life, plants, landscapes, and geology and bring

attention to access and safety requirements. Dis-

advantages include the need for maintenance due

to weathering, the lack of ability to answer visi-

tors’ questions, responsibility of learning falling to

the visitor, and it is possible that the panel may

have an impact on scenic values. Newsome et al.

(2013) also highlight that interpretive signs are

often subject to vandalism and replacement can be

expensive and time consuming.

Technological developments such as websites,

virtual designs, and smart phones, have revolu-

tionized the format of interpretation over the last

decade or so (e.g., Outhier, 2011). Applications

(apps) are now important tools that provide the

tourist with information and many websites con-

tain maps, itineraries, and schedules of activities

(Newsome et al., 2013). Connecting people with

web-based information through mobile devices is

becoming a major interpretive medium with visi-

tors desiring information to be available on their

mobile computer devices (smart phones, laptops,

and touch pads).

This demand is evident by the increased use of

websites and mobile phone applications being incor-

porated into tourism operations. For example, the

Department of Parks and Wildlife in Western Aus-

tralia is catering for such increased demand and has

supplied informative content for walks published

on the Every Trail website (Every Trail, 2014).

Every Trail Guides provide a downloadable phone

app for hiking and walking trails around the world.

Partnering with the Department of Parks and Wild-

life, 14 apps are currently offered for trails around

Western Australian (Every Trail, 2014) including

apps for Penguin Island and the Shoalwater Islands

Marine Park, Namburg National Park, and the

Leeuwin Naturalist National Park (Department of

Environment & Conservation [DEC], 2011). The

apps provide visitors with a clearly mapped route

with updated information on points of interest that

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Figure 4. Interpretive sign explaining rock strata at Kalbarri National Park, Western

Australia.

Figure 5. Interpretive sign at the lake Thetis living stomatolite site, south Western

Australia.

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on the island. In order to accommodate the demand

for information being available through mobile

devices, the RIA education and interpretation divi-

sion has created a downloadable GPS map-based

phone app that is linked through the EveryTrail

mobile website. This convenient interactive device

provides visitors or potential visitors with informa-

tion and locations of popular recreational activities

and historical material around the island. Visitors

can also create their own trail map of the island and

upload personal photos and comments that allow

sharing through social media platforms.

RIA also provides visitors and school groups

with educational products and activities that high-

light the cultural history and environmental sig-

nificance of the island. Environmental education

is facilitated through the Rottnest Island Education

Team, which offers the visiting public a range of

activities that provide opportunities to learn about

the unique environment of the island, including

information on the marine and terrestrial flora and

fauna, bird life, cultural and Aboriginal heritage,

in China), where governments and local commu-

nities have recognized the tourism value of their

geoheritage (Dowling, 2011; Dowling & Newsome

2006; Newsome & Dowling, 2010; Newsome et

al., 2012). Today there are many places around

the world (e.g., Fig. 6) where viewing platforms,

walking trails, and educational facilities have

been developed with the intention of protecting,

showcasing, and engaging the public with geology

(Dowling & Newsome, 2010; Newsome & Dowling,

2010).

Rottnest Island is a long-established natural-area

tourism destination and RIA currently provides

visitors with a selection of interpretative educa-

tional products that focus on cultural, historical,

ecological, and wildlife attributes. For example,

a set of guidebooks highlighting the marine wild-

life, birds, terrestrial flora and fauna, and cultural

and Aboriginal heritage are available for purchase

and the museum contains a selection of historical

artifacts, information, and (rather dated) visual dis-

plays illustrating some components of the geology

Figure 6. Viewing platform with interpretive panels at the Deokmyeong Dinosaur Footprint Site, South

Korean coastline.

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the protection of its natural heritage and resources

. . . and that the public does not know how to

respond to this global change because education

on how geoscience (geological processes) and

society are linked to resource exploitation is miss-

ing. (p. 209, 212)

They further go on to say that “finding engag-

ing ways to bring back to people an understanding

of the important processes that control our planet

can be achieved through the educational content

derived from geotourism and geopark interpreta-

tive products” (B. Joyce & Brohl, 2008, p. 212).

For example, an interpretative sign that simply con-

nects everyday products to geological resources,

such as how limestone is an ingredient for tooth-

paste and that the minerals of limestone make the

shells of marine organism, can go a long way in

enhancing our understanding of the human connec-

tion with geology (B. Joyce & Brohl, 2008).

Accordingly, interpreting what might be consid-

ered somewhat “dry” aspects of geology is essential

for the success of geotourism, and this depends on

pro viding techniques that best suit explaining geol-

ogy to create appreciation and lasting impressions

(Newsome & Dowling, 2010; Newsome et al., 2013).

Identifying the geological features on Rottnest Island

and creating informative and scientific interpretative

products can provide educational content that gener-

ates an understanding and awareness of Earth-system

processes. At present the geological educational

opportunities on Rottnest Island are underutilized

and limited to a few interpretative panels.

Table 2 therefore draws attention to some inter-

pretative themes that can be introduced as the edu-

cational content for geotourism on Rottnest Island.

The geological content in Table 2 is organized into

the three main themes (i.e., sea level change, envi-

ronmental change and historical conditions, and

carbonate geology of the island). To this end, the

lake area contains an abundance of geological fea-

tures, has the potential for suitable tourism access,

and has minimal environmental management con-

siderations, making this area an excellent focus

for the development of geoeducational content.

Furthermore, a combination of the RIA Coastal

Walk Trail spatial data combined with a geosite

database developed by Rutherford et al. (2014) can

be used for the creation of a geointerpretative trail

around the lakes, with the major educational focus

as well as outlining the island’s environmental

management and conservation initiatives. There is

an array of educational programs for primary and

secondary schools that encourage active learning

through experiencing the environment through

hands-on activities and environmental education

programs geared toward teachers and researchers

(RIA, 2012).

RIA has recently commenced the construction of

the proposed “RIA Coastal Walk Trail” project. The

coastal walk trail is a comprehensive trail network

that aims to offer visitors greater exposure to the

cultural, historical, and natural features the island

has to offer, while minimizing access via informal

trails and thus mitigating environmental degrada-

tion (RIA, 2012; Syrinx, 2010). The first stage

of the coastal walk trail has been completed, and

visitors can explore the west end of the island via

the interpretative signage trail at Cape Vlamingh

(Fig. 1). However, interpretative material highlighting

the extraordinary geology and geomorphology of

Rottnest Island is presently limited.

Hose (2006) and Dowling (2011) maintain that

geointerpretation should effectively promote sus-

tainable tourism and provide opportunities for tour-

ists to connect to the natural area they are visiting.

Geointerpretation should answer questions and cre-

ate self-learning through illustrations, words, and

pictures, and promote visitor appreciation of the

area being visited (Newsome & Dowling, 2010;

Newsome et al., 2013). Furthermore, Henriques,

dos Reis, Brilha, and Mota (2011) explain that in

the context of geoconservation, educating the pub-

lic about geological processes:

Provides citizens with the tools to face environ-

mental problems arising from the depletion of geo-

logical resources, . . . and the skills and knowledge

they gain will improve forward-thinking choices,

such as supporting legal protection for natural

heritage areas and the establishment of geotour-

ism and geoheritage sites. (p. 117)

B. Joyce and Brohl (2008) stress the importance

of geological education in the context of global

change and overexploitation of resources, where

they state,

People around the world are becoming more con-

scious of nature and recognise the importance of

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on environmental change, specifically in relation

to Quaternary sea level changes and the previous

connection of Rottnest Island to the mainland.

Such information can be delivered through a com-

bination of interpretative panels in the field, maps,

guidebooks, visual displays, and Smartphone appli-

cations and interactive touch screen virtual tours

facilitated through Geographical Information Sys-

tem (GIS) mobile devices.

An example of geological interpretation for tour-

ists is to draw attention to the role that global ice

volume plays in sea level fall and rise. The evidence

from Rottnest Island shows that it was once part of

an extensive area and covered in vegetation such

as Eucalyptus gomphocephala woodland. One line

of evidence for the occurrence of large trees lies in

the presence of exposed rhizoliths and large fossil-

ized root channels (Fig. 2F) of trees that were once

widespread on the island. The trees were growing at

a time of low sea levels when the global ice volume

was at its maximum extent around 18,000 years ago.

Interpretive content could explain the relationship

Table 2

Geological Interpretative Themes for Educational Content on Rottnest Island

Themes/Subthemes Global Significance References

Stories of sea level change

Elevated fossil corals in aeo-

lian carbonate limestone

Elevation and age correlation to support

global Holocene sea level curve, surface

and water temperature paleo-records

Playford (1983, 1988), Kendrick et

al. (1991), Wyrwoll et al. (1995),

Playford (1997)

Shell beds & sediment

stratigraphy

Historical geological processes of the earth

and regional climatic indicators. Herschell

Limestone and Rottnest Limestone

Bailey (1977), Szabo (1978),

Murray-Wallace and Kimber

(1989), Backhouse (1993)

Rottnest Island’s connection

to the mainland (bathym-

etry, fossil Emu foot prints,

Aboriginal artefacts)

Evidence to support how to plan for future

changes in the earth’s climate.Aboriginal

occupation post separation from the main-

land (~5.6 ka).

Bindon et al. (1978), Playford

(1988), Richardson et al. (2005),

Brooke et al. (2010)

Elevated shore line

platforms, notches, and

visor along the inland lakes

Historical global eustatic sea level change

information, planning for climate impact

(development and geotourism)

Fairbridge (1961), Playford and

Leech (1977), Brooke (2001),

Hearty (2003), Hearty et al.

(2007), Brooke et al. (2010)

Environmental change and historical conditions

Salt lakes & swamp Connection to mainland; global Holocene

sea level correlations; collapsed cave

systems; salt production and road building

materials

Playford and Leech (1977), Playford

(1988), Backhouse (1993), Carew

and Mylroie (1997), Vacher and

Quinn (2004)

Modern corals & past coral

assemblages

Climate change & ocean temperatures

(Leeuwin Current)

Szabo (1978), Church and White

(2006), Spooner et al. (2011)

Carbonate-island geology

Aeolian cross-bedding,

marine shorelines (inter-

tidal platforms, notches,

visors and storm-benches

Coastal geomorphological processes

in carbonate geology; knowledge for

management planning and land use

Playford (1988, 1997), Hearty

(2003), Brooke et al. (2010),

Gozzard (2011)

Origin of the Tamala Lime-

stone sands

Complete illustration of carbonate sand and

shoreline features and aeolinate transport of

sediments (Late Pleistocene and Holocene)

Tapsell et al. (2003), Hearty and

O’Leary (2008)

Fossilized soils, calcified

root structures (rhizoliths,

solution-pipes) and calcrete

layers

Paleo-records of land processes and

formations, historical vegetation coverage

Playford (1988), Hearty (2003)

Tamala Limestone erosion,

fragility and vulnerability

Risk assessment & management, planning

for climate impacts, and the preservation of

significant geologic regions

Short (2005), Nageswara Rao et al.

(2008), Joyce (2010)

Fossil root channels

(rhizoliths, solution-pipes)

Tuart forest–deforestation and changes in

atmospheric carbon dioxide, changes to

vegetation cover

Storr (1963) Playford (1997), Copp

(2001), Church and White (2006),

IPCC (2007), Greenstein and

Pandolfi (2008)

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this important gap in knowledge dissemination to

the public.

Rottnest Island is a premier local, national, and

international tourism destination with a richness of

carbonate geology and associated environmental

attributes (e.g., warm ocean temperatures, warm

temperate climate, tropical marine biota) and dem-

onstrates globally significant examples of geology

that relate to climate change (e.g., sea level fluc-

tuation undercut notch marks, elevated marine

fossils, stratigraphic exposures, and molluscan

assemblages) (RIA, 2011; Table 1). The develop-

ment of geotourism products and opportunities

such as interpretive panels along board walks, geo-

tour guide books and interactive GPS map-based

mobile devices (phone apps and tablets) would

serve to improve geotourism on the island and

enhance the tourist’s awareness and appreciation

of the environment (Palmer & Newsome, 2010).

Furthermore, in a geologically rich environment it

is possible to incorporate geological scientific data

into accessible and engaging information in order

to generate public awareness with the aim of capti-

vating and educating the visitor about geology and

environmental conditions that relate to global cli-

mate change. It is very likely that many off-shore

island and coastal settings around the world have

not yet capitalized on their geoheritage as tourism

resources. The case of Rottnest Island serves as a

strong reminder that the overall natural area tour-

ism profiles of many islands and coastal environ-

ments are yet to be realized.

Acknowledgments

We would like to thank Rottnest Island Author-

ity for funding the research, and in particular Teagan

Goolmeer, Rebecca Chaffer, Nathan Squires, and

David Robertson for assistance with the field pro-

gram. We are also indebted to Bob Gozzard for advice

regarding the interpretation of coastal landforms,

and Ross Lantzke for GIS support. We additionally

thank the reviewers for their input and suggestions for

improving the manuscript.

Biographical Notes

Jessica Rutherford obtained her Master’s degree from the

School of Veterinary and Life Sciences at Murdoch Univer-

sity, Western Australia, in 2012. Her research centered on

between global ice volume and mean sea level, going

on to explain that when the ice caps melted as a result

of an increase in temperature marking the end of the

last ice age the sea level rose. This information cou-

pled with interpretation delivered at various sites on

Rottnest Island that provide evidence of former high

sea levels serves to point out an important mecha-

nism controlling the position of shorelines in the past

and possibly in the future. Geological interpretation

can then be “brought alive” by adding information

such as how humanity is affecting the world’s cli-

mate through global warming. Visual aids, such as

satellite images over the Arctic showing the dimin-

ished range of summer ice since 1979, and the impli-

cations for future rises in sea level, can then serve

to highlight the meaning gained from the Rottnest

geotourism story (e.g., Flannery, 2006).

Conclusion

Natural area tourism destinations that contain

world-class geology have the opportunity to engage

the wider public in the connection between society

and the geological features. For example, carbonate

islands, reefs, and atolls at various locations around

the world demonstrate significant geological evidence

of the earth’s ever-changing climate (Vacher & Quinn,

2004). Carbonate islands similar to and including

Rottnest Island, the Bahamas, and Bermuda are at risk

of being impacted by human-induced climate change

as seen through rising sea levels and extreme coastal

weather events. A recent study conducted in Australia

(Turton et al., 2010) found that tourism destinations

are not investing in climate change adaptive strategies

due to the conflicting perception of climate change

impacts. There is increasing literature on how climate

change will affect tourism, especially in coastal areas.

For examples see Department of Climate Change

(2009), Simpson, Gössling, Scott, Hall, and Gladin

(2008), Zeppel and Beaumont (2011), Scott et al.

(2012), and Zeppel (2012). Rottnest Island, via geo-

tourism, can contribute to the debate via the deploy-

ment of suitable interpretive content. The importance

here, however, is in bridging the gap between geol-

ogy and public education. Gozzard (2012) notes that

by using geological themes that are significant to the

public and creating a “dialogue between the public

and earth’s history” through interpretive media and

educational packages attempts can be made to fill

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Crabtree, A. (2000, Third quarter) Interpretation: Ecotour-

ism’s fundamental but much neglected tool. Interna-

tional Ecotourism Society Newsletter, 1–3.

Department of Climate Change. (2009). Climate change

risks to Australia’s coast. Canberra, Australia: Author.

Department of Conservation. (2005). Interpretation hand-

book and standards: Distilling the essence. New Zealand:

Author.

Department of Environment & Conservation. (2011).

Penguin Island and Shoalwater Islands marine park.

Retrieved December 14, 2011, from http://www.every-

trail.com/guide/penguin-island-and-shoalwater-islands-

marine-park

Dowling, R. K. (2011). Geotoursim’s global growth. Geo-

heritage, 3, 1–13.

Dowling, R. K., & Newsome, D. (2006). Geotourism’s

issues and challenges. In R. K. Dowling & D. Newsome

(Eds.), Geotourism (pp. 242–254). Oxford: Elsevier

Butterworth-Heinemann.

Dowling, R. K., & Newsome, D. (2010). Global geotourism

perspectives. London, UK: Goodfellow Publishers.

Every Trail. (2014). Hiking trails and trips in Western Aus-

tralia. Retrieved February 4, 2014, from http://www.

everytrail.com/browse.php?activity_id=5&country=aus

tralia&state=western+australia

Fairbridge, R.W. (1961). Eustatic changes is sea level.

Physics and chemistry of the Earth, 4, 99–185.

Fennell, D. (1999) Ecotourism: An introduction. London:

Routledge.

Flannery, T. (2006). We are the weather makers: Story of

global warming. Melbourne, Australia: Text Publishing

Company.

Gozzard, J. R. (2011). WA coast -Rottnest Island digital

datasets. Geological survey of Western Australia. Perth,

WA, Australia.

Gozzard, J. R. (2012). Rottnest Island, Western Australia’s

first geopark. Perth Geological Survey of Western Aus-

tralia. Presentation to Rottnest Island Authority.

the importance of planning for geological tourism in marine

coastal environments. She now works with the WA Depart-

ment of Parks and Wildlife as a land management officer,

and as a causal Research Assistant with the Environment and

Conservation Science division at Murdoch University.

David Newsome’s research interests span many areas of

natural-area tourism including wildlife tourism, the biophys-

ical impacts of recreation in protected areas, evaluation of

the quality of ecotourism operations, sustainable trail man-

agement, and geotourism. Significant publications include

the books Natural Area Tourism: Ecology, Impacts and

Management and Wildlife Tourism. David is also a member

of the Conservation Commission of Western Australia and

the IUCN World Commission on Protected Areas.

Dr. Halina Kobryn is a lecturer in the School of Environmen-

tal Science at Murdoch University. She has over 20 years

of experience in applications of GIS and remote sensing in

environmental and marine sciences. She is a GIS and remote

sensing expert, specializing in natural resource assessment.

She has been involved in many research and consulting proj-

ects mapping mangroves, marine habitats, and coastal zones.

She has also supervised over 20 research students (honors,

master’s, and Ph.D.). She has worked in Indonesia, Malaysia

(Sarawak), and East Timor on projects related to water qual-

ity, river health, and coastal management.

Coordinating Editor: Brian Garrod

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Documents

MURDOCH RESEARCH REPOSITORY · Climate change has been explored in the coastal tourism context by Zeppel (2012), Zeppel and Beaumont (2011), and by Scott, Hall, and Gössling (2012)