Mrs. Grundy s Grammar word is a part of speech depending on its use in the sentence. Words are combined to form phrases. Clauses contain a subject and a verb. Words, phrases, clauses,

MrsGrundysGrammar2017.docx 1/26

Mrs. Grundy 's Grammar

©2005

This work is published and distributed under the terms of this Creative Commons license: Attribution/Non-Commercial/Share Alike. Contact the author if you wish to report errors or discuss usages: [email protected]. For your Subject line, use this: Mrs Grundy's Grammar or

another very short, relevant phrase. PREFACE: This document is being created to fill a wide gap in freshman-composition texts: a traditional grammar of the language. At this point, few spelling rules are included; they will be added next. The organization of the text here is developmental: parts of speech>parts of the sentence>phrases/clauses/sentences. The method is stipulative. That is, very few common "exceptions" are included here. The rules and forms I have used are those that, taken as a whole, underlie the logic and order of our language and create a logic of their own. I found many years ago that I could learn one rule well much more easily than I could learn five exceptions poorly. Included here is the basic form of Standard American Edited English; an instructor's or publisher's house style will take precedence in particular cases. It is, indeed, possible to learn how to compose a clear sentence and a coherent, logical paragraph in the English language; and it is possible to learn how to spell English words. Our language contains many irregularities, but history usually explains the sources of those. The irregularities make our language that much richer, that much more supple. The regularities make basic communication possible among us. –Dr. Diana Kaye Campbell DBA Mrs Grundy, 2005+

MrsGrundysGrammar2017.docx 2/26 GENERAL INTRODUCTION: Written language contains some or all of the following, in this hierarchy:

• spaces and punctuation • words • phrases • clauses

Each word is a part of speech depending on its use in the sentence. Words are combined to form phrases. Clauses contain a subject and a verb. Words, phrases, clauses, and punctuation are combined in certain ways to form complete sentences. Therefore, this order has been followed in the pages here.

I. Parts of Speech A. Noun B. Pronoun C. Adjective D. Verb E. Adverb F. Preposition G. Conjunction H. Interjection

II. Parts of the Sentence A. Subject B. Verb C. Predicate nominative D. Predicate adjective E. Direct object F. Indirect object G. Object complement H. Object of the preposition

III. Phrases, Clauses, Sentences A. Types of phrases B. Types of clauses C. Types of sentences

MrsGrundysGrammar2017.docx 3/26 I. PARTS OF SPEECH The basic unit of the sentence is the word, whose part of speech is determined by its use in the sentence. Most words can be used as several parts of speech, as follows: verb noun adjective The woman is walking to the store now. Walking to the store is her only exercise. That walking woman is my sister. (or, more often: That woman walking....) The English language contains 8 parts of speech: noun, pronoun, adjective, verb, adverb, preposition, conjunction, interjection (n, pron, adj, v, adv, prep, conj, interj).

o Adjectives modify nouns or pronouns. o Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. o Prepositions and conjunctions are the glue that binds words, phrases, and clauses into single units of meaning. o Interjections are «thrown-in» words that show mild or strong emotion but are not one of the other parts of speech.

Therefore, the parts of speech are grouped on these pages in this way and in this order:

• noun, pronoun, adjective • verb, adverb • preposition, conjunction • interjection

NOUN – name of person, place, thing, or idea.

• common – general class; lowercased: city • concrete – physically perceived: table, smoke, music, blue • collective – names a group: team, committee, class • proper – named individual:; capitalized: Rocky Mount • abstract – mentally perceived; an idea: faith, hope, love, patriotism • possessive [also called adjectives] – Carl's, boys'

Possessive nouns must contain an apostophe, for historical reasons. Note below, under pronouns: No possessive pronouns contain apostrophes, only possessive nouns. To make a possessive noun, write the noun, then choose one of these:

If the noun ends in s, add apostrophe only. If the noun does not end in s, add apostophe+s. The main noun in a compound takes the plural; the last takes the possessive.

Singular Singular possessive Plural Plural possessive boy boy's boys boys' girl girl's girls girls' fox fox's foxes foxes' man man's men men's Jesus Jesus' [See style guides for this one.] Smith Smith's Smiths Smiths' grandfather grandfather's grandfathers grandfathers' mother-in-law mother-in-law's mothers-in-law mothers-in-law's justice of the peace justice of the peace's justices of the peace justices of the peace's

MrsGrundysGrammar2017.docx 4/26 PRONOUN – takes the place of a noun. Types of pronouns:

• personal – change form depending on person (relationship of speaker of sentence); designated by case, number, gender, and person • indefinite – no specific antecedent: some, all, none, any, someone, no one, anyone, somebody, nobody, anybody --> Someone is going to the store today. • relative – introduce relative clauses: who, whom, whoever, whomever, whose, which, that --> John is the student whose grades are highest. • interrogative – begin questions: who, whom, whose, which, what --> Which of the students is going to the library today?

Personal pronouns

Changes in grammatical form are called “inflections.” Personal pronouns inflect for person, case, and number.

Person: No personal pronoun itself contains an apostrophe; only contractions do. Personal pronouns inflect depending on their use in the sentence and the relationship of the speaker (specific person) to the persons or objects in the sentence:

1st

person – person speaking ; I am going. We are going.

2nd person – person spoken to: You are going.

3rd person – person spoken about: He is going.

Case: The case of a pronoun or noun inflects according to its use in a particular sentence or clause. Nouns have only one case change, to possessive: That is George’s coat. Personal pronouns have four cases, given below under “PERSONAL PRONOUNS.” The interrogative or relative pronoun “who” has three cases, inflected this way: who (nominative), whom (accusative/dative), whose (possessive).

Number: Pronouns and nouns inflect by number: singular or plural.

Nominative Case [Subject, Predicate Nominative] We are going. The group members are we.

Accusative/Dative Case [Direct Object, Indirect Object, Obj. of Prep.] They chose us to go. Give us the books. They are going with us.

Genitive Case [possessives—but NO apostrophes] This is our car. This car is ours.

Intensive/Reflexive [NO other spellings] [antecedent must precede in sentence] We ourselves painted the fence. We painted the fence ourselves.

SIngular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural 1st I we 1st me us 1st my, mine our, ours 1st myself ourselves 2nd you you 2nd you you 2nd your, yours your, yours 2nd yourself yourselves 3rd he, she, it they 3rd him, her, it them 3rd his, her, hers, its their, theirs 3rd himself, herself, themselves

itself Suggestion: In compound constructions, make two sentences in order to determine correct case. Give the ball to ______ and ______.

• Give the ball to him. Give the ball to me. Give the ball to him and me • Give the ball to Jane. Give the ball to me. Give the ball to Jane and me.

NOTE: Language courtesy in English requires that all others be named before the speaker—that is, “Jane” before “me.” The table above includes all personal pronouns and their correct spellings. No others exist. Do NOT use these:

ourself [Archaic use allows reference to God, author, or head of state.] theirself, theirselves, themself [These do not exist in Standard Edited English.] hisself [The two words "his self" can be used in psychology or religion, but only as two words, not one.]

MrsGrundysGrammar2017.docx 5/26 Indefinite Pronouns Singular: anyone, someone, everybody [any pronoun ending in “one” or “body”] Collective (may be singular or plural): all, none, some Singular nouns and pronouns take singular verbs and singular reference pronouns:

Everybody must bring his or her books to class every day. (singular) All must bring their books to class every day. (plural) Like collective nouns, collective indefinite pronouns indicate a collection or group and take singular verbs when an amount is indicated and plural verbs when a number is indicated: Amount; singular verb: All of the pudding has been eaten. All of the rock has been crushed. Number; plural verb: All of the rocks have been crushed. Relative/Interrogative Pronouns All pronouns inflect according to use in the sentence, including relative and interrogative. Who is nominative case; whom is dative/accusative case. Tell us who left. “who” = subject of verb “left”; entire clause “who left” = object of verb “tell”

Who is going? “Who” = simple subject of sentence; subject of verb “is going” Whoever is going should tell us. “Whoever” = subject of verb “is going”; “Whoever is going” = subject of verb

“should tell”

Tell us who left. “who” = subject of verb “left”; entire clause “who left” = direct object of verb “tell”

Tell us whom we should pay. “whom” = direct object of verb “pay”; entire clause = object of verb “tell”

Whom should we pay? “whom” = direct object of verb “pay” ADJECTIVE - modifies [adds to the meaning of] a noun or pronoun. An adjective answers which one, what kind of, or how many – good, happy, beautiful, two, some [before a noun]. Add –er/-est or more/most for comparisons, but never both.

Comparative takes –er for most two-syllable adjectives and more for more than two syllables; superlative takes –est or most.

Absolute Comparative [For 2] Superlative [For 3 or more] good He is a good boy.

better He is the better brother.

best He is the best boy of the three.

happy He is a happy boy.

happier He is the happier brother.

happiest He is the happiest boy of the three.

beautiful He is a beautiful baby.

more beautiful He is the more beautiful baby of the two.

most beautiful He is the most beautiful baby in the world.

MrsGrundysGrammar2017.docx 6/26 VERB – shows action or existence (state of being). Types and forms: Parts of verb phrases – called «complete verb» or «verb phrase» Main verbs carry the meaning of the verb. [give, going, am] Auxiliary verbs are tense/person/number markers. Only two verbs will be auxiliaries: to have, to be. [have given, am going, is being] Modals indicate intent, permission, etc. [should give, will give, ought to give] See next page for the full list of modals. Form changes – may change internally or at the end or both: Regular: change tense/form by adding only –d or –ed OR -ing to present tense. [I walk. I walked. I am walking.] Irregular: change tense/form by changing internally. {I give. I gave. I have given. OR I drink. I drank. I have drunk.] NOTE pattern of -n verbs, from the Anglo-Saxon: a. The –n form is always a perfect tense and always requires an auxiliary verb. b. If the verb changes i/a/u, then the –u- form is always a perfect tense and requires an auxiliary verb. Types of verbs – depends on relationship of persons/things in sentence: Copulative = state of being; linking; “to be” or another word that can be translated “to be”: Subject + Verb + Predicate Adjective or Predicate Nominative (S + V + PA/PN)

[I am healthy. I am a student. I seem healthy. I grow healthier. I become healthier. I appeared healthy.] Intransitive = contains action; no object stated: S + V [I ran.] Transitive = carries action across verb

-->transitive active: carries action from subject to direct object; may contain indirect object: S + V + (IO) + DO [I threw the ball. I threw her the ball.] --> transitive passive: direct object becomes subject; indirect object becomes object of preposition “to” or “for”; subject becomes object of preposition “by”: S + V [The ball was thrown to her by me. May leave out indirect object and subject: The ball was thrown.]

MrsGrundysGrammar2017.docx 7/26 Verb characteristics: Tense, Mood, Voice, Person, Number Note: Infinitive (name of verb; never acts as a verb) & four principal parts (used to form verbs in sentences) Infinitive Present Past (no auxiliary) Past participle (-ed/ or -en/-n/-u or other irregular past form) Present participle (-ing form) [never used as a verb] [no auxiliary] [no auxiliary] [must be preceded by correct form of “to have”] [must be preceded by form of “to be”] to walk walk/walks walked walked walking to be am/is/are was/were been being to go go/goes went gone going to drive drive/drives drove driven driving to drink drink/drinks drank drunk drinking to sit (down) sit/sits sat sat sitting to set (a thing down) set/sets set set setting to lie (down) lie/lies lay lain lying to lay (a thing down) lay/lays laid laid laying to rise (up) rise/rises rose risen rising to raise (a thing up) raise/raises raised raised raising Tense: relative time [Regular verbs form tenses by adding suffixes; irregular verbs form tenses by adding suffixes and changing internal letters.] Simple: a point in time (no auxiliary verb; infinitive form) Progressive: ongoing action (“to be” + present participle of main verb) Perfect: perfected action (“to have” + past participle of main verb) Perfect progressive: perfected ongoing action (“to have” + “to be” + pres. part. of main verb) Mood: purpose Indicative (statement of fact; question) Subjunctive (contrary to fact; wish; polite command) Imperative (command) Conditional (almost archaic) Voice: subject is acting or acted upon Active (subject acts) Passive (subject is acted upon) Person: speaking, spoken to, spoken about & Number: singular, plural [In regular verbs, only 3rd person plural present changes form.] Also, on «helping verbs» and auxiliaries: “To be” and “to have” are our only true auxiliaries. Modals (can/could, shall/should, may/might, will/would, ought to) are actually main verbs, not auxiliaries. The first of each pair is the present-tense form; the second, the past-tense form.

All modals are followed by the infinitive form of the second verb, with “to” either stated or implied:

He ought to go. He can (to) go. He could (to) have gone. He might (to) have gone. He will (to) go. [Only “ought” is followed by “to” when written or spoken.]


Conjugation of Verb: To Be [Type: copulative when it is the main verb; also used with a main verb as one of our two true auxiliaries] Indicative Mood

Present Tense Past Tense Future Tense [traditional use of shall/will; for emphasis, reverse all uses]

Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural 1st I am we are I was we were I shall be we shall be 2nd you are you are you were you were you will be you will be 3rd he is they are he was they were he will be they will be

Present Perfect Tense Past Perfect Tense Future Perfect Tense [traditional use of shall/will; for emphasis, reverse all uses]

Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural 1st I have been we have been I had been we had been I shall have been we shall have been 2nd you have been you have been you had been you had been you will have been you will have been 3rd he has been they have been he had been they had been he will have been they will have been

Present Progressive Tense Past Progressive Tense Future Progressive Tense [traditional use of shall/will; for emphasis, reverse all uses]

Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural 1st I am being we are being I was being we were being I shall be being we shall be being 2nd you are being you are being you were being you were being you will be being you will be being 3rd he is being they are being he was being they were being he will be being they will be being

Present Perfect Progressive Tense Past Perfect Progressive Tense Future Perfect Progressive Tense [traditional use of shall/will; for emphasis, reverse all uses]

Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural 1st I have been being we have been being I had been being we had been being I shall have been

being we shall have been being

2nd you have been being you have been being you had been being you had been being you will have been being

you will have been being

3rd he has benn being they have been being he had been being they had been being

he will have been being

they will have been being

MrsGrundysGrammar2017.docx 9/26 Subjunctive Mood – seldom used in modern Standard American English except in the two tenses below.

Present Tense – polite command, with «that» The chair asks that he be here tomorrow.

Past Tense – wish; statement contrary to fact, usually but not always with «if» If he were here, (then) I could leave. Were he here, I could leave.

Future Perfect Tense [traditional use of shall/will; for emphasis, reverse all uses]

Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural 1st (that) I be (that) we be (if) I were (if) we were 2nd (that) you be (that) you be (if) you were (if) you were 3rd (that) he be (that) they be (if) he were (if) they were

Imperative Mood – command; therefore, used in second person present tense only. Subject of an imperative sentence is always «you» either understood or written in the sentence: (you) Go. You go.

Present Tense (you) Be good today.

Past Tense Future Tense [traditional use of shall/will; for emphasis, reverse all uses]

Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural 1st 2nd be be 3rd

MrsGrundysGrammar2017.docx 10/26 Conjugation of Verb: To Have [Type: transitive when it is the main verb; also used with a main verb as one of our two true auxiliaries] Indicative Mood, Active Voice

Present Tense Past Tense Future Perfect Tense [traditional use of shall/will; for emphasis, reverse all uses]

Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural 1st I have we have I had we had I shall have we shall have 2nd you have you have you had you had you will have you will have 3rd he has they have he had they had he will have they will have


Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural 1st I have had we have had I had had we had had I shall have had we shall have had 2nd you have had you have had you had had you had had you will have had you will have had 3rd he has had they have had he had had they had had he will have had they will have had


Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural 1st I am having we are having I was having we were having I shall be having we shall be having 2nd you are having you are having you were having you were having you will be having you will be having 3rd he is having they are having he was having they were having he will be having they will be having


Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural 1st I have been having we have been having I had been having we had been having I shall have been

having we shall have been having

2nd you have been having you have been having

you had been having you had been having

you will have been having

you will have been having

3rd he has been having they have been having

he had been having they had been having

he will have been having

they will have been having

MrsGrundysGrammar2017.docx 11/26 Subjunctive Mood, Active Voice

Present Tense The company asks that he have the report ready immediately.

Past Tense If he had the report ready, he could leave now.

Future Perfect Tense [traditional use of shall/will; for emphasis, reverse all uses]

Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural 1st (that) I have (that) we have (if) I had (if) we had 2nd (that) you have (that) you have (if) you had (if) you had 3rd (that) he have (that) they have (if) he had (if) they had

Imperative Mood, Active Voice

Present Tense (you) Have a glass of tea.

Past Perfect Tense Future Perfect Tense [traditional use of shall/will; for emphasis, reverse all uses]

Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural 1st 2nd have have 3rd

Indicative Mood, Passive Voice Since the passive voice of the verb «to have» is seldom used now, I have conjugated only the indicative mood, simple tenses. All tenses and moods do exist, however.

For a complete conjugation of a transitive verb, see «to drive» below. Reminder: Only transitive verbs have both active and passive voice.

Present Perfect Tense Past Perfect Tense Future Perfect Tense [traditional use of

shall/will; for emphasis, reverse all uses] Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural 1st I am had we are had I was had we were had I shall have been had we shall have been

had 2nd you are had you are had you were had you were had you will have been had you will have been

had 3rd he is had they are had he was had they were had he will have been had they will have been

had NOTE: Intransitive verbs are conjugated the same way transitive active verbs are conjugated. A transitive verb is conjugated below, in both active and passive voices.

MrsGrundysGrammar2017.docx 12/26 Conjugation of Verb: To Drive [Type: transitive] Indicative Mood, Active Voice


Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural 1st I drive we drive I drove we drove I shall drive we shall drive 2nd you drive you drive you drove you drove you will drive you will drive 3rd he drives they drive he drove they drove he will drive they will drive


Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural 1st I have driven we have driven I had driven we had driven I shall have driven we shall have driven 2nd you have driven you have driven you had driven you had driven you will have driven you will have driven 3rd he has driven they have driven he had driven they had driven he will have driven they will have driven


Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural 1st I am driving we are driving I was driving we were driving I shall be driving we shall be driving 2nd you are driving you are driving you were driving you were driving you will be driving you will be driving 3rd he is driving they are driving he was driving they were driving he will be driving they will be driving


Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural 1st I have been driving we have been driving I had been driving we had been driving I shall have been

driving we shall have been driving

2nd you have been driving you have been driving

you had been driving you had been driving

you will have been driving

you will have been driving

3rd he has been driving they have been driving

he had been driving they had been driving

he will have been driving

they will have been driving

MrsGrundysGrammar2017.docx 13/26 Subjunctive Mood, Active Voice

Present Tense The manager asks that he drive tomorrow.

Past Tense

Future Tense [traditional use of shall/will; for emphasis, reverse all uses]

Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural 1st (that) I drive (that) we drive (if) I drove (if) we drove 2nd (that) you drive (that) you drive (if) you drove (if) you drove 3rd (that) he drive (that) they drive (if) he drove (if) they drove

Imperative Mood, Active Voice

Present Tense Please (you) drive the car for me today.

Past Tense Future Tense [traditional use of shall/will; for emphasis, reverse all uses]

Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural 1st 2nd drive drive 3rd

MrsGrundysGrammar2017.docx 14/26 Indicative Mood, Passive Voice


Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural 1st I am driven we are driven I was driven we were driven I shall be driven we shall be driven 2nd you are driven you are driven you were driven you were driven you will be driven you will be driven 3rd he is driven they are driven he was driven they were driven he will be driven they will be driven


Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural 1st I have been driven we have been driven I had been driven we had been driven I shall have been driven we shall have been

driven 2nd you have been driven you have been driven you had been driven you had been

driven you will have been driven

you will have been driven

3rd he has been driven they have been driven

he had been driven they had been driven

he will have been driven

they will have been driven


Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural 1st I am being driven we are being driven I was being driven we were being

driven I shall be being driven we shall be being

driven 2nd you are being driven you are being driven you were being driven you were being

driven you will be being driven you will be being

driven 3rd he is being driven they are being driven he was being driven they were being

driven he will be being driven they will be being

driven


Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural 1st I have been being

driven we have been being driven

I had been being driven we had been being driven

I shall have been being driven

we shall have been being driven

2nd you have been being driven

you have been being driven

you had been being driven

you had been being driven

you will have been being driven

you will have been being driven

3rd he has been being driven

they have been being driven

he had been being driven

they had been being driven

he will have been being driven

they will have been being driven

MrsGrundysGrammar2017.docx 15/26 Subjunctive Mood, Passive Voice

Present Tense He asks that he be driven to town tomorrow.

Past Tense We would know if he were driven mad.

Future Tense [traditional use of shall/will; for emphasis, reverse all uses]

Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural 1st (that) I be driven (that) we be driven (if) I were driven (if) we were driven 2nd (that) you be driven (that) you be driven (if) you were driven (If) you were driven 3rd (that) he be driven (that) they be driven (if) he were driven (if) they were driven

Imperative Mood, Passive Voice


Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural 1st 2nd be driven be driven 3rd

MrsGrundysGrammar2017.docx 16/26 SUMMARY OF VERB CONJUGATIONS:

• The infinitive (without the «to») + four principal parts are used to form verb tenses in all moods and voices. • The full infinitive (with «to») is never used as a verb. It is the name of the verb and is used as a noun, adjective, or adverb. • The two true auxiliaries are «to have» and «to be». Modals are not true auxiliaries, but main verbs followed by the infinitive form of another verb. • The present and past forms of the verb never take auxiliaries. The participial forms always take auxiliaries.

Infinitive Present Past Present Participle Past Participle to be am/is/are was/were being been to have has/have had having had to drive drive/drives drove driving driven ALL VERBS, INCLUDING TRANSITIVE ACTIVE TRANSITIVE PASSIVE – adds «to be» before main verb and uses only past participle.

Tense Principal part Example Tense Principal part Examples Simple: no auxiliaries Simple: «to be» + past participle of main verb Present Past Future

present past shall/will + inf. without «to»

drive drove will drive

Present Past Future

pres. «to be» + past part. past «to be» + past part. future «to be» + past part.

am driven was driven shall be driven

Perfect: «to have» + past participle of main verb Perfect: «to have» + «to be» + past participle of main verb Present Past Future

pres. «to have» + past participle past «to have» + past participle future «to have» + past participle

have driven had driven shall have driven

Present Past Future

pres. «to have» + been + past part. past «to have» + been + past part. future «to have» + been + past part.

have been driven had been driven shall have been driven

Progressive: «to be» + present participle of main verb Progressive: «to be» + «to be» + past participle of main verb Present Past Future

pres. «to be» + pres. part. past «to be» + pres. part. future «to be» + pres. part.

am driving was driving shall be driving

Present Past Future

pres. «to be» + being + past part. past «to be» + being + past part. future «to be» + being + past part.

am being driven was being driven shall be being driven

Perfect Progressive: «to have» + «to be» + present participle main verb Perfect Progressive: «to have» + «to be» + «to be» + past participle of main verb Present Past Future

pres. «to have» + been + pres. part. past «to have» + been + pres. part. future «to have» + been + pres. part.

have been driving had been driving shall have been driving

Present Past Future

pres. «to have» + been + being + past. part. past «to have» + been + being + past part. future «to have» + been + being + past part.

have been being driven had been being driven shall have been being driven

MrsGrundysGrammar2017.docx 17/26 A few verbs can be either transitive or copulative or intransitive or copulative, depending on intended meaning in a particular sentence.

• If the verb is copulative, it takes an adjective after it. • If the verb is transitive, it takes an adverb. • The verb «to be» is always either copulative or an auxiliary for another verb. • The verb «to seem» is always copulative.

• The verbs «to smell,» «to sound,» and «to taste» may be either transitive or

copulative, depending on the meaning of the sentence. • The verb «to appear» may be either intransitive or copulative, depending on

the meaning of the sentence. • The verb «to grow» may be transitive, intransitive, or copulative.

I tasted that hamburger well before I ate it. Here, I tasted the hamburger. That I tasted it «well» indicates how I tasted it—very carefully. «Tasted» is a transitive verb here. The hamburger tasted good. Someone tasted the hamburger here also. The hamburger itself is good, though, not the action of tasting it. «Good» = hamburger.

«Tasted» is a copulative verb, one that means something like «was», as in «was good.» The hamburger tasted well. See the first example above. If this hamburger tasted «well», then it must be Ronald MacDonald, the only hamburger I know that can

actually do anything at all other than sit there looking good. Unless this hamburger has a mouth of its own, the sentence must be changed to «The hamburger tasted good.»

Other examples: This doctor seems competent. [«seems» - copulative] I can smell the lilacs in bloom. [«smell» - transitive] The lilacs smell wonderful. [«smell» – copulative] The church bells sound the hour. [«sound» - transitive] The bells sound wonderful. [«sound» - copulative] The tomatoes grow well. [«grow» - intransitive] The woman grows tomatoes well. [«grow» - transitive] The tomatoes grow healthy. [«grow» - copulative] ADVERB – modifies adjective, verb, or other adverb. An adverb indicates how, when, where, or to what extent; if made from an adjective, will often end in -ly as in happily, beautifully.

Like adjectives, adverbs may be absolute, comparative, or superlative; take –er/-est or more/most, but never both, to form the comparative and superlative; and determine correct form by number of syllables.

Absolute Comparative [For 2] Superlative [For 3 or more] well She paints well.

better She paints better than her sister.

best She paints best of the three.

happily She grinned happily.

more happily She seems to work more happily than her sister.

most happily She works most happily of the three.

MrsGrundysGrammar2017.docx 18/26 PREPOSITION – links a noun or pronoun after to another word in the sentence: before, behind, in, into, under, around, in front of, beside, and many others. Prepositions are sometimes confused with particles, which are words that look like prepositions but are added to verbs to distinguish their various meanings. A sentence cannot end properly with a preposition, but it can end properly with a particle. If you can move it so that it comes before a noun, then it's likely to be a preposition and not a particle.

Some prepositions can also be used as adverbs. Again, if the word can be moved to precede a noun, then it's probably a preposition and should not be the last word in the sentence.

These sentences are correct: This sentence is not correct: He moved. This is the house he went into. Change to He went into this house. He moved in. He moved into the house. [not «in the house», since «in» cannot be used with verbs of movement] CONJUNCTION – «con» + «junct» = with + join = to combine with; to join [one thing] with [another].

• co-ordinate conjunctions – join two words, phrases, or clauses of equal value and form – and, but, or, nor, for, so, yet, semi-colon [;] [This is the complete list of co-ordinates.]

• correlative conjunctions – pairs of co-ordinate conjunctions: not only/but also,

either/or, neither/nor

• subordinate conjunctions – join two words, phrases, or clauses of unequal value and form; introduce adverbial clauses – when, although, because, and many others

INTERJECTION – shows mild or strong emotion; «interjected» (thrust) into a sentence and therefore not a necessary or integral part of a sentence – oh and well are the most common interjections. Note: Interjections are not recommended in formal writing. Mild emotion is indicated with surrounding commas. Well, he is my favorite to win first place.

Strong emotion is indicated with an exclamation point. [An exclamation point is an end point, so the next letter is capitalized. Well! He is my favorite to win first place. ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

SUMMARY OF 8 PARTS OF SPEECH: n - noun – names a person, place, thing, or idea; common (city), proper (Rocky Mount), concrete (table), abstract (faith), collective (team), possessive (Carl's, boys') pron - pronoun – takes the place of a noun; indefinite (some, all), relative (who, whom, that), interrogatory (who, whom), personal (I, you, he, they; me, you, him, them) adj - adjective - modifies [adds to the meaning of] a noun or pronoun; answers which one, what kind of, or

how many – good, happy, beautiful, two, some [before a noun]. v - verb – shows action or existence (state of being); may be copulative (linking, like is [a student], seem [healthy], taste [good]), transitive active or passive (drive [the car], [the car] is driven, walk [the dog], [the dog] has been walked), or intransitive (walk [home], go [quickly]). adv - adverb – modifies adjective, verb, or other adverb; indicates how, when, where, or to what extent; if made from an adjective, will often end in -ly – well, happily, beautifully.

prep - preposition – links a noun or pronoun after to another word in the sentence: before, behind, in, into, under, around, in front of, beside, and many others. conj - conjunction – «con» + «junct» = with + join = to combine with; to join [one thing] with [another]; co-ordinate (and, but, or, for, so, yet, ; ) and subordinate (when, although, because, and many others) interj - interjection – shows mild or strong emotion; «interjected» (thrust into) into a sentence and therefore not a necessary or integral part of a sentence – oh, well

MrsGrundysGrammar2017.docx 19/26 PARTS OF SPEECH ---> PARTS OF THE SENTENCE

• Every word in a sentence is one of the 8 parts of speech, depending on its particular use in that sentence. Most words can be used as several parts of speech, but use in the sentence determines part of speech in that sentence.

• Only some words in a sentence are necessary to the completion of the

sentence. The next section covers the necessary parts of a sentence.

In the following pages:

• Lower-case abbreviations are used for parts of speech.

• Upper-case abbreviatations are used for parts of a sentence.

II. PARTS OF THE SENTENCE Required in all sentences:

• S – Simple Subject – required in all complete sentences: the single word or full name that shows the main focus of the sentence – noun or pronoun.

• V – Verb (simple predicate) – required in all complete sentences: the word or

verb phrase that shows action or state of being – (complete) verb. Used with transitive active verbs:

• DO – Direct Object – required after transitive active verbs: the direct receiver of the action indicated in the verb – noun or pronoun.

• IO – Indirect Object – optional between transitive active verb and its direct

object: the indirect receiver of the action indicated in the verb – noun or pronoun.

o Note: Test for presence of IO in three ways: noun or pronoun + position in sentence between V and DO + implied, not stated, to or for before it.

• OC – Object Complement – optional after direct object: follows the direct

object; repeats the direct object or modifies it – noun or pronoun; or adjective.

May appear in any sentences, as needed:

• OP – Object of the Preposition – required after a true preposition if a preposition is used; only adjectives may separate the preposition from its object – noun or pronoun.

o Note: The preposition + its object make a prepositional phrase. A prepositional phrase is not required in any sentence.

• OV – Object of the Verbal – required after a verbal created from a transitive

active verb. Used with copulative verbs:

• PN – Predicate Nominative – follows a copulative verb; is the same thing as the subject – noun or pronoun.

• PA – Predicate Adjective – follows a copulative verb; modifies the subject –

adjective o [PN & PA are considered «Subject Complements» = SC. The word

«complement» (with 2 e's) means something that «completes» something else.]

General notes:

• When used in a sentence, possessive nouns, possessive pronouns, and the articles a, an, and the are used as and therefore marked as adjectives. • Full names are designated as one noun. • Formal titles (Mr., Ms., Dr., etc.) + name are considered a single noun. • The entire verb tense (that is, «the verb phrase») is a single verb. • When a transitive active verb becomes transitive passive, the direct object becomes the subject and the indirect object and subject become object of preposition:

Give him the ball. Give the ball to him.


TYPE OF VERB part of speech/Part of Sentence

copulative

n v adj n pron v adj John is a student. He is conscientious. S V PN S V PA

intransitive

n v pron v prep adj n adv John is walking. He walks to his classes daily. S V S V OP

transitive active

n v adj n pron v pron adj n John Peters threw the ball. He threw her the ball. [That is, «John threw (to) her the ball».] S V DO S V IO DO pron v n n pron v adj n adj They elected John mayor. She painted the fence red. S V DO OC S V DO OC

transitive passive

adj n v adj n v prep n adj n v prep pron prep n The ball was thrown. The ball was thrown by John Peters. The ball was thrown to her by John. S V S V OP S V OP OP

MrsGrundysGrammar2017.docx 21/26 III. PHRASES, CLAUSES, SENTENCES Hierarchy of components, from lowest to highest:

• blank space – indicates break between words.

• punctuation – indicates types of breaks between and/or hierarchy of words, phrases, and clauses; in trained oratory, indicates length of pause and/or level of emotion or emphasis.

• word – one grammatical unit.

• phrase – one syntactical unit; 2+ words, but not a complete clause.

• clause – 2+ words containing both a subject and its complete verb phrase; may be independent (complete sentence) or dependent (requires an independent clause for

completion). Exception: In imperative sentences, the subject is always you; therefore, in imperative sentences, the subject may be understood and the sentence may be a single word, a verb: Go. = (you) Go.

Types of phrases – 2+ words, but missing either subject or complete verb. Prepositional = preposition + any adjectives = object of preposition; acts as adjective or adverb ----> into the house, on the porch, behind the apple tree Noun = given + family names or title + name: John Peters, Justice O'Reilly, Dr. Joseph Scott Benson Verb = the main verb and its auxiliaries; also, a modal and its following verb: is going, has been driven, should be going. Verbal – never the verb in a sentence: infinitive = «to» + the verb + adverbs modifying the infinitive; used as adjective, adverb, or noun in a sentence.

to go, to drive, to have driven, to drive slowly, to have driven quickly, not to go [Never insert any word between «to» and the verb. All modifiers must be placed before or after the infinitive itself: to not go is incorrect.] --as adjective: The student to go is John. --as noun: He wants to drive.

gerund = present or past participle of the verb; used as noun in a sentence: Reading science fiction is my favorite hobby. participial = present or past participle of the verb; used as adjective to modify the noun or pronoun closest to it: The boy reading science fiction is my cousin. Reading science fiction, he began to see stars in his future.

MrsGrundysGrammar2017.docx 22/26 Types of clauses – contain both subject and complete verb. Independent clause [IC] = S + V; can stand alone as a complete sentence. I am leaving now. I have an appointment. Any student may leave. S V S V DO S V Dependent clauses [DC]: Subordinate/adverbial – begins with subordinate conjunction; contains S + V; used as adverbial clause. conj pron v adj n I am leaving now because I have an appointment. S V DO Relative – begins with relative pronoun; contains S + V; used as adjective clause. pron v adj n Any student who has completed the test may leave. S V DO Noun/nominal – begins with relative pronoun; contains S + V; used as noun clause and is a necessary part of an independent clause. pron v prep adj n v adv Whoever is going to the library may leave now. DC--> S V OP IC--> S V

MrsGrundysGrammar2017.docx 23/26 Types of Sentences Rhetorical types:

• declarative – makes a statement; ends in a period. If I were going, then I'd take you with me.

• interrogative – asks a question; ends in a question mark. If you were going,

would you take me with you?

• imperative – makes a polite request or command; request ends with period, and strong command ends with exclamation point; subject always «you», usually understood:

Please go. Go! [Subjects understood: (you) Please go. (you) Go!]

• exclamatory – not imperative; shows great emotion; ends with exclamation point; begins with «what» or «how», with verb understood:

What a beautiful day! How beautiful the day! [Verbs understood: What a beautiful day (this is)! How beautiful the day (is)!]

At a minimum, a complete sentence contains a noun or pronoun that is the simple subject (SS) and a verb phrase that is the simple predicate (SP). n v n v Woman walks. Woman is walking. SS SP SS SP A complete subject (CS) is the simple subject + all modifiers; a complete predicate (CP) is a verb phrase + all modifiers), as follows: n v n v Woman walks. Woman is walking. SS/CS SP/CP SS/CS SP/CP That woman is walking to the store now. Walking to the store is her only exercise. That walking woman is my sister. CS CP CS CP CS CP Grammatical types: s - simple – one independent clause. cd - compound – 2+ independent clauses. cx - complex – 1 independent clause + 1+ dependent clauses. cd-cx - compound-complex – 2+ independent clauses + 1+ dependent clauses. A simple sentence may have any number of compound parts, but it will have only one «main line» in a diagram, that is, one line that cuts all the way through the horizontal: The boy is reading a book. The boy and girl are reading books. [compound subject] S V DO S S V

boy is reading book boy The a and are reading books The girl

These diagrams use the following conventions: between S and V – bisecting line between V and DO – touching line between prep and OP – touching line between V and PA/PN – backslash In all diagrams, only the necessary parts of the sentence appear on the main horizontal line. Modifiers (adjectives/adverbs) drop down from a line.

MrsGrundysGrammar2017.docx 24/26 The boy and girl are reading books and watching television. [compound subject and direct object] S S V DO V DO boy are reading books and and The girl watching television The boy and girl are reading books and magazines. S S V DO DO boy books and are reading and The girl magazines They are tired but too happy to complain. tired They are but happy too to complain A compound sentence will have two or more independent clauses and therefore 2 separate-and-equal horizontal lines, each with its own subject and verb. The boy and girl are reading books and magazines, and their parents are watching television. [If the conjunction here is a semi-colon, enter it on the dotted conjunction line.] boy books and are reading and The girl magazines and parents are watching television their

MrsGrundysGrammar2017.docx 25/26 A complex sentence will have 1 or more independent clauses and 1 or more dependent clauses, each with its own horizontal line but with the dependent clause hanging from the line for the independent clause. An adverbial clause will connect with an adjective, verb, or other adverb; an adjective clause will connect with a noun or pronoun; a noun clause will fit on the line with the independent clause. Although the boys and girl are reading books and magazines, their parents are watching television. [«Although» signals an adverbial clause.] parents are watching television their Although boy books and are reading and the girl magazines Any student who has completed the test may leave. [«Who» signals a likely relative clause. Since it has both S + V and is not a question, it is, indeed, a relative clause.] student may leave Any who has completed test the Whoever is going to the library may leave now. [«Whoever» signals a likely noun clause. It contains both S + V and is used as the subject of the main clause.] Whoever is going to library the may leave now

MrsGrundysGrammar2017.docx 26/26 A compound-complex sentence contains 2+ independent clauses and 1+ dependent clause. Whoever is going to the library may leave now; all others should stay. Whoever is going to library the may leave now ; others should stay all

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Mrs. Grundy s Grammar word is a part of speech depending on its use in the sentence. Words are combined to form phrases. Clauses contain a subject and a verb. Words, phrases, clauses,