FREE-WEIGHT MULTIJOINTexercises are the foundation onwhich the training program forfootball athletes at the U.S. AirForce Academy is built. Further,the Olympic-style lifts and theirassociated training exercises areemphasized in every workout. Theimportance of these types of lifts ina training program for football isclearly recognized.

However, the value of provid-ing a variety of training methodsfor athletes is recognized as well.Training programs at the Air ForceAcademy are designed using theconcept of periodization, which isalso applied to the exercise selec-tion process. That is, exercise se-lection, like the design of the train-ing program, proceeds fromgeneral to specific. For example,football is a power sport. However,rather than simply training forpower the entire off-season, ath-letes proceed through a series ofcycles designed to maximize powerwhen it is most critical, that is,during the in-season phase.

Manual resistance training in-volves slow, deliberate move-ments. Many (but not all) move-ments are single-joint exercises.

Thus, their specificity to football islow. Because of this, most of ourmanual resistance training occursearly in the off-season, once perweek, during the third throughninth week of off-season training.

■ Explanation of Manual Resistance TrainingManual resistance training hasbeen defined as a form of strengthtraining in which the trainee per-forms exercises against a spotter’sopposing resistance (3, 8, 10). Asexplained by Bryant, muscles donot have “brains,” so they are notaware of what is being used to pro-vide the resistance (e.g., barbells,dumbbells, machines, or a part-ner).

Manual resistance exercise isnot a new concept, as trainers andphysiologists have been aware of itfor a long time (7, 9). Manual re-sistance training was refined andpopularized by Dan Riley, formerstrength and conditioning coachat Penn State (4), and has beenrecognized as an effective, time-ef-ficient method of training by anumber of authors (4, 7, 8). Fur-ther, a study using 1,100 male sol-diers with a mean age of 18.7

years found 12 weeks of manualresistance training to be more ef-fective than calisthenics at in-creasing strength as measured bya grip dynamometer, a medicineball throw, and number of push-ups performed in 2 minutes (6).

■ Advantages of Manual Resistance TrainingManual resistance training has anumber of advantages. Althoughnot all the advantages listed herewill apply in every setting, manualresistance training provides anumber of benefits.

First, because no equipment isused (although towels can be help-ful), manual resistance training isan excellent option for schools atwhich funding for equipment is aproblem (1, 5, 8–11). Because noequipment is used, many athletescan be trained at the same time.Athletes work in pairs, each givingresistance to the other in each ex-ercise. As a result, half the team isexercising at one time (1, 5, 10,11).

Manual resistance trainingcan safely and effectively work themuscles to a high-intensity levelwhen an emphasis is placed on

6 Strength and Conditioning Journal February 1999

© National Strength & Conditioning AssociationVolume 21, Number 1, pages 6–10

Manual Resistance Training for FootballAthletes at the U.S. Air Force Academy

Allen Hedrick, MA, CSCSU.S. Air Force Academy

Keywords: free weights; football; manual resistance.

proper technique. A person’s max-imum effort and resistance can besustained during the entire rangeof motion for each repetition. Asthe lifter begins to fatigue, resis-tance is adjusted by the spotter toprovide continued maximum re-sistance for each repetition. If thelifter can provide 50 lb of resis-tance on the initial movement, thespotter provides 50 lb of resis-tance. As the lifter fatigues and isable to lift only 30 lb, the spotteradjusts the resistance according-ly. This reduces the level ofstrength down to near temporaryexhaustion by creating maximumoverload during the entire exer-cise. The result is maximum mus-cular involvement and benefits (5,6, 11).

Form and technique can becontrolled more closely with man-ual resistance training. Unlike tra-ditional forms of strength training,manual resistance training uses aspotter to control the lifter’s rangeof movement, speed, and smooth-ness. This combats the tendencyto lose form and technique oncethe lifter becomes fatigued. Slow,smooth, and controlled repetitionsshould be used at all times (5, 11).

Almost any exercise can besimulated with manual resistancetraining (9). Because of this, andbecause manual resistance train-ing is itself unique, this form oftraining adds a great deal of vari-ety to the training program (9).

Another benefit of manual re-sistance training is that the lifterand the spotter receive a trainingeffect simultaneously (9). Finally,manual resistance training can beused for injury prevention and re-habilitation (2).

■ Manual Resistance LimitationsAs with any training method, po-tential limitations must be consid-ered when using manual resis-tance training. First, the liftermust learn how to correctly per-

form the exercise. Form and tech-nique are very important, andquick jerking movements shouldnot be used. The lifter must alsolearn how to properly resist thespotter (5).

Second, the spotter mustlearn proper techniques. Maxi-mum results will be gained by thelifter only if properly spotted bythe partner. This takes time andexperience on the part of the spot-ter. The spotter must watch forpoor technique, which couldcause injury. Communicating tothe lifter and demanding propertechniques throughout each repe-tition will result in good form andmaximum benefits from the exer-cise (5).

Finally, progress is difficult toevaluate because no equipment isused. The lifter must rely on thespotter to apply more resistance ineach workout. When equipment isused, it is easier to record and ob-serve progress (5).

■ Guidelines for Manual Resistance TrainingAs with more traditional forms ofresistance training, manual resis-tance training can be made moreeffective by following specificguidelines:

• Work through a full range oneach exercise with the empha-sis on correct technique (7,11).

• The amount of resistance ap-plied should be adjustedthroughout the range of mo-tion. Muscles exert differentamounts of force at differentjoint angles, exerting thegreatest amount of force asthey approach full contrac-tion. Because of this, the resis-tance applied to the musclesshould increase during exer-cise to maximally stimulatethe muscle tissue (7, 9).

• As with other forms of resis-tance training, as a muscle

gets stronger, greater de-mands must be placed on it toensure further gains (7).

• Slow and deliberate movementis recommended during man-ual resistance training. Therecommended guideline is forthe concentric phase to occurin 2 seconds, hold the contrac-tion for 1 second, and then re-turn to the starting position in4 seconds. Concentrate on themuscle being used, avoid jerk-ing, and let the muscle andnot the momentum of themovement perform the work(1, 3, 4, 5, 7, 9). Tension shouldbe working on the muscles atall times (9, 10).

• The intensity of training is crit-ical. The more resistance thatis applied (to a point), thegreater the overload and thegreater the strength gain (7).

• Momentary muscular failureshould be achieved. To receivethe full benefit from manualresistance training, the mus-cle must be worked at or nearmaximum capacity. The onlyway to determine whether amuscle is working to capacityis to work to a point at which itcan no longer contract. Itshould be the goal of the lifterto (momentarily) reach a levelof zero strength. This will beaccomplished only if the push-es oneself and exerts an all-out effort. The spotter mustencourage this during eachexercise to achieve maximumresults (5).

• The recommended volume oftraining ranges from 1 set of12 to 15 repetitions (1, 8) to 2sets of 8 to 12 repetitions tofailure (9). The athlete shouldperform 6 to 8 exercises dur-ing a manual resistance work-out (4).

• Because the muscle tissue isbeing worked in much thesame manner as in weight

February 1999 Strength and Conditioning Journal 7

training, a period of recovery isrequired after exercise. Atleast 48 hours should be al-lowed between exercise bouts(8, 9).

• In cases in which manual re-sistance exercise is being usedas part of a practice session,the manual resistance trainingshould occur after practice.Performing manual resistancetraining prior to practicewould result in athletes goinginto practice with a tired mus-cle structure. Tired musclesrespond poorly and are moresusceptible to injury (8).

• The importance of partnersmust be understood. Theathletes must realize that thebenefits of manual resistanceexercise will depend largelyon the efforts of their part-ners(8). Partners should bematched by size and strengthlevels as much as possible (4,9, 10).

• Exercise order should pro-gress from multijoint, large-muscle-group exercises to sin-gle-joint, small-muscle-groupexercises (9).

■ Responsibilities of the Spotter, Lifter, and CoachTo be maximally effective, thespotter and the lifter must worktogether to create the ideal train-ing environment when using man-ual resistance training. It is the re-sponsibility of the coach toinstruct the athletes how to filltheir roles in the training processso that the time spent training isof optimal value. The purpose ofthis section is to discuss the re-sponsibilities of the spotter, lifter,and coach.

SpotterThe spotter’s responsibilities in-clude not only providing resis-tance but also serving as a guideor facilitator. For the lifter to be en-

sured a safe and efficient workout,the spotter should understand thefollowing:

• Communicate to the lifter. Thespotter should encourage theathlete to train with properform and technique through-out the exercise. The spottermust demand good form andtechnique (1, 3, 4, 7, 11).

The first few repetitionsshould be a submaximal ef-fort. Do not apply maximumresistance for the first 3 to 4repetitions. These preparatoryrepetitions are needed to warmup the muscles (5, 7, 10).

• After the first 3 to 4 repeti-tions, apply maximum pres-sure. During the raising actionof the exercise, the liftershould barely be able to lift theresistance. Too much pressurewill cause the lifter to stop.During the lowering action,the lifter should be able to re-sist for about 3 to 4 seconds.Too much pressure will notallow the lifter to efficiently re-sist, and maximum gains willnot be obtained (4).

• The spotter must learn to varythe resistance to accommo-date the lifter’s change instrength. The lifter will bestrong at some points andweaker at others. Too muchpressure during the raisingphase will cause the lifter tostop, and jerking movementswill occur. More pressureshould be applied during thelowering phase because theathlete can lower much moreweight than he or she is ableto raise. Also, because thelifter is tiring with each suc-ceeding repetition, resistanceshould be decreased accord-ingly. Communication and co-operation between partnersare essential (1, 4, 7, 11).

• Attempt to reduce the lifter’sstrength level to zero (momen-

tarily); encourage the lifter toreach this point (7).

• When properly spotted, thelifter should reach failuresomewhere between 8 and 12repetitions (7).

LifterManual resistance training, donecorrectly, should be very intense.The lifter’s responsibilities includetraining at this high-intensity levelwhile maintaining a safe, produc-tive training environment. For thisto occur, the lifter should under-stand the following:

• Communicate with spotter. Itis essential that the lifter’s andthe spotter’s efforts be coordi-nated. Resistance must be ap-plied in a smooth and evenfashion—never jerky or errat-ic. To accomplish this, thelifter might frequently need totell the spotter during thecourse of an exercise when toapply more or less resistance(1, 3, 5, 7, 11).

• Maintain constant tension.The lifter should not allowhim- or herself to relax duringany phase of a repetition. Atmaximum extension in theraising phase, the lifter shouldnot assume a “locked” posi-tion, nor should hands orarms touch the body at theconclusion of the loweringphase (1, 3, 5, 7, 11).

• Pause momentarily in the con-tracted position. A slightpause will allow the spottertime to apply more pressureduring the transition from theraising to the lowering phaseof the exercise. Pausing for amoment will also control thespeed at which the exercise isperformed (1, 3, 5, 7, 11).

• The first few repetitionsshould be performed with asubmaximal effort. These rep-etitions are only preparatoryrepetitions that warm the

8 Strength and Conditioning Journal February 1999

muscles. Because the lifter isstrong at the beginning of theexercise, a submaximal effortis needed to decrease throwingand jerking movements, whichcould cause an injury to thelifter (3, 5, 7).

• Exert maximum effort on thefourth and all succeeding rep-etitions. It is the lifter’s re-sponsibility to work hard byperforming each repetitionwith a concerted effort. How-ever, form should never besacrificed (11).

Coaches The physical educator or coachshould have a thorough under-standing of manual resistance ex-ercises before instructing studentson how to perform them. This in-cludes an in-depth understandingof the lifter and the spotter. Perfor-mance of these exercises in an in-appropriate manner can lead toinjury to the lifter (11). Whenteaching manual resistance exer-cises, the following strategiesshould be adhered to (3):

• Clearly and completely dis-cuss the major responsibilitiesof the trainee and the spotter.

• Choose 1 exercise and demon-strate how to properly spotand perform it; reinforce theresponsibilities of the traineeand the spotter.

• Have 2 volunteers from thegroup come forward and “talk”them through the exercise,then have the entire groupperform the same exercise.

• When the group completes thefirst exercise, bring them backtogether and reinforce propertechniques (especially thosethat were not being followedby the group).

• Reverse the roles of the traineeand the spotter and continuewith the same exercise (only 3to 4 exercises should betaught per session).

As previously stated, almostevery exercise can be performedusing manual resistance. Table 1includes a list of manual resis-tance exercises that can be per-formed, separated by body part.

■ Application at the U.S. AirForce AcademyManual resistance training is per-formed at a slow, deliberate speed.As previously stated, and as canbe seen in Table 1, many of the ex-ercises are single-joint move-ments, so their specificity to foot-ball is low. That is why we placemanual resistance training earlyin the training year, during the hy-pertrophy cycle.

The hypertrophy cycle is 6weeks in duration and follows the2-week introduction cycle. Manualresistance training occurs once perweek (every Friday) during the hy-pertrophy cycle. Manual resistancetraining is placed in the workout sothat it is completed after both the

Olympic-style lift and the major-muscle-group exercises (dependingon position) are performed. Thus,for example, the athlete might per-form 4 sets of cleans, followed by 4sets of bench press, before initiat-ing the manual resistance trainingportion of the workout.

The exercises and the order inwhich the exercises are performedare alternated each week. Becausehigh-intensity training is demand-ed, the sets and repetitions arekept low (2 × 8) throughout thetraining cycle. Training is progres-sive in that during the first 2weeks athletes perform a singleexercise, then alternate with theirpartner. During weeks 3 to 4, ath-letes perform supersets of relatedmovements, such as lateral raisesand then shoulder presses, andthen alternate with their partner.In the final 2 weeks of the cycle,triple sets of related movementsare performed, such as uprightrows, bent rows, and then seated

Table 1Manual Resistance Exercises

Lower bodyHip extensionHip abductionHip adductionLeg extensionsLeg curlsOne-legged squatsSquatLeg pressCalf raises

TrunkSit-upsBack extensions

Upper backSeated rowsBent-over rowPull-downsUpright row

ShouldersSide lateral raiseSeated pressFront raisesShoulder shrugs

ChestPush-upsBent-arm flyPullovers

ArmsTricep extensionsBicep curlsHammer curlsReverse curls

NeckFlexion/extensionLateral flexion

February 1999 Strength and Conditioning Journal 9

10 Strength and Conditioning Journal February 1999

rows, before switching with theirpartner.

During a typical workout, 6 to8 manual resistance exercises areperformed, plus trunk exercises.To increase the workload, we havethe athletes perform all standingmanual resistance exercises whilestanding on 1 leg, switching legseach set. This causes the muscu-lature of the ankle/calf of the sup-porting leg and the muscles of thetrunk to become very involved instabilization and support as theathlete strives to maintain an up-right position while performing theexercise.

Our experience has been thatthe athletes attack these exerciseswith great intensity. They viewthese workouts as a challenge. Be-cause of this, in addition to devel-oping muscular strength and size,we feel that a great deal of mentaltoughness is developed as a resultof manual resistance training. Theathletes learn to tolerate high lev-els of discomfort while striving toimprove athletic performance. It isthis willingness to train that allowsfootball athletes at the Air ForceAcademy to compete successfullyat a high level of competition. ▲

■ References1. Bonser, K. Partner resistance

exercise (p.r.ex)—An alterna-tive to weight training. RFU J.Spring:14–17. 1996.

2. Brown, T. Manual resistanceroutines and flexible tubingexercises for X-C skating. Am.Ski Coach 10(1):16. 1986.

3. Bryant, C. Manual resistanceexercise: Strength trainingwithout equipment. J. Ariz.Assoc. Phys. Ed. Rec. Dance28(5):21–24. 1990.

4. Brzycki, M. Manual resis-tance for wrestlers. WrestlingUSA 23(6):24–25. 1988.

5. Diange, J. Manual resistanceexercise. Athletic J. 14(May)17–19. 1982.

6. Dombroski, R.T., and J.M.Henderson. Partner resis-tance exercises versus calis-thenics for upper bodystrength improvement. ThirdAnnu. Mtng. Am. Med. Soc.Sports Med.: Rancho Mirage,CA 1994. p. 1.

7. Dorn, P.K. A manual resis-tance exercise program forh.s. teams. Scholastic Coach(October) 55:64–69. 1985.

8. Haney, M. Manual resistancetraining. Fitness Manage.(June) 13:37–38. 1997.

9. Human Kinetics Publishers.Partner Resistance StrengthTraining. Video. Champaign,IL: Human Kinetics Publish-ers, 1998

10. Mannie, K. Shoulder develop-ment through manual resis-tance. Athletic J. (December)65:28–29. 1984.

11. Munson, W.W., and F.E. Pet-tigrew. Cooperative strengthtraining: A method for pread-olescents. J. Phys. Ed. Rec.Dance (February) 59:61–66.1988.

Allen Hedrick, M.A., C.S.C.S.,was named Head Strength andConditioning Coach at the U.S. AirForce Academy in June of 1998.Prior to that he was the AssistantStrength and Conditioning Coachat the Academy for three years. Heis a frequent contributor to theStrength and Conditioning Jour-nal.

Hedrick