MRET Activated Water and Its Succesful Application for Prevention Treatment and Enhanced Tumor Resistance - Smirnov 2007

European Journal of Scientific Research

ISSN: 1450-216X Volume 16, No 4 April, 2007 Editor-In-chief or e Adrian M. Steinberg, Wissenschaftlicher Forscher Editorial Advisory Board e Parag Garhyan, Auburn University Morteza Shahbazi, Edinburgh University Raj Rajagopalan, National University of Singapore Sang-Eon Park, Inha University Said Elnashaie, Auburn University Subrata Chowdhury, University of Rhode Island Ghasem-Ali Omrani, Tehran University of Medical Sciences Ajay K. Ray, National University of Singapore Mutwakil Nafi, China University of Geosciences Felix Ayadi, Texas Southern University Bansi Sawhney, University of Baltimore David Wang, Hsuan Chuang University Cornelis A. Los, Kazakh-British Technical University Jatin Pancholi, Middlesex University

Teresa Smith, University of South Carolina Ranjit Biswas, Philadelphia University Chiaku Chukwuogor-Ndu, Eastern Connecticut State University John Mylonakis, Hellenic Open University (Tutor) M. Femi Ayadi, University of Houston-Clear Lake Emmanuel Anoruo, Coppin State University H. Young Baek, Nova Southeastern University Dimitrios Mavridis, Technological Educational Institure of West Macedonia Mohand-Said Oukil, Kind Fhad University of Petroleum & Minerals Jean-Luc Grosso, University of South Carolina Richard Omotoye, Virginia State University Mahdi Hadi, Kuwait University Jerry Kolo, Florida Atlantic University Leo V. Ryan, DePaul University

As of 2005, European Journal of Scientific Research is indexed in ULRICH, DOAJ and CABELL academic listings.

European Journal of Scientific Research http://www.eurojournals.com/ejsr.htm Editorial Policies: 1) European Journal of Scientific Research is an international official journal publishing high quality research papers, reviews, and short communications in the fields of biology, chemistry, physics, environmental sciences, mathematics, geology, engineering, computer science, social sciences, medicine, industrial, and all other applied and theoretical sciences. The journal welcomes submission of articles through [email protected]. 2) The journal realizes the meaning of fast publication to researchers, particularly to those working in competitive & dynamic fields. Hence, it offers an exceptionally fast publication schedule including prompt peer-review by the experts in the field and immediate publication upon acceptance. It is the major editorial policy to review the submitted articles as fast as possible and promptly include them in the forthcoming issues should they pass the evaluation process.

3) All research and reviews published in the journal have been fully peer-reviewed by two, and in some cases, three internal or external reviewers. Unless they are out of scope for the journal, or are of an unacceptably low standard of presentation, submitted articles will be sent to peer reviewers. They will generally be reviewed by two experts with the aim of reaching a first decision within a three day period. Reviewers have to sign their reports and are asked to declare any competing interests. Any suggested external peer reviewers should not have published with any of the authors of the manuscript within the past five years and should not be members of the same research institution. Suggested reviewers will be considered alongside potential reviewers identified by their publication record or recommended by Editorial Board members. Reviewers are asked whether the manuscript is scientifically sound and coherent, how interesting it is and whether the quality of the writing is acceptable. Where possible, the final decision is made on the basis that the peer reviewers are in accordance with one another, or that at least there is no strong dissenting view.

4) In cases where there is strong disagreement either among peer reviewers or between the authors and peer reviewers, advice is sought from a member of the journal's Editorial Board. The journal allows a maximum of two revisions of any manuscripts. The ultimate responsibility for any decision lies with the Editor-in-Chief. Reviewers are also asked to indicate which articles they consider to be especially interesting or significant. These articles may be given greater prominence and greater external publicity.

5) Any manuscript submitted to the journals must not already have been published in another journal or be under consideration by any other journal, although it may have been deposited on a preprint server. Manuscripts that are derived from papers presented at conferences can be submitted even if they have been published as part of the conference proceedings in a peer reviewed journal. Authors are required to ensure that no material submitted as part of a manuscript infringes existing copyrights, or the rights of a third party. Contributing authors retain copyright to their work.

6) Submission of a manuscript to EuroJournals, Inc. implies that all authors have read and agreed to its content, and that any experimental research that is reported in the manuscript has been performed with the approval of an appropriate ethics committee. Research carried out on humans must be in compliance with the Helsinki Declaration, and any experimental research on animals should follow internationally recognized guidelines. A statement to this effect must appear in the Methods section of the manuscript, including the name of the body which gave approval, with a reference number where

appropriate. Manuscripts may be rejected if the editorial office considers that the research has not been carried out within an ethical framework, e.g. if the severity of the experimental procedure is not justified by the value of the knowledge gained. Generic drug names should generally be used where appropriate. When proprietary brands are used in research, include the brand names in parentheses in the Methods section.

7) Manuscripts must be submitted by one of the authors of the manuscript, and should not be submitted by anyone on their behalf. The submitting author takes responsibility for the article during submission and peer review. To facilitate rapid publication and to minimize administrative costs, the journal accepts only online submissions through [email protected]. E-mails should clearly state the name of the article as well as full names and e-mail addresses of all the contributing authors.

8) The journal makes all published original research immediately accessible through www.EuroJournals.com without subscription charges or registration barriers. European Journal of Scientific Research indexed in ULRICH, DOAJ and CABELL academic listings. Through its open access policy, the Journal is committed permanently to maintaining this policy. All research published in the. Journal is fully peer reviewed. This process is streamlined thanks to a user-friendly, web-based system for submission and for referees to view manuscripts and return their reviews. The journal does not have page charges, color figure charges or submission fees. However, there is an article-processing and publication charge. Further information is available at: http://www.eurojournals.com/ejsr.htm © EuroJournals Publishing, Inc. 2005

European Journal of Scientific Research Volume 16, No 4 April 2007

Contents DFT and Ab Initio Study of the Mechanism of Ozone Reaction with Light Hydrocarbons in the Troposphere 490-505 Bahjat R J Muhyedeen Sport a Panacea in a Divided Community 506-509 Erhinyodavwe I. Johnson and Boye, E. Thomas Growth and Yield of Cabbage in the Savanna Zone of Southwestern Nigeria 510-514 J. A. fagbayide and J.O. Olaniyi Inland Water Fishery Management Model in Nigeria 515-523 Augustine Omoike and Augustine E. Falaye SOM and Cost Optimization Tools for ITLMS via LOS Link System 524-530 Anwar Hassan Ibrahim, Mahamod Ismail, Kasmiran Jumari and Ayman Impact of a Community Education Model on the Health Bahaviours of Selected Rural Dwellers in Nigeria 531-537 T. I. Izevbigie and Ede O. S. Iyamu Pharmacological Studies of Cycas Circinalis (Cycadaceae) as a Purgative 538-541 Sani Audu Ali, Abdu Kaita Haruna, Mohammed Ilyas and Egwu E.Chinwe Magnetic Moment Based Modeling & Simulation of Electro Dynamic Vibration Actuation System 542-547 K.P.S Rana, Shrey Khanna, Ranjit Singh and K.S. Sayann A Comparative Analysis of Nigerian Undergraduates’ Perception of the Personal Characteristics of their Lecturers 548-557 R. O. Olubor and B.O. Ogonor Method for Harmonics Detection Using TMS320C6711DSP in Real-time 558-565 Mohammed E. Salem, Azah Mohamed and Salina Abdul Samad Monitoring Equipment Failure in Oil Well Drilling Operations Using Wireless Application Protocol (WAP) 566-574 Ureigho R. J, Onibere E.A and Ekruyota, O. G MRET Activated Water and its Succesful Application for Prevention Treatment and Enhanced Tumor Resistance in Oncology 575-583 Igor Smirnov On the Temperature Field of a Power Law Fluid with Variable Thermal Conductivity 584-591 B.I Olajuwon

Otorhinolaryngologic Emergencies in Nigeria, Subsaharan Africa: Implication for Training 592-595 Lasisi OA, Imam ZK and Adeosun AA Policies to Coerce Car Drivers to Utilize Public Transportation (for all Trips and School Trips) in Malaysia 596-605 Abdullah Nurdden, Riza Atiq O.K.Rahmat and Amiruddin Ismail The Impact of Internet Usage: A Case Study of Delta State Tertiary Institutions 606-610 R.J. Ureigho, G.U. Oroke and G.O. Ekruyota Reconstruction of Objects from 3D Cross Sectional Data Using Subdivision Techniques 611-618 Shahid S. Siddiqi and Nadeem Ahmad

European Journal of Scientific Research ISSN 1450-216X Vol.16 No.4 (2007), pp.490-505 © EuroJournals Publishing, Inc. 2007 http://www.eurojournals.com/ejsr.htm

DFT and Ab Initio Study of the Mechanism of Ozone Reaction

with Light Hydrocarbons in the Troposphere

Bahjat R J Muhyedeen Department of Chemistry-College of Science

University of Baghdad, Baghdad-Iraq

Abstract

Density Functional Theory, DFT, and ab initio calculations of the potential energy surface of tropospheric ozone with light hydrocarbons (petroleum gas) have been performed which is known to be important in atmospheric chemistry. Reactants, transition states, intermediate species and products are optimized at DFT (B3LYP) and MP2 level of theory using three basis sets 6-31G(d), 6-31++G(d,p) and 6-311++G(2df,2p) for the three possible reaction paths, namely, abstraction reaction through formation of hydrotrioxyl radical (HTR), replacement reaction through formation of hydrodioxyl radical (HDR) and the biradical reaction path. Thermodynamic properties ∆Hº, ∆Sº, and ∆Gº have been calculated for these reactions. Harmonic vibrational frequencies have been calculated for reactants, products, and transition states up to HF/6-311++G(2d,2p) level of theory. The calculated energy barriers for replacement reactions are less than for abstraction reactions. The IRC calculation on ozone reaction with methane gave an energy barrier of 619 Kcal/mol.

Introduction The troposphere is chemically complex and regionally diverse. Many of the important species in the troposphere are short-lived includes the reactive nitrogen oxides, reactive sulfur, ozone, non-methane hydrocarbons (NMHCs) and carbon monoxide. Oxidation of NMHCs produces a variety of oxygenated products including aldehydes, ketones, dicarbonyls, alcohols, phenols, peroxides, organic acids and organic nitrates. NMHCs generally react with OH* to produce O3 such that an increase in their concentration will decrease OH* concentrations in troposphere. The chemistry of these intermediate compounds is imprecisely known, however laboratory and modeling studies are helping to quantify and reduce some of the uncertainties[1-5]. Gramatica et al have been predicted the rate constant for the tropospheric degradations of 125 organic compounds by reaction with ozone using MLR-QSAR modeling [6].

Ozone in troposphere can damage plants and materials and act as a respiratory irritant. In the upper troposphere it is also an important greenhouse gas. The sources of ozone in troposphere are from stratosphere and in situ photochemical production. The main sinks for ozone abundance are photochemical destruction, deposition and its reaction with the alkenes, isoprene and terpenes which directly leads to the removal of O3 from troposphere[7-11].

O3+HO2* OH* +2O2, and/or O3+HO* HO2* +O2 The reactions of tropospheric ozone with saturated hydrocarbons are of less interest from

environmental point of view due to their non-spontaneity and improbability. Nevertheless, these reactions are of great interest to the theoreticians to investigate the actual mechanisms for these reactions.

DFT and Ab Initio Study of the Mechanism of Ozone Reaction with Light Hydrocarbons in the Troposphere 491

Few experimental and theoretical studies have been reported on the oxidation of C-H bond in hydrocarbons, organic compounds by ozone and various oxidant molecules such HOO*,OH*,NO*, O* etc[12-14]. The accepted mechanism for ozonation reactions is formation of biradical through hydrotrioxides (HT) formation. Hydrotrioxides, ROOOH, were proposed as intermediates in the reaction of ozone with saturated compounds in the early 1960s[15–18] which include a wide range of O- and Si-containing compounds (alcohols, ethers, acetals, aldehydes, silanes, etc.) that have been synthesized and examined since then[19,20]. The formation of hydrotrioxides on ozonation of hydrocarbons has been proved experimentally only for some alkanes[21-26]. Recently, Shereshovets et al have proved experimentally the formation of HT during the ozonation of adamantine, isopentane, 1,4-dimethylcyclohexane, 1,3-dimethyl-cyclo hexane, decalin and triphenyl methane[27,28].

Shustove and Rauk reported the mechanism of the dioxirane oxidation of the C-H bonds in the light hydrocarbon using DFT and MP2 level of theory. They showed that the reaction ensued through biradical (R*/CH2O*OH) mechanism rather than formation of neutral products (ROH/CH2=O) [29].

Shereshovets et al had studied the gas-phase reactions of ozone with C-H bonds in methane, ethane, propane (secondary C-H bond), and isobutane (tertiary C-H bond) by semiempirical AM1 method[30]. They showed that the formation of hydrotrioxides ROOOH in gas-phase reactions between ozone and hydrocarbons was highly improbable and the reactions proceed through biradical transition state which lead to alkyl R* and hydrotrioxyl HOOO* radicals. They also reported that the HOOO* radicals immediately decomposes into molecular oxygen and hydroxyl radical HO*.

In present work we are interested in study the mechanism of ozone reaction with light hydrocarbon such as methane, ethane, propane and butane of troposphere to look into the type of products and the mechanism of transition state through calculation of energy barrier using DFT level and MP2 high level of ab initio calculation. The understanding of the chemical interaction of these pollutants is very important because its composition in the troposphere depends not only on its rate of formation but also on its rate of removal. We will investigate the three possible reaction paths of ozone reaction with light hydrocarbon, namely, abstraction (dehydrogenation) reaction through formation of hydrotrioxyl radical (HTR) and replacement (oxygenation) reaction through formation of hydrodioxyl radical (HDR) and the radical species OH*+O+RO* which result in the final products ROH+O2 with help of some thermodynamic properties ∆Hº, ∆Sº, and ∆Gº. Some structures for transition state are suggested based on the possibility of attack of ozone molecule to the hydrocarbon molecule. We suggested that the attack of ozone to the hydrocarbon molecule might be either to carbon–carbon, C-C, carbon–hydrogen, H-C, or to hydrogen–hydrogen, H-H, atoms of the hydrocarbon. Computational Details Through this study, various theoretical MO methods have been used. The geometries of the 37 structures of methane, ethane, propane, butane and their complex structures with ozone and hydroxyl radicals have been optimized at hybrid density functional, DFT, (B3-LYP)/ 6-31G(d), 6-31++G(d,p) and 6-311++G(2d,2p) level of theory, based on Becke 3-grid integration and exchange functional[31,32] with the correlation function by Lee et al [33] and MP2 levels of theory[34,35] using 6-31G(d), 6-31++G(d,p), 6-311++G(2d,2p) and 6-311++G(2df,2p)[36] basis sets. In the hybrid functional, B3-LYP, the exchange part is calculated as an optimized combination of both HF and DFT exchange, in contrast to non-hybrid functional where the exchange part is based only DFT.

The Polak-Ribiere and the new SCF convergence algorithm which uses a combination of two Direct Inversion in the Iterative Subspace (DIIS) and Extrapolation methods EDIIS were used as optimization algorithm and Raffenetti method was used for processing two-electron integrals[37] except for DFT calculation. The initial guess of the MO coefficients was either from a projected Hückel calculation or from Harris. Vibrational frequencies of the proposed transition state structures have been calculated at UHF/RHF/6-31++G(2d,2p) level of theory for characterization of the nature of stationary points and zero point energy (ZPE) calculations to compute the quantum energies of these

492 Bahjat R J Muhyedeen

reactions. All the stationary points have been positively identified for minimum (number of imaginary frequencies NIMAG=0), transition state (NIMAG=1).IRC calculation have been carried out at 3-21+G**. All calculations have been carried out using HyperChem 7.52[38], MOPAC2000[39,40], Gaussian03W and GaussianViewW[41]. Results and Discussion 1. Energies, Geometries and IR

The energies of reactants and products were calculated at DFT and MP2 levels as shown in Tables 1 and 2 respectively. The geometric structures of reactants and their radicals are shown in Figures-1 except alcohols molecules. The proposed transition state structures are illustrated in Figures 2-4. The structural parameters and harmonic vibrational frequencies of various compounds used in the hydrocarbons ozonation reactions are listed in Table-3. The energies of transition state structures were calculated at MP2 level only as shown in Table-4. The zero-point energies are calculated by two basis sets and listed in Tables 5 & 6. The potential energy calculation showed that the bond length of C-C of hydrocarbon decreases through moving from the neutral molecule to oxygenated then to their corresponding radical species (i.e. 1.528, 1.519 and 1.498 A0 respectively) (see Table-4). The C-H bond length usually decreases at radical carbon atoms (≈ 1.07 A0) due to electron density of the odd electron and increases at other carbons atoms in the same molecule (≈ 1.11 A0) (see Table-4). The calculated O-O bond length at 6-31++G(d,p) in HDR molecule is 1.302 Ao and it is well compared with that of Allen et al {1.309 Aº calculated at 6-31G(d)}. Table 1: Total Energies of the Species of Abstraction and Replacement Reaction used in the Hydrocarbons +

Ozone Reaction Calculated at DFT Level with Three Basis Sets

Compounds DFT 6-31G(d) DFT 6-31++G(d,p) DFT 6-311++G(2d,2p) PG HO* -47616.983 -47637.590 -47694.832 C2v HO2* -94266.646 -94991.378 -95101.559 Cs HO3* -142291.105 -142340.327 -142503.628 Cs O3 -141881.287 -141900.198 -142060.752 D3h CH3* -25079.336 -25102.252 -25130.613 D3h C2H5* -49854.779 -49892.456 -49949.552 Cs C3H7* -74632.533 -74674.929 -74770.088 Cs C4H9* -98634.758 -98687.132 -98812.890 C1 CH4 -25528.406 -25555.421 -25586.287 Td C2H6 -50279.503 -50339.400 -50398.244 D3d C3H8 -75070.033 -75126.969 -75215.885 C2v C4H10 -99048.923 -99105.409 -99195.093 C2h CH3O* -72419.681 -72419.769 -72058. 214 Cs C2H5O* -97179.162 -97228.846 -97314.411 C1 n-C3H7O* -121994.924 -122021.974 -122161.244 Cs i-C3H7O* -121960.830 -122021.994 -122159.593 C1 n-C4H9O* -146729.317 -146804.653 -146970.198 C1 i-C4H9O* -146734.786 -146810.125 -146975.677 C1


Table 2: Total Energies (Kcal/mol) of Various Compounds used in the Hydrocarbons + Ozone Reaction Calculated at MP2 Level with Four Basis Sets

Compounds MP2/ 6-31G(d) MP2/6-31++G(d,p) MP2/ 6-311++G(2d,2p) MP2/ 6-311++G(2df,2p) HO* -47391.284 -47404.240 -47448.676 -47461.6727 HO2* -94410.865 -94455.608 -94527.537 -94573.0851 HO3* -141474.824 -141494.149 -141637.131 -141671.7770 O -46989.165 -46992.620 -47035.1790 -47044.5434 O2 -94092.576 -94097.8410 -94155.9878 -94182.4388 O3 -141067.101 -141074.631 -141216.336 -141251.7380 CH3* -24895.159 -24913.036 -24934.788 -24943.8901 C2H5* -49475.632 -49504.736 -49548.679 -49566.7412 C3H7* -74057.933 -74098.180 -74164.421 -74191.3363 C4H9* -98634.758 -98687.132 -98776.420 -98811.4429 CH4 -25311.822 -25333.446 -25356.701 -25367.2455 C2H6 -49889.373 -49922.527 -49967.692 -49987.1834 C3H8 -74469.103 -74513.924 -74581.335 -74609.6242 C4H10 -99048.923 -99105.409 -99195.093 -99232.2062 CH3O* -71969.076 -71991.800 -72059.892 -72080.1287 C2H5O* -96551.688 -96585.814 -96676.190 -96705.0901 n-C3H7O* -121133.314 -121172.218 -121281.050 -121327.5154 i-C3H7O* -121136.851 -121180.739 -121289.060 -121330.7003 n-C4H9O* -145713.579 -145766.010 -146880.028 -145950.31620 i-C4H9O* -145716.926 -145772.151 -146886.039 -145887.76059 CH3OH -72384.573 -72415.299 -72488.143 -72508.5658 C2H5OH -96967.686 -97009.688 -97105.717 -97133.8574 n-C3H7OH -121551.817 -121719.163 -121755.074 -121755.0739 i-C3H7OH -121551.817 -121605.443 -121724.693 -121760.5743 n-C4H9OH -146127.371 -146192.628 -146335.500 -146379.0605 i-C4H9OH -146131.792 -146196.459 -146339.261 -146382.8557


Table 3: MP2/6-31++G(2d,2p) Structural Parameters and Harmonic Vibrational Frequencies of Various Compounds used in the Hydrocarbons + Ozone Reaction

Compounds C-C ºA C-O ºA O-O ºA C-H ºA IR-Frequencies HO* 0.9552 (O-H) 4053 HOO* 1.3080 1253, 1598, 4077 HOOO* 1.2614, 1.3943 i-240, 634, 1050, 1313, 1592, 4079 O3 1.3654 984, 983, 1443 CH3* 1.0731 418, 1523, 1524, 3258, 3435, 3438 CH3O* 1.3837 1.0858,1.08

84 895, 1093, 1197, 1559, 1565, 1640, 3156, 3228, 3246

CH4 1.0839 1462, 1462, 1462, 1671, 1672, 3172, 3275, 3276, 3277

C2H5* 1.4976 1.076,1.092 160, 462, 867, 1071, 1110, 1296, 1529, 1590, 1607, 1607, 3135, 3204, 3240, 3293, 3394

C2H5O* 1.5194 1.3881 1.085,1.089 121, 269, 458, 928, 960, 1156, 1196, 1366,1509, 1550, 1575, 1603, 1618, 3160, 3183, 3195, 3248, 3262

C2H6 1.5270 1.086 328, 885, 886, 1058, 1324, 1324, 1526, 1559,1620, 1621, 1622, 1623, 3174, 3179, 3221, 3223, 3249, 3251

C3H7* 1.4994 1.078,1.085, 1.093

128, 169, 370, 466, 926, 1010, 1023, 1128,1202, 1276, 1474, 1543, 1544, 1596, 1602, 1607, 1612, 3119, 3125, 3190, 3194, 3238, 3239, 3307

n-C3H7O* 1.5971 1.5689

1.4039 1.102,1.098 99,147, 260, 269, 360, 393, 577, 798, 903, 923, 1023, 1087, 1112, 1158, 1221, 1311, 1372, 1437, 1445, 1519, 1533, 1543, 1562, 1599, 1612, 1617, 1629, 3135, 3147, 3150, 3157, 3171, 3185, 3198, 3223, 3223

i-C3H7O* 1.5292 1.5229

1.3952 1.085,1.088 120, 231, 239, 263, 377, 433, 506, 815, 876, 975, 1054, 1077, 1085, 1102, 1195, 1283, 1376, 1420, 1464, 1518, 1526, 1539, 1598, 1605, 1617, 1621, 1625, 3139, 3156, 3162, 3176, 3194, 3223, 3236, 3248, 3255

C3H8 1.528 1.087 229, 286, 389, 804, 926, 976, 1006, 1123,1273, 1317, 1421, 1485, 1540, 1548, 1610, 1611, 1617, 1626, 1631, 3161, 3163, 3171, 3187, 3221,3232,3234, 3235

C4H9* 1.4998 1.5313 1.5274

1.076,1.088, 1.093

129, 156, 257, 281, 446, 487, 783, 880, 932, 1034, 1091, 1140, 1179, 1266, 1358, 1426,1435, 1525, 1545, 1586, 1605, 1613, 1617, 1628, 3111, 3163, 3170, 3176, 3200, 3233, 3235, 3282, 3384

C4H10 1.076,1.088, 1.093

125, 236, 270, 278, 450, 785, 869, 897,1032, 1046, 1088, 1130, 1264, 1312, 1396, 1435, 1439, 1524, 1543, 1545, 1611, 1613, 1619, 1621,1625, 1632, 3155, 3162, 3166, 3167, 3174, 3194,3225, 3230, 3231, 3232


Table 4: Total Energies (Kcal/mol) of Transition State Structures used in the Hydrocarbons + Ozone Reaction Calculated at MP2 Level with Three Basis Sets

Compound MP2/6-31G(d) MP2/6-31++G(d,p) MP2/6-311++G(2d,2p)* CH4-O3-TS1 -166332.911 -166375.082 -166541.813 CH4-O3-TS2 -166443.302 -166465.991 C2H6-O3-TS1 -191000.510 -191051.836 C2H6-O3-TS2 -191019.664 -191063.636 C2H6-O3-TS3 -191025.700 -191072.532 C2H6-O3-TS4 -190925.917 -190978.254 -191167.340 C2H6-O3-TS5 -191000.847 -191052.254 C2H6-O3-TS6 -190957.069 -190998.480 C2H6-O3-TS7 -191029.496 -191076.471 C3H8-O3-TS1 -215584.302 -215646.533 C3H8-O3-TS2 -215467.623 -215558.537 C3H8-O3-TS3 -215610.281 -215669.996 C3H8-O3-TS4 -215607.088 -215674.298 C3H8-O3-TS5 -215512.376 -215575.670 C3H8-O3-TS6 -215519.946 -215608.565 -215827.602 n-C3H8-O3-TS7 -215609.367 -215667.638 i-C3H8-O3-TS7 -215612.886 -215671.458 C4H10-O3-TS1 -240212.627 -240263.151 C4H10-O3-TS2 240167.715- -240239.955 C4H10-O3-TS3 -240116.661 -240181.480 C4H10-O3-TS4 -240117.135 -240181.971 -240413.012 C4H10-O3-TS5 -240123.988 -240191.562

* For only reasonable TS molecule Table 5: Zero-point energies ZEP (Kcal/mol) Calculated at HF/6-31G(d) Level Molecule Zep Molecule Zep Molecule Zep HO* 5.64227 HOO* 2.87264 HOOO* 6.82622 O 0.00 O2 2.85693 O3 4.53114 CH4 30.16315 CH3* 19.74337 CH3O* 25.83639 C2H6 50.02216 C2H5* 39.71166 C2H5O* 44.28385 C3H8 69.60394 C3H7* 59.18615 C3H7O* 63.39562 C4H10 88.46707 C4H9* 78.41312 C4H9O* 72.44600

Table 6: Zero-point energies ZEP (Kcal/mol) Calculated at HF/6-31++G(2d,2p) Level Molecule Zep Molecule Zep Molecule Zep HO* 5.89466 HOO* 9.98509 HOOO* 12.08096 O 0.00 O2 2.63788* O3 4.83080 CH4 29.69230 CH3* 19.62343 CH3O* 25.41406 C2H6 49.57887 C2H5* 39.40429 C2H5O* 43.31234 C3H8 68.63106 C3H7* 58.70431 C3H7O* 62.23865 C4H10 87.70424 C4H9* 77.70218 C4H9O* 70.92845

*O2 in triplet state


Figure 1: Geometries of Reactants, Products

Ozone HDR HTR CH3O*

METHANE ETHANE C2H5O*

PROPANE n-C3H7O* i-C3H7O*

BUTANE n-C4H9O* i-C4H9O*


Figure 2: Geometries of CH4-O3 and C2H6-O3 Transition States Structures

Proposed CH4-O3-TS1 Proposed CH4-O3-TS2 Proposed C2H6-O3-TS1

Proposed C2H6-O3-TS2 Proposed C2H6-O3-TS3 Proposed C2H6-O3-TS4

Proposed C2H6-O3-TS5 Proposed C2H6-O3-TS6 Proposed C2H6-O3-n-TS7


Figure 4: Geometries of C4H9-O3 Transition States Structures

Proposed C4H9-O3-n-TS1 Proposed C4H9-O3-n-TS2 Proposed C4H9-O3-n-TS3

Proposed C4H9-O3-n-TS4 Proposed C4H9-O3-n-TS5 Proposed C4H9-O3-n-TS6

The O-O bond in HDR molecule is 1.3080 Aº which is average value of the two O-O bonds length in HTR molecule (1.2614 and 1.3943 Aº). The resonance in O-O bond in HDR molecule due to three–electron bond made it mush shorter than that of HTR molecule.

Of course this stabilization energy in HDR molecule increases the activation energy of transition state that lend to HDR molecule formation. The theoretical IR calculations at UHF/HF/6-31++G(2d,2p) showed that the HDR species were stable molecules while the HTR species were labile and transition state molecules in gas phase which decomposed to a stable O2 and OH radical. 2. Reaction Mechanism

The route of ozone reaction with the four hydrocarbon gases RH (methane, ethane, propane and butane) in the troposphere has been examined via the three possible reaction paths, namely, abstraction (dehydrogenation) reaction through formation of hydrotrioxyl radical (HTR) and alkyl radical R*, replacement reaction through formation of hydrodioxyl radical (HDR) and alkoxyl radical RO* and the OH*+O radicals as shown follow:

a-) Abstraction reaction (formation of HTR molecule): RH + O3 →R* + HO3* --- then---→ [R* + O2 + OH*]--- then--- → ROH+ O2

b-) Replacement reaction (formation of HDR molecule) RH + O3 → RO* + HO2* ---then---→ [RO*+ O + OH*]--- then--- → ROH+ O2 The enthalpy and Gibbs free energy change and the final energies for these reactions are

calculated at MP2 high level and DFT high level using basis sets 6-31++G(2d,2p)) which tabulated in Table-7. This Table concentrated on HDR and HTR species. DFT level of calculation gave more accurate results of energies than MP2 level for configurationally structures and transition state structures as seen in the 3rd and 5th columns of Table-7.


Table 7: The Quantum mechanical Energies, ∆Gº and ∆Hº of the Abstraction and Replacement Reaction Pathways Calculated at Different Levels (Kcal/mol)

Suggested Reactions Path

Route MP2/F DFT/6-31G(d) DFT/F ∆Go # ∆Ho #

CH4 + O3 → CH3* + HO3* HTR -30.262 31.127 10.121 -45.373 -44.352 CH4 + O3 → CH3O*+HO2* HDR -189.603 717.375 45.348 -103.217 -102.161 C2H6 + O3 → C2H5* + HO3* HTR -40.762 6.891 3.815 -48.225 -46.707 C2H6 + O3 → C2H5O* + HO2* HDR -216.148 707.585 18.262 -108.562 -107.249 C3H8 + O3 → C3H7* + HO3* HTR -49.794 -19.559 450.363 -48.687 -50.447 C3H8 + O3 → n-C3H7O* + HO2* HDR -179.295 682.082 452.706 -109.437 -110.135 C3H8 + O3 →i-C3H7O*+HO2* HDR -232.129 716.171 453.686 -107.218 -108.882 C4H10 + O3 → C4H9* + HO3* HTR -1.511 -3.412 -24.604 -46.530 -47.991 C4H10 + O3 →n-C4H9O* + HO2* HDR -53.200 -83.532 -802.046 -109.240 -109.805 C4H10 + O3 → i-C4H9O* + HO2* HDR -59.341 -89.000 -807.518 -107.006 -107.942

F=6-31++G(2d,2p) , #∆ Gº and ∆Hº calculated at HF/6-311++G(2d,2p) for high accuracy

The reaction rates of these reactions are also calculated at UHF/HF/6-31++G(2d,2p) level of theory as shown in the Table-8. Table 8: The Reaction Rate of the Abstraction and Replacement Reaction Pathways Calculated at HF/6-

311++G(2d,2p) (rate in sec-1)

Reaction Suggested Reactions/ rate Transition /rate Products/ rate → CH3* + HO3* → CH3* + OH*+O2 CH3OH + O2

1.14 x 1046 2.53 x 1086 → CH3O* + HO2* → CH3O* + OH*+O 8.0 x10115

2.88 x 1088 4.97 x 10495 for Singlet Oxygen

CH4 + O3

3.37 x 1092 for Triplet Oxygen

→ C2H5* + HO3* → C2H5* + OH*+O2 C2H5OH + O2 1.135 x 1046 3.12 x 1088

→ C2H5O* + HO2* → C2H5O* +OH*+O 3.124 x 1088 6.8 x 1091 2.0 x 10485 for Singlet Oxygen

C2H6 + O3


→ C3H7* + HO3* → C3H7* + OH*+O2 5.95 x 1048 1.33 x 1090 n-C3H7OH + O2

→ n-C3H7O* + HO2* → n-C3H7O* + OH*+O 1.59 x 10118 4.1 x 1092 3.8 x 10493 for Singlet Oxygen i-C3H7OH + O2

→i-C3H7O* + HO2* 4.77 x 1098 for Triplet Oxygen 3.51 x 10121 1.04 x 1093

→ i-C3H7O* + OH*+O 5.87 x 10500 for Singlet Oxygen

C3H8 + O3


→ C4H9* + HO3* → C4H9* + OH*+O2 9.43 x 1047 2.11 x 1088 n-C4H9OH + O2

→n-C4H9O* + HO2* → n-C4H9O* + OH*+O 1.0 x 10119 8.39 x 1091 1.56 x 10499 for Singlet Oxygen i-C4H9OH + O2

→ i-C4H9O* + HO2* 1.22 x 1095 for Triplet Oxygen 9.86 x 10120 1.5 x 1093 → i-C4H9O* + OH*+O

3.37 x 10500 for Singlet Oxygen

C4H10 + O3


The results of reaction rates calculations showed that all these types of reactions are possible

with various probabilities. The formation of HDR (~x1092) is faster than HTR formation (~x1048) but still less probable than OH*+O species formation (~x1099 with triplet state) and (~x10500 with singlet state) in contrast to Shereshovets et al[30] interpretations. The strange thing is that these reactions prefer singlet oxygen atom rather than triplet oxygen atom, whereas the triplet is more stable than singlet by


47.44 Kcal/mol calculated by G3 method42 at STP environment. The reaction rates values (see Table-8) also showed that the reaction of ozone with these hydrocarbons pass through the formation of

biradical formation of RO*+↑↓

O +OH* to form the final products ROH+O2. The rate of alcohols formation decrease as follow:

i-C3H7OH< i-C4H9OH< n-C4H9OH< n-C3H7OH< CH4OH< C2H5OH Of these products, the formation of iso alcohols like i-C3H7OH (~x 10121) is faster than the

normal alcohols n-C3H7OH (~x 10118) which in accordance with Shustove[29] conclusion. Generally, the reaction rates of HDR and HTR is slower than that of their fragment species (i.e. OH*+O or OH*+O2) as seen in the second column of Table-8. 3. Transition States Calculations

Two different techniques have been used to look into the transition state. The first technique is using the quadratic synchronous transit method (QST) of HyperChem 7.52 which searches for a maximum a long a parabola connecting reactants and products, and for a minimum in all directions perpendicular to the parabola. This method will calculate the over all energy barrier between the reactant and product but it can not identify the structure of the transition state. The energy barrier calculated at 6-31G(d) level for the replacement reaction (HDR) of ozone with methane, ethane, propane, and butane are 429.767, 403.861, 525.809 , 606.086 Kcal/mol respectively as listed in Table-9. Table 9: Energy Barrier for Replacement Reaction (HDR) of Ozone with Hydrocarbon Calculated at HF/ 6-

31G(d) Level Using Transition State Method (QST) (Kcal/mol)

Molecule CH4 C2H6 C3H8 C4H10 Energy barrier 429.767 403.861 525.809 606.086

The second method used for searching transition state structure is based on chemical guess in

which one can suppose several possible transition states and then examined by IR calculation. This method is good for a well-known reaction mechanism.

For deep investigation, thirty-three transition state structures are proposed for reaction of ozone with ethane, propane and butane as shown in Figures 3-5. These structures show the most probable attack sites of ozone on the hydrocarbon. Among these possible transition state structures only TS1 of methane, TS4 of ethane, TS6 of propane and TS5 of butane are proved to be a real transition state with one negative frequency (NIMAG=1) and gave a positive energy barrier. The ozone prefers to have a ring structure rather than a broken one through formation of transition state. The calculated energy barrier of these transition state structures for the reaction of ozone with methane, ethane, and propane are 32.995, 18.904, and 37.969 respectively. The TS4 and TS5 of butane gave a negative energy barrier (ca≈-2 Kcal/mol) as listed in Tables 10-13. Finally, it seems that none of these thirty-three transition state structures is close to the real transition state configurations. Therefore, the QST could be considered more reasonable treatment for these reactions. Table 10: Transition State Calculated at MP2 Level with Three Basis Sets*

Compound MP2/ 6-31G(d) MP2/ 6-31++G(d,p) MP2/ 6-311++G(2d,2p) OZONE -141074.631 -141074.631 -141216.336 CH4 -25311.822 -25333.446 -25356.701 TOTAL -166378.923 -166408.077 -166573.037 CH4-O3-TS1 -166332.911 -166375.082 -166541.813 ENERGY BARRIER 46.012 32.995 31.224

*using second method


Table 11: Transition State Calculated at MP2 Level with Three Basis Sets

Compound MP2/ 6-31G(d) MP2/ 6-31++G(d,p) MP2/ 6-311++G(2d,2p) OZONE -141067.1008 -141074.631 -141216.336 C2H6 -49889.373 -49922.527 -49967.692 TOTAL -190956.474 -190997.158 -191184.028 C2H6-O3-TS4 -190925.917 -190978.254 -191167.340 ENERGY BARRIER 30.557 18.904 16.688

*using second method Table 12: Transition State Calculated at MP2 Level with Three Basis Sets

Compound MP2/6-31G(d) MP2/6-31++G(d,p) MP2/6-311++G(2d,2p) OZONE -141067.1008 -141074.633 -141216.337 C3H8 -74469.1030 -74513.924 -74581.335 TOTAL -215536.2038 -215588.557 -215797.672 C3H8-O3-TS6 -215519.9456 -215608.565 -215827.602 ENERGY BARRIER 16.2582 37.969 -29.93

*using second method Table 13: Transition State Calculated at MP2 Level with Three Basis Sets Compound MP2/6-31G(d) MP2/6-31++G(d,p) MP2/ 6-311++G(2d,2p) O3 -141067.1008 -141074.633 -141216.336 C4H10 -99048.9230 -99105.409 -99195.093 TOTAL -240116.0238 -240180.042 -240411.429 C4H9-O3-TS4 -240117.1350 -240181.971 -240413.013 ENERGY BARRIER -1.1112 -1.929 -1.584

*using second method


Figure 3: Geometries of C3H8-O3 Transition States Structures



Proposed n-C3H8-O3 -TS7 Proposed i-C3H8-O3-TS7 Proposed C3H8-O3-TS8

n= oxygen of ozone is attached to Terminal carbon, C1 or C3 i= oxygen of ozone is attached to Middle carbon, C2

Figure 5: The Geometry of TS1 Transition States Structures of CH4+O3 from IRC calculation

The structure of proposed CH4-O3-TS1 at saddle point position for CH4+O3 reaction (energy in a.u.)


4. CH4+O3 ---> CH3OH+O2 Reaction

In this reaction we consider the CH4+O3 as reactant and the CH3OH+O2 as products. The energy barrier values calculated at 6-31G(d,p) level using QST method of HyperChem 7.52 for the reaction of ozone with methane are -35.44 and -1.89 Kcal/mol respectively for forward and reverse reaction. This method might be not successful for this reaction with this basis set. To reconsider the reaction path leading down from a transition structure for this reaction, we used the intrinsic reaction coordinate, IRC, calculation on TS1.

The IRC results for CH4+O3 ---> CH3OH+O2 reaction at 3-21+G** level gave an activation energy of 619 and 68 Kcal/mol for forward and reverse reaction as shown in Figure-5&6. Of course, these results state that although this TS1 structure is a transition state and contact two minima but it does not fall in the path way reaction.

Figure 6: CH4+O3 CH3OH+O2 REACTION at 3-21+G**

5. Conclusion

It could be concluded that the reaction of ozone with petroleum gases is possible in the atmosphere indoor and outdoor but with ambiguous mechanism, since all these various thirty-three proposed transition state structures are far from the saddle point structure and the real mechanism at this point is still unclear and need further investigations. The ozonation reaction of these hydrocarbons passes through the formation of biradical species RO*+O+OH* to reach the final products ROH+O2 rather than through formation of HDR or HTR. Of course, these reactions could be utilized in the refining industry to produce alcohols from hydrocarbons in special units which will be mixed later with the reformate gasoline to be of high octane number.

It seem also that through reaction path, one of O–O bond of ozone breaks and the two terminal oxygen of ozone immediately attack the two hydrogen’s of hydrocarbon to form oxygenated transition state molecule. This oxygenated molecule decomposes either with less possibility through O-H and C-H bonds breakage to form HO3* and R* radicals or through of O-O bond breakage of oxygenated molecule to give the HO*, O and RO* radicals.


References [1] I.S.A. Isaksen, V. Ramaswamy, H. Rodhe, and T.M.L. Wigley, “Radiative forcing of climate,

in Climate Change”, 1992, The Supplementary Report to the IPCC Scientific Assessment, Ed. by J.T. Houghton, B.A. Callander, and S.K. Varney, Cambridge University Press, 1992.

[2] W.B. DeMore, S.P. Sander, D.M. Golden, R.F. Hampson, M.J. Kurylo, C.J. Howard, A.R. Ravishankara, C.E. Kolb, and M.J. Molina, “Chemical kinetics and photochemical data for use in stratospheric modeling”, JPL, 92, 20, Pasadena, California, 1992.

[3] R. Atkinson, D.L. Baulch, R.A. Cox, R.F. Hampson Jr., J.A. Kerr, and J. Troe, Evaluated kinetic and photochemical data for atmospheric chemistry: Supplement IV, Atmos. Environ., 26A, 1187-1230, 1992.

[4] A.P. Altshuller, “Chemical reactions and transport of alkanes and their products in the troposphere”, J. Atmos. Chem, 12, 19-61, 1991.

[5] A.M. Thompson and R.W. Stewart, “Effect of chemical kinetics uncertainties on calculated constituents in a tropospheric photochemical model”, J. Geophys. Res., 96, 13,089-13,108, 1991.

[6] Gramatica P., Pillutti P., Papa E., University of Insubria, via Dunant 3, 21100 Varese, Italy; http://disbsf.uninsubria.it/qsar

[7] S.A. Montzka, M. Trainer, P.D. Goldan, W.C. Kuster, F.C. Fehsenfeld, “Isoprene and its oxidation products, methyl vinyl ketone and methacrolein, in the rural troposphere”, J. Geophys Res., 98, 1101-1111, 1993.

[8] S.E. Paulson, R.C. Flagan, J.H. Seinfeld, “Atmospheric photooxidation of isoprene part II: The ozone-isoprene reaction”, Int. J. Chem. Kin. 24, 103-125, 1992.

[9] S.E. Paulson and J.H. Seinfeld, “Development and evaluation of a photooxidation mechanism for isoprene”, J. Geophys. Res., 97, 20,703-20,715, 1992.

[10] A.H. Haines, “Methods for the Oxidation of Organic Compounds. Alkanes, Alkenes, Alkynes and Arenes”. Academic Press, London, 1985.

[11] (a) W. Lei, A. Derecskei-Kovacs, R. Zhang, J. Chem. Phys., 113, 5354, 2000. (b) W. Lei; R. Zhang, W. S. McGivern, A. Derecskei-Kovacs, S. W. North, Chem. Phys. Lett.,

326, 109, 2000. (c) W. Lei; R. Zhang, W. S. McGivern, A. Derecskei-Kovacs, S. W. North, J. Phys. Chem. A,

105, 471, 2001. [12] F. Gilardoni, A. T. Bell, A. Chakraborty, P. Boulet., J. Phys. Chem., B, 104, 12250- 12255,

2000. [13] M. R. Soto, M. Page., J. Phys. Chem., 94, 3242-3246, 1990. [14] 14- D. Zhang, R. Zhang, S. W. North, J. Phys. Chem. A, 107, 11013-11019, 2003. [15] C.C. Price, A.L. Tumolo, J. Am. Chem. Soc.; 86: 4691–4694, 1964. [16] H.M. White, P.S. Bailey. J. Org. Chem., 30: 3037–3041, 1965. [17] M.C. Whiting, A.J.N. Bolt, J.H. Parish. Adv. Chem. Ser. 77, 4, 1969. [18] G.A. Hamilton, B.S. Ribner, T.M. Hellman. Adv. Chem. Ser., 77,15,1969. [19] B. Plesnicˇar, In Organic Peroxides, Ando W (ed.). Wiley: New York,; 479–533, 1992. [20] A. De Meijere, F. Wolf, In Organische Peroxo-Verbindungen, vol. E13, Kropf H (ed.). George

Thieme: Stuttgart, 971, 1988. [21] W.A. Pryor, N. Ohto, D.F. Church. J. Am. Chem. Soc., 105:3614–3622, 1983. [22] M. Zarth, A. de Meijere. Chem. Ber., 118, 2429–2449, 1985. [23] Z. Cohen, E. Keinan, Y. Mazur, T.H. Varkony. J. Org. Chem., 40, 2141–2145, 1975. [24] D. Tal, E. Keinan, Y. Mazur. J. Am. Chem. Soc., 101, 502–503, 1979. [25] A. Beckwith, C. Bodkin, J. Duong. Aust. J. Chem., 30: 2177–2188, 1977. [26] E.V. Avzyanova, N.N. Kabal’nova, V.V. Shereshovets., Russ. Chem. Bull., 45, 360, 1996. [27] E.V. Avzyanova, Q.K. Timerghazin, A.F. Khalizov, S.L. Khursan, L.V. Spirikhin, V.V.

Shereshovets., Mendeleev Commun., 227, 1997.


[28] E. V. Avzyanova, Q. K. Timerghazin, A. F. Khalizov, S. L. Khursan, L. V. Spirikhin, V. V. Shereshovets, J. Phys. Org. Chem., 13, 87, 2000.,

[29] G.V. Shustov, A. Rauk, J. Org. Chem. 63(16):5413-5422, 1998. [30] 30. Q.K. Timerghazin, S.L Khursan, V.V. Shereshovets., J. Mol. Struct.(Theochem), 489: 87–

93, 1999. [31] 31- A.D. Becke, J. Chem. Phys., 96, 2155, 1993. [32] 32- A.D. Becke, J. Chem. Phys., 98, 5648, 1993. [33] 33- C. Lee, W. Yang, R.G. Parr, Phys. Rev. B.,37, 785, 1988. [34] 34- M. Head-Gordon, J. A. Pople and M. J. Frisch, Chem. Phys. Lett., 153, 503, 1988. [35] 35- M. S. Gordon, Chem. Phys. Lett., 76, 163, 1980. [36] 36- W. J. Hehre, R. Ditchfield, and J. A. Pople, J. Chem. Phys., 56, 2257, 1972; P. C. Hariharan

and J. A. Pople, Theor. Chim. Acta, 28, 213, 1973; M. S. Gordon, Chem. Phys. Lett., 76, 163, 1980; M.M. Francl, W.J. Petro, W.J. Hehre, J.S. Binkley, M.S. Gordon, D.J. DeFrees and J.A. Pople, J. Chem. Phys.77, 3654, 1982; V. Rassolov, J.A. Pople, M. Ratner and T.L. Windus, J. Chem. Phys. 109, 1223, 1998.

[37] Raffenetti, R.C., Pre-processing two-electron integrals for efficient utilization in many electron self-consistent field calculations, Chem. Phys. Letters 20,335-338, 1973.

[38] HyperChem 7.52, Hypercube Inc., FL, 2003. [39] J. J. P. Stewart, J. Comput. Chem. 10, 209-220 (1989). [40] MOPAC2000, J. J. P. Steward, Fujitsu Limited, Tokyo, Japan, (1999). [41] Gaussian03W from Gaussian, Inc. 340 Quinnipiac St., Bldg. 40, Wallingford CT 06492. [42] L. A. Curtiss, K. Raghavachari, P. C. Redfern, V. Rassolov, and J. A. Pople, J. Chem Phys.

109, 7764 (1998); L. A. Curtiss, P. C. Redfern, K. Raghavachari, V. Rassolov, and J. A. Pople, J. Chem. Phys. 110, 4703 (1999).


Sport a Panacea in a Divided Community

Erhinyodavwe I. Johnson Department of educational foundation

Delta state college of sports and science education Mosogar Nigeria

Boye, E. Thomas

Delta state college of sports and science education Mosogar Nigeria

Abstract

Idleness is said to be the workshop for the devil. Community, a mini-society is the abode of youths who exercise restiveness most times due to idleness. This paper highlights the importance of sport in a divided community by using traditional sport in bringing the communal people together. Sports keep individuals in the community busy, create job opportunities, and create room for boundary and friendship among people. The writers also discussed the role of sports in a divided community and the situation that could make sport useful, as a panacea in a divided community. Recommendations were made on how sports could maintain and control divided community socially by engaging the youths who exercise restiveness to creating division in communities.

Introduction Community is a mini society where people having common interest live together. It is seen to be a unit with a binding factor. Community is the microcosm of a society, the macrocosm with common social amenities like; market, language, tribal marks, physical features, occupation, food-type, dress and religion. They have common culture. In Omozeghian (1995), community comprises of body of people having common interests or living in one locality.

Community is a social-cultural institution where its people learn different social-cultural skills for a living. Sport is one of the many social-cultural activities that is as old as every community and which is being practiced and exercised for entertainment or for skill acquisition. Many youths involve themselves in sport nowadays to make riches. They practice the skills in the community and go into the society to manipulate to be recognized and to make wealth for themselves and sometimes for the society they belong. What then is sport?

Sport is a unique activity that is not uncommon in every community. Ladani (2006) asserts that sport is used to include athletic activities requiring skill, games, recreation and play which require physical awareness and often of competitive nature. Huzina (1967) was also of the views, believing that play or sport is older than culture. Obviously, sport in whatever form is within the context of culture. Sport and culture are intertwined and cannot be separated in a community. Sport is fast turning to become a social institution for unity. No wonder, the works of Bouet (1973), Hughes and Williams (1944), Baker (1964) point at sport as a vital cultural product, an expression of people serving as an active socializing

Sport a Panacea in a Divided Community 507

force for the development of man. In the views of Strutt (1968), sport brings about the character of any particular people of the past. Loy J. W.J., Macpherron, B and Kenyou, G.S (1978) convincingly stated that sport is a cultural product which reinforces the dominant social ideology and contribution to a sense of community.

Who (2005) quoted Blatter, that football a universal sports can be used as a medium and arena for disseminating important human right messages. These imply that sport is a vital instrument in a community. The Importance of Sport in a Community The fact remains that we cannot shy away from the contribution of sport to the community. Among others, sport is a social cultural institution that socializes the community where it is practiced. The sport men and women are members of the community and whatever game they practice automatically is a reflection of the culture of the people. To this extent, sport perpetuates the social cultural heritage of the people. The sport being exercised in a community is the likely or very close to the culture of the community. The medical, educational and political leaders emphasized that physical, mental, and indeed moral health was developed through games and sport, Eitzen and Sage (1978). Sport is a communal activity, sports and leisure activities no doubt have become an increasingly conspicuous part of the recreation programme of thousands of communities. According to Boye and Eboh and Money (2006) Sport keeps the community busy. In addition, sport creates job opportunities to the community people. Other major areas where sport becomes relevant to a community and the society at large are; (1) It promotes awareness of general fitness, health, recreational and leisure activities to the people

irrespective of age, occupation and status. (2) It creates room for bounding and friendship among people (3) Sport involves people to have a sense of patriotism, belongingness as well as enhancing the

social well being of the citizenry (4) It provides opportunities for persons with talents to excel in their chosen sport and to be

recognized (5) It helps to solving some social ills such as combating anti-social behaviours among community

members through traditional competitions. The Use of Traditional Sport Traditional sport in Nigeria has been ever before 1564 when John Hawkins, the notorious Portuguese visited Benin City. These sports then were used for many purposes. Each ethnic group had its own special sports being used to fulfill certain traditional rites, such as marriage, installation of traditional rulers, festivals for their gods etc. In short, traditional sport was another medium used for teaching children about cultural values, norms and ideas of the community. Its roles were profound in cultural rites, rituals and initiation ceremonies. Before sport became model embracing national and international countries for competition these and other tribes in Nigeria have these sports for unity, peace and stability of the communities. Hausas- Dance, langa, dambe, kokowa, horse-riding Igbos- Wrestling, water regatta, Atilogwu. Yorubas- Dancing, wrestling, boxing, ayo, haunting, fishing and swimming Ijaws- Swimming, wrestling and fishing Urhobos- Dancing, wrestling and haunting Edos- Acrobatics local gymnastics and dancing Idomas- Dancing, haunting and cycle racing Tivs- Dancing Igbiras- Dancing, organi and fishing festival

508 Erhinyodavwe I. Johnson and Boye, E. Thomas

Jukuns- Wrestling, boat and canoe racing, fishing, swimming, haunting and dancing. (Ladani, 2000)

The list is not exhaustive for only ten (10) are mentioned here out of one hundred and forty- two (142) ethnic groups in Nigeria. This nature of Sports exists in all African Countries and beyond. Out of all the traditional sports listed above, one of them is unique and it affects all ethnic groups and that is dancing. Dancing of course is such an attractive event that unites the people of a community and it goes along to avert communal clashes and divisions. It rather creates room for choosing partners. The Role of Sports in a Divided Community Where communities are in disarray, sport brings them together more so at certain festivals. Even where communities have clash, sport settles it as they would suspend their fight and exercise the sporting competitions under the rules and regulations guiding it. Ikulayo (1993) giving credence to the functional role of sport observed that people no longer fight wars but plays sports. That is to say that sport unites communities. Sport is a veritable instrument which encourages team work and disciplines among youth in the community. It is obvious that hooliganism is being practiced in communities by youngstars who are between twelve and seventeen years of age that either drop out of school and/or who are idle. Their actions and behaviours sometimes bring division to communities – some steal, some fight because of girl friends and other trivial issues alike. Since they are still within this range, growing sport most times play a vital role in rehabilitating them, bending them to obey rules and regulations concerning sport. Sport plays the role of making sport’s men and women to be highly disciplined with unalloyed obedience to the rules of the game they play which is reflected in the community. To this extent, sport bridges the gap of disunity in a community by developing the interest of the people to unite and be friendly. Sports can be useful in a divided community under the following situations

(i) The availability of sports facilities and equipments. (ii) Periodic engagements of inter-intra community sports. (iii) Gate fees during these engagements should be free or minimal. (iv) The games should be in observance of sporting rules and regulations. (v) The officiating officers should be objective and avoid favouritism and impartiality. Recommendations (1) Form team in a divided community and admit players without discrimination. Admission

should embrace all and across the community. (2) Friendly football matches should be organized within the divided communities. (3) To organize sporting competitions that leads to award of prizes in form of trophies plagues, for

over-all winners while the best player can be awarded monetary prizes. (4) Calendars of sponsors organizers and competitors should be produce and send round the

communities which will help to boost their morale. (5) Other competitions such as intra-mural and inter-mural competitions that can involve

individuals and team sports such as athletics (field & track), ball games (soccer, handball, basket ball, hockey etc.), swimming and dancing competition will be panacea to divided community.

Sport a Panacea in a Divided Community 509

Conclusion Sport plays an ambassadorial role in every community by creating room for unity and friendship. The young ones can be rehabilitated using sport as a vehicle and thus making them to obey the rules and regulations of the community as they exercise the rules of the game. There is the saying axiomatic, that “united we stand, divided we fall”, and so, sport brings this axiom into play as communities believe that they would fail if they go for any competition and are divided. Sport creates job opportunity for the drop out and idle ones. This makes the young ones to think less of community crises in other that they can thrive in the career. References [1] Bouet, M. (1973) “The Function of Sport in Human Relations” International review of Sport

Sociology vol. 2, pp. 137-139. [2] Boye T.E., Eboh L.O., Money F.O., (2006) “Universal Sports for Universal Peace, Achieving

Development Millennium Goals in the Niger Delta Region”. Paper presented at the 39th National Conference of the Nigerian Association of Physical, Health Education Recreation, Sports & Dance (NAPHSR-SD) held at the Delta State college of Sports & Science Education, Mosogar from 19th -22 September 2006.

[3] Charlse A. Bucher and March L. Krotee (2002) Management of Physical Education and Sport. (12 Ed.) New York. M. C Graw- Hill Companies.

[4] Witzen. O. Stanley and George H. Sage (c) (1978) sociology of American Sport. America: W.M.C. Brown Company Publishers.

[5] Huphes W.L. and Jesse, F. Williams (1944), Sports: their Organization and Administration. New York: A. S. Barnes and Company.

[6] Huzinga, J. (1967). Homo Ludens. A Study of the Play Element in Culture. Boston, Rout ledge and Kegan Paul.

[7] Ikulayo, P.B. (1993) “The Functional Role of Sport Psychologists in Attaining Substaintial Youth Sports Excellence”. Journal of sports Psychology Association of Nigeria (JOSPAN) No.1. Jan.

[8] Ladani B.A (2006) “Historical and Conceptual Issues in Sport Study in Nigeria.” Jonapher-so. Vol 3 No. 1 pg 1-19.

[9] Loy, J.W. Jr., Macpherson, B & Kenyon,G.S. (1978) Sports and Social Systems. Reading: Addison- Wesly Publishing Company.

[10] Murtala, Abdulyagin Tukur (2006) “Religions to Peace, An Aspect of Sociology of Education As An Instrument of Peace, Unity, and Stability” The Nigerian Journal of Educational Review vol. 5. No. 4 pg. 9-14.

[11] Omozeghian, G.E. (1995) Introduction to Sociology of Education. Agbor: Pon Publishers Limited.

[12] Strutt, J. (1968) The Sports and Pastimes of the People of England. London: Singing Tree and press.


Growth and Yield of Cabbage in the Savanna Zone of

Southwestern Nigeria

J. A. fagbayide Department Of Agronomy, University Of Ibadan, Ibadan. Nigeria

E-mail: [email protected]

J.O. Olaniyi Department Of Agronomy, University Of Ibadan, Ibadan. Nigeria

Abstract

Field trials were conducted at Ibadan and Ogbomoso, representing derived and southern guinea savanna zones of the southwester Nigeria respectively to evaluate the growth and yield of eight cabbage varieties.

Results showed the cabbages performing differently in the two locations when their growth parameters were compared. Variety Almanac F1 produced almost twice the head size at Ibadan than at Ogbomoso while Fieldsport F1 at Ogbomoso was more productive than at Ibadan. Locational analysis was significant in the variations observed.

The overall evaluation showed comparative advantages of the production of Krautami F1; Almanac F1 and Fieldparade F1 at Ibadan than Ogbomoso while Fieldsport F1 performance at Ogbomoso was the best.

Introduction Cabbage, Brassica oleracea L, is one of the best and most popular edible vegetables with high nutritive value (Franklin and Ruth,1975). It grows best under cool conditions with a temperature range of 16-20ºC for good head formation (Jiang, 1981 and Kato 1981). The environmental problems of high temperature occasioned by high radiant energy7, according to William et al. (1991), I known to be one of the major production problem in the tropic.

The lowland tropic can be subdivided into humid and subsumed zone each of which ha tricking influence on crop performance. The savannah zone of the southwestern Nigeria comprises of the derived savannah and the Guinea savannah.

These two zones have distinct climatic feature capable of influencing the growth of temperature sensitive crop like the heading cabbage. According to Opena et al (1988) the advent of heat tolerant cabbage varieties paved way for the production of cabbage in the hot humid tropics. Production constraints and the potentials for cabbage production in the south-western Nigeria have been reviewed (Fagbayide and Adelekan,1996). As a follow up to this earlier work, this study was carried out to evaluate the performance of different cabbage varieties in two agro ecological zones of the southwestern Nigeria with a view to recommending adaptable varieties for cabbage production in the zone.

Growth and Yield of Cabbage in the Savanna Zone of Southwestern Nigeria 511

Materials and Methods Eight F1 Cabbage varieties, obtained from Bejo Zaden, the Netherlands, were planted in two locations at Ibadan (7º24’N 3º54’E) and Ogbomoso, (8º10’N 4º10’E) representing the derived savannah and the southern guinea savannah zones of the South-western Nigeria respectively. The Ibadan site was at the University Teaching and Research Farm while the Ogbomoso experiment was sited sat the Ladoke Akintola University Teaching and Research Farm. The Ibadan site was characterised by a fallow of Tithonia species (Mexican sunflower) while the Ogbomoso site had Imperata grass fallow on a sandy loam soil. The soil of sites belonged to the USDA classification of Alfisol. Samples of the soils were taken for routine analysis before the sites were manually slashed and raised beds measuring 4.0 x 1.2 m were prepared

Twenty-four raised beds representing eight varietal treatments in three replicates were made and the varieties were randomly assigned to beds within each block to fit into a randomised complete block design.

The eight cabbage varieties are; Fresco, Krautami, Almanac, Fieldsport, Fieldforce, Bronco, Fieldparade, and Rodolfo. Seedlings were raised in the nursery and were transplanted 30days after sowing at both sites at a spacing of 30 cm x 45 cm that gave a population of 36 plants per bed. Fertiliser NPK (15-15-15) was applied as basal dressing at the rate of 120kg/ha a week after transplanting at the two sites while other management practices such as weed and pest control were carried out on regular basis.

Growth parameters measured were plant height, number of unwrapped leaves, head diameter and the final yield of the head and the unwrapped leaves were taken 80 days after transplanting. The heads marketable yields were compared with the total above ground yield. The data collected were subjected to appropriate statistical analysis. Results and Discussion Environmental characterisation used for the study was mainly the rainfall intensity, duration and temperature. According to Midmore and Poudel (1966), the factor of agro ecological characterisation such as rainfall, soil types and vegetation can be used in making decisions on crops for particular agro ecological zones. The soil of both sites is compared as shown on table 1. There was very little variation in fertility of the sites. Similarly, since fertiliser application was done using the same rate to prime the soil fertility to give optimum crop yield (Messiaen, 1992), the main factors of importance used were thus the rainfall duration and the temperature differences. Table 1: Comparison of the soil properties of the two experimental locations

Soil Properties Ibadan Ogbomoso pH (H2O) 5.7 6.2 Organic Carbon (g/100 g) 1.06 1.8 Total N (g/100 g) 0.11 0.15 Available P (mg/kg) 5.4 11.5 Exchangeable Cations (c.mol/kg) Ca2+ 9.2 5.6 Mg2+ 1.7 2.6 K+ 0.3 0.16 Na+ 0.4 0.38 Exchangeable acidity (c.mol/kg) 0.7 0.5 ECEC 12.3 9.24 Base Saturation (%) 81.9 85.5 Sand (%) 81.8 67.8 Silt (%) 11.4 21.6 Clay (%) 6.8 10.6 Textural class Sandy loam

512 J. A. fagbayide and J.O. Olaniyi

At Ibadan location, the weather information was obtained from the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) Ibadan weather station, while the record of weather at Ogbomoso was collected from zonal office of the state Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Ogbomoso. The rainfall data showed that between May and August of 1996, the total amount in Ibadan was higher than that of Ogbomoso by more than 9.0mm(Table 2). The effects of the two locations on the plant height were not too significantly different (Table 3). Varietal differences were noted within locations although unwrapped leaves differences could be linked with varietal characteristics. Within the first six weeks after transplanting, variety Krautami had the largest number of unwrapped leaves at Ibadan location while Fieldsport F1 had the largest in Ogbomoso (Table 4). The yield components comprising the head diameter and total head yield showed that there were differences among the locations. In Ibadan, statistical analysis showed that head diameter significantly varied with Krautami F1 having the largest head diameter and Fresco F1 the least. There were no significance between the varieties at Ogbomoso except at 10 WATP (Table 5), and the variety with the largest head diameter was also Krautami F1. The analysis of location across the varieties showed significant interaction of yield response to locations. The weather record (Table 2) showed very little differences in the rainfall but the temperature differences during the growth periods were much higher at Ogbomoso than at Ibadan with about 3º C mean. This according to Opena et al., (1988) could account for the differences in the head sizes in the two locations. Varietal differences were not the same at the two locations. Variety Krautami F1 produced the highest total above ground mean yield of 1.9 kg per plant at Ibadan. This was followed by Almanac F1, which had 1.28 kg/plant (Table 6). At Ogbomoso, variety Fieldsport F1 produced the highest above ground yield of 2.12 kg/plant. Krautami F1 and Almanac F1 followed it in that order. The growth and head yield responses in the two locations could be due to the environmental influences not readily identified (Messiaen, 1992). However, the same varieties were good for production in both locations. This shows that they are truly heat tolerant according to Opena and Lo (1981) and Williams et al., (1991). The head sizes and overall yield differences may be due to management problems. Table 2: Monthly rainfall, Mean temperature and relative humidity at Ibadan and Ogbomoso during the growth

period.

Rainfall (mm) Mean Temperature

(ºC)

Mean Relative

humidity (%)

Ibadan Ogbomoso Ibadan Ogbomoso Ibadan Ogbomoso Month January 1.6 0.0 27.7 31.0 70 57 February 33.8 31.4 28.7 32.5 68 73 March 75.0 163.6 28.4 32.5 71 70 April 118.4 271.7 27.7 31.5 78 75 May 114.1 109.5 26.2 30.0 76 78 June 101.6 187.2 26.8 29.0 79 70 July 227.2 42.0 25.6 27.5 81 80 August 170.6 180.9 25.1 27.5 84 88 September 331.7 191.9 25.4 28.0 85 90 October 148.4 108.2 26.2 30.0 80 80 November 0.0 0.0 27.0 31.0 66 65 December 0.0 0.0 28.1 31.5 69 60

Source: Ibadan: IITA Weather Station, Ogbomoso. MANR Farm School.

Growth and Yield of Cabbage in the Savanna Zone of Southwestern Nigeria 513

Table 3: Mean Plant height (cm) of Cabbage Varieties as affected by location

Weeks after Transplanting Ibadan Ogbomoso Cabbage

Varieties 2 4 6 8 2 4 6 8 Fresco 4.9 5.6 7.8 16.3 4.2 6.0 8.4 20.3 Krautami 6.2 7.5 9.4 21.4 5.5 7.3 11.2 25.0 Almanac 7.1 9.5 12.2 19.2 7.6 9.3 12.6 21.1 Fieldforce 8.8 11.4 14.1 23.1 7.8 11.4 15.1 25.8 Bronco 10.1 12.3 15.5 24.4 8.9 12.3 15.4 27.5 Fieldparade 7.5 9.8 12.6 20.3 6.6 9.8 13.3 23.3 Rodolfo 9.0 10.3 12.3 22.0 7.9 9.8 12.5 26.1 Fieldsport 8.2 11.4 14.1 22.4 7.7 11.2 14.7 24.4 Lsd (0.05) 1.14 1.9 2.5 2.9 1.0 2.0 2.1 3.2

Table 4: Effects of location on the mean number of unwrapped leaves of Cabbage Varieties

Week After Transplanting Ibadan Ogbomoso

Cabbage Varieties

2 4 6 2 4 6 Fresco 4 7 12 5 9 13 Krautami 6 12 18 8 16 21 Almanac 8 11 15 9 13 18 Fieldforce 9 12 17 9 15 20 Bronco 10 12 17 9 15 20 Fieldparade 7 11 17 8 14 19 Rodolfo 8 9 13 7 11 16 Fieldsport 9 13 17 9 15 22 Lsd (0.05) 2 2 4 2 4 ns

Table 5: Cabbage head diameter (cm) per plant as affected by location

Week After Transplanting Ibadan Ogbomoso

Cabbage Varieties

8 9 10 8 9 10 Fresco 8.8 11.3 13.5 6.7 10.3 14.9 Krautami 10.3 15.3 25.5 11.7 16.2 25.1 Almanac 10.0 17.4 18.8 10.7 14.7 22.8 Fieldforce 11.9 15.0 16.4 9.1 14.0 20.3 Bronco 13.5 14.2 18.5 8.0 12.9 19.2 Fieldparade 13.6 14.0 21.0 9.9 14.5 19.3 Rodolfo 14.2 15.3 16.2 10.3 15.3 20.7 Fieldsport 19.2 20.1 22.3 13.7 17.0 20.1 Lsd (0.05) 4.4 3.34 6.0 ns ns 3.5

514 J. A. fagbayide and J.O. Olaniyi

Table 6: Yield Components of Cabbage Varieties (g) as affected by location per Plant

Ibadan Ogbomoso

Cabbage Variety Total above ground

yield/plant (g) Marketable

yield/plant (g) Total above ground

yield/plant (g) Marketable

yield/plant (g) Fresco 540.0 320.2 505.0 246.7 Krautami 1952.0 1480.0 1302.6 879.4 Almanac 1840.0 1440.8 1121.7 811.7 Fieldforce 675.0 395.0 856.1 611.7 Bronco 685.4 465.4 818.6 528.9 Fieldparade 1280.0 740.2 794.2 485.0 Rodolfo 480.0 180.8 803.3 490.0 Fieldsport 960.0 740.0 2120.3 1420.0 Lsd (0.01) 128.6 47.8 903.9 336.4

The spacing adopted produced plants with large width, which could help to achieve relative

ground cover, a situation that helped moisture conservation in Ogbomoso in spite of the low rainfall in July.

The overall assessment showed that cultivars Krautami F1, Almanac F1, Fieldparade F1 and Fieldsport F1 can be grown in Ibadan with relatively good yield and in addition, Fieldsport F1 with the highest head size at Ogbomoso. Since the varieties are heat tolerant, the intrinsic agro climatic differences can thus be based on the rainfall distribution pattern. If a reliable source of water for irrigation is available, production of cabbage could be successfully carried out at both savannah locations. References [1] Fagbayide, J.A. and Adelekan, O.K. (1996). Preliminary evaluation of growth and yield of

heading cabbage in Ibadan. Proc. 14th HORTSON Conf.: 269-273. [2] Franklin, W.M. and M.R. Ruth (1975). Edible leaves of the tropics. Mayagnez Institute of

Tropical Agriculture.. Mayaguez. Puerto Rico: 77-82. [3] Jiang, M.C. (1981). Chinese Cabbage cultivation. Agric. Pub. Co. Beijing. Pp. 260. [4] Kato, T. (1981). Head formation phenomenon. In: Developmental Physiology and Cultural

Techniques in Vegetable Crops ed. T. Suyiyama Seibundo-Shinkosha. Tokyo. [5] Messiaen, C.M. (1992). Vegetable crops originating in countries with temperate climates In:

The Tropical Vegetable Garden. CTA/Macmillan Pub. [6] Midmore, D.J. and D.D. Poudel (1996). Asian Vegetable production Systems for the future.

Agricultural Systems 50: 51-64. [7] Opena, R.T.; Kuo, C.G. and J.Y. Yoon (1988). Breeding and seed production of Chinese

cabbage in the tropics and subtropics. AVRDC. Shanhna Taiwan: 2-61. [8] ---------- and Lo, S.H. (1981). Breeding for heat tolerance in heading Chinese cabbage. In:

Chinese Cabbage. Ed. N.S. Talekar and T.O. Griggs. AVRDS. Shanhna. Taiwan: 431-442. [9] William, C.N.; Uzo, J.O. and Peregrine, W.T.H. (1991). Vegetable production in the tropics.

Longman Scientific Technical Group, U.K. Pp. 179


Inland Water Fishery Management Model in Nigeria

Augustine Omoike Department of Biological Sciences, Bells University of Technology

P.M.B.1015 Ota, Ogun State, Nigeria E-mail: [email protected]

Tel: +234 - 8054062690

Augustine E. Falaye Department of Wildlife and Fisheries Management

University of Ibadan. Ibadan, Nigeria

Abstract

Survey on the fishery management strategies otherwise known as edict was embarked upon and appraised in some of the Niger-Delta states in Nigeria. As a prerequisite to development and food security, extent of resource diversification and protection being an oil producing area, for the nation with over 120 million population.

The source of data collected were from Federal Government gazzete, questionnaire and personal interview with fisher folk, law enforcement agents and fisheries personnel in the surveyed states. The riparian communities in the Niger-Delta area and the populace have Inland fisheries laws and regulation in place but lack appropriate enforcement strategies for this edict. The need to re-enact these edicts as fundamental goal of curbing the indiscriminate use of these resources for selfish end is paramount concern in support of the resuscitation of this sub-sector as a prerequisite to effective management of rivers and its resources and economic development. Keywords: Inland water; fishery, Laws and Regulations, Management, Nigeria.

Introduction Capture fisheries being the oldest way of fish production has remained the cheapest way of livelihood and protein consumption despite being a major source of food, income, aesthetic with high socio-cultural value. There are some traditional values of fisheries still undisclosed to the scientist or public for consumption. As Arlinghaus et al (2002) earlier stated that Inland fisheries resources benefits are difficult to group, quantify and evaluate; Fishery resources when properly harnessed could be used to alleviate poverty and achieve food security and rural development. The population upsurge and resource exploitation often without regard for the environment, has left numerous ecological system in a state of disarray thereby neglecting the long term benefits that man stands to lose as a consequence of environmental deterioration (Meaden & Kapetsky, 1991) The growing concerns for sustainability, aquatic life and the ecosystem protection by fisheries scientists, and the global awareness of this aftermath led to ecological and fisheries management of our Inland waters and protection of the renewable resources; being that fishes in the world are viewed as free gift of nature and as an inexhaustible resources coupled with high priority attached to the use of Inland water for hydroelectric power generation and water supply left the fisheries resources un-catered for in Nigeria. Other factors

Inland Water Fishery Management Model in Nigeria 516

include those stated in (Cowx, 2002). According to Rasmussen and Geertz-Hansen (2001) Denmark in U.K. preserve and promote sustainable stocks of naturally occurring fish species and crayfish for sport fishing among other reasons. In order to actively manage endangered renewable resources that are fast becoming extinct and to protect the fisheries environment; as considered to be paramount for food security sustainability, for a country that is most populous in Africa with over 120 million population having about 75 million people live in absolute poverty due to high unemployment level; likewise the problem is exacerbated within Europe, there is pressure on European Union countries to improve the status of rivers and lakes to meet their obligations towards protection of biodiversity (Cowx and Gerdeaux 2004). Consequently, any activities that could potentially have a detrimental impact on the ecosystem should be avoided or mitigated against. A considerable reduction in fish importation in 1971 was observed because the fish produced by the artisanal sub-sector was 87.3% (Federal statistic of Nigeria, 1980) greater yield could still be expected. In 2002, the global production from fishing and aquaculture reached about 133 million tones, as capture fisheries are stagnating, but aquaculture production is expanding and accounted for close to 30% of overall production (Greenfacts, 2005). Scudder and Connelly (1985) have identified two major categories of management strategies which they termed inadvertent or unintentional management strategies. Though, Gulland (1974) earlier stated that there are cases where fisheries have been regulated on the basis of politics, social pressures, gear competition, prejudice and whims and sometimes for biological reasons. Materials and Methods Area of Study

Nigeria lies between longitudes 2º 49’E and 14º37’E and latitudes 4º16’N and 13º52’ North of the equator. The climate is tropical, characterized by high temperatures and humidity as well as marked wet and dry seasons; also, blessed with vast expanse of Inland fresh water and brackish ecosystems. The major rivers estimated at about 10,812,400 hectares while major lakes and reservoirs are 853,600 out of the total surface area of approximately 94,185,000 hectares. The hydrology of Nigeria is dominated by the great river systems, the Niger-Benue and the Chad systems. Nigeria Inland Fish Species

Checklist of fish species from various scientists, Ita (1993); Welman (1948), Reed et al (1967) and White (1965) had recorded total number of 230 fish species from the rivers in Nigeria. Data Collection

The study was carried within the catchment’s area of Niger Delta areas, using mainly three major zones, Edo, Delta and Ondo States for effective data collection; because of the shared values and cultures in these areas. Data and information were obtained through the administration of questionnaire, oral interview, documented data; personal field observation on Inland Fisheries laws, edicts enforcement strategy, standard of living, fishing gears methods from fisheries personnel of the state and federal ministries, law enforcement agents and the fisher folks. The data on edicts and enforcement were analyzed using the three-factor analysis of variance according to Montgomery (1984). Inland Fisheries Laws and Regulations Strategies in Nigeria Traditional Regulation Strategy

These regulations have been in existence for long in Nigeria. Fisheries in certain rivers are dedicated to a particular god or goddess, such fishes should not be caught; various myths and taboos are used to reinforce this belief. Likewise, the prohibition of fishing gears, like the bann on the use of gillnet

517 Augustine Omoike and Augustine E. Falaye

except clap nets or hooks in fishing at Argungu Fishing Festival in Kebbi State in Nigeria. The community head give permission before fishing. Some communities have intricate cultural relationships with aquatic animals too. Government Management Strategies

In the quest to effectively manage the Inland water resources, the Federal Government under the leadership of the Military, mandated every state to put in place an effective Inland water resources management strategy to protect renewable resources and its environment. Such as: (A)Registration and Licensing Fishermen and Crafts Recent attempts aimed at controlling fishing activities have given special attention to regulation of access to fishery through some form of restrictive licensing. This approach has been adapted to control intensively exploited stocks from further depletion in Canada. Australia, Japan, Italy and South Africa using prescribed minimum sizes of gear, power of engine and gross tonnage of fishing vessels (McKoller, 1977). The licensing system controls the activities of each fishery through restriction on total number of licenses to be issued, sized of vessels to be used, areas of fishing, methods of fishing and species to be “fished.” Registration and licensing of fisher folks, which has successfully applied as a powerful tool in the management of Inland fisheries in developed countries is generally frowned at in Nigeria because of the possibility of rendering some fisher folks redundant and jobless. just recently licensing in Nigeria Inland water has been the most effective laws to some extent. There is therefore needs to initiate and enforce the licensing and registration of fishermen in all the water bodies in Nigeria to boost increased fish production, gainful employment and sustainability of the fishery sector. The government decrees that no person shall take fish or operate an unlicensed fishing craft within the Inland waters of Nigeria, without obtaining license to do so. As well, as to engrave identification number on the craft. Hitherto, this license shall be valid for a period of one year. However, the state Director of fisheries may refuse to issue a license if in his opinion; perhaps, it is in the interest of fisheries to do so. (B) Regulation of Closed Seasons and Areas Seasonal and area closure are important methods clearly used either to restrict total catch to a desire level or to control the sizes of fish caught. In most cases, areas to be closed to fishing are usually the spawning ground and cover for young fish development of most fishes; In fact, many of the traditional methods of fishery regulation involve such provisions, as reserved areas and seasons control but, these tends to breakdown pressure on the resources, such situation is the practice of dividing rivers and their flood plain depressing lakes into “lots” as practiced in Delta State. The edicts clearly stated that no person shall fish in water bodies of seasons declared closed for specified period, if the fishery is threatened. (C) Regulation of Fishing Gear and Appliances (Unorthodox) Restriction of engine power length and number of hooks on longlines and on certain destructive fishing devices like traps, weirs, poisoned spears and explosive or generalized laws prohibiting the use of unorthodox fishing methods like explosive substance, chemicals, poisonous matter or use of electrical device to take or destroy fish. Except for the purpose of research with special permit. No person shall export or import a live fish or any other aquatic animal without the permission of the Minister responsible for fisheries matters. Though, could be allowed for purpose of exchange of fishery information or for research. The construction or destroy of dams, wires or other fixed barriers across streams, river, creek or direct the control of any water body without permit in order to obstruct the free movement of fish is prohibited. However, when permitted, fish ladders shall be built.


(D) Mesh Size Regulation Larger mesh size nets permits young fish to escape and hence grow and contribute to the biomass of the fish stock in the subsequent years. It was therefore recommended that minimum mesh size for all Inland water bodies in Nigeria be promulgated in view of the fact that the distribution of fish species in most Inland water bodies in the country follows the pattern of the Niger-Benue River systems and their tributaries. The states therefore, adopted in their edicts mesh size regulation, stated that no person shall fish with gear constructed with net webbings with less than 3” or 76mm (stretched) and (2.5” or 65mm for shrimp) except for pelagic trawl nets with 3mm cod-end for fresh water sardine (clupeids) with outboard engine not more than 25HP or with lift net using 3 – 5 mm mesh net. There shall be no fishing unit with single net or a combination of nets exceeding 500 meters of 3” mesh size. The prohibition of the use of hooks more than size Number 10 for fishing. Enforcement of the Enacted Edicts

The above strategies could only be termed successful when it is appropriately enforced to the letter. Fisheries inspectorate staff, all the civil law enforcement agents and fishermen should be stake holders in enforcing these edicts; empowered to inspect, enforce and confiscate products, mesh size, fishing apparatus and foster licensing and arrest; to monitor and enforce the edict as well as to inspect catch either before or after it has been landed, will rather actualize the regulation purpose. The inspector can arrest without warrant a person who commits offence under the Edict and prosecute such person in a Magistrate or Customary Court. As the Government shall own water bodies within the state; except on ground that person or community own water bodies for the purpose of fishing. Fisher Folks Cooperative Group

These stake holders are encouraged in many ways to form small cooperative group or other traditional associations for progressive purpose, as a yard stick for obtaining loan, enforce fishing regulations and appropriate means of disseminating information cum other government development programmes in form of assistance. Discussion Nigerian fishermen use gill nets ranges from 1” – 5” because of its commercial advantage and catch efficiency; as the distribution of various gears among the fishermen is shown in Fig 1; with no adherence to the size of net and gear edict because of no proper monitoring and enforcement of fisheries edicts by the water bodies’ inspectors. Rasmussen and Geertz-Hansen (2001) emphasis the prohibition of gill nets in Denmark streams. Charles (2000) and Cochraine (2000) stated that fisheries systems worldwide are characterized by complex inter relationships between society and the natural environment. Controlling the pattern of fishing mortality via mesh size regulation in most Nigeria waters is temporarily impossible due to standard of living of the riparian people. Which could lead to renewable resources becomes exhausted which now or later result to extinction; such as the overexploitation of the sturgeon fisheries in the Lower Danube River, which are in a state of collapse and extinction of the species, which is a real threat (Novadaru, Staras & Cernisencu 2001). Prudent exploitation of species is being guided by the study of Ita (1980) who stated size selection of some commercially important species in Kainji lake in Nigeria. Few riparian communities are on their guard against the use of chemical because they have been sensitized that fish caught and consume in such manners are carcinogenic e.g. Gammalin 20 etc. Gulland (1974) suggested that such regulation was reasonably effective in preventing the collapse of fish stock. The majority of fresh water ecosystems in the industrialized countries are considered impacted (Dynesius and Nilson 1994; Vitousek et al, 1997). This law is presently the most only observed fisheries edict. In the findings of Pearse (1980) this edict encourages administration and cooperation among fishermen. It is used as a pre-requisite in artisan cooperative group membership for obtaining loan after contributing certain amount for a specified


period in Nigeria. Unlike developed countries, where this measure had been so effective and successfully applied as a powerful tool in the management of Inland fisheries. The decision to declare closed season is rare except for competition. This has placed traditional management strategies either intentionally or unintentionally effective regulation of fishing activities. This happens in most countries in Africa (Kapetsky, 1981); it is note worthy that all traditional strategies of management are primarily towards increased exploitation rather than conservation. The edicts acceptance in one region, as in Niger-Delta areas varies from one water body to another besides being within the same area. Enforcement of the country’s edict is rather not taken seriously, as it is reflected in Fig 2. In some countries, Inland fisheries are dealt with by specific fisheries legislation. In many others, however, there is no separate legislative treatment of Inland fisheries (Welcomme, 2001) but, within the legal framework of the country of federal states, public authorities responsible for fisheries issues, Inland fisheries organizations, cooperatives, association, clubs, syndicates or even individual fishermen enforce regulations and manage the waters on which they have fishing rights (Hickley et al 1995, Raat, 1990). Most often, Inland fisheries in Nigeria, is treated in isolation like most countries in the world, instead of an integrated manner. The four categories of action for fisheries management with different objectives are: fish stock enhancement (stocking and introductions); rehabilitation and habitat manipulation for fisheries purposes, including bio-manipulation; fisheries regulations; and conservation and protection of fish and fisheries (Cowx & Gerdeaux, 2004). Fish sporting is not recognized in Nigeria; unlike in most temperate countries where recreational, leisure or sport fisheries are the dominant components of evolved Inland fisheries systems and have long represented the major use of living aquatic resources (FAO 1999; welcome 2001; Cowx 2002) Many European countries also neglect or mismanage recreational fisheries (Aas and Ditton 1998). The analysis of variance for enforcement, edict awareness and revenue generation is significant (P>0.05) this shows that the enforcement if edicts correlate to edicts awareness, enforcement and the revenue generated. The statutory body recognizes traditional chiefs, fishery personnel and fisher folk cooperative groups, with civil law enforcement agent as enforcement agents for the Inland water bodies. Nevertheless, Naval and Marine police are at alert within some coastal areas but not within Inland fishery jurisdiction. Some states were able to establish fisher folk’s cooperative groups to assist in monitoring water bodies. However, they could be effective but too flexible. In such cases, where the fishermen enforce the edicts it is a way of maximizing their catch in Nigeria. In most water bodies in Nigeria there is little or no Inland water edict enforcement but, the collection of licensing fees, See Fig 3 for details.


Figure 1: Distribution of fishing vessel and gear

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Net Trap Hook and lining Canoe Boat Outboard engine Unorthodox

Gears and vessels

Dis

trib

utio

n %

Figure 2: Niger Delta edicts awareness

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

Full Partial Unaware Support Oppose Neutral Decline

Awareness type

Aw

aren

ess

%


Figure 3: Edicts enforcement

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

Closed area Gear Licence Unorthodox Fishing effort Effluentdischarge

Mesh size Arrest

Edict target

Enfo

rced

%

Recommendations Appropriate resource survey, reappraisal and research into the state and trend of aquatic life in Inland water bodies in Nigeria should be carried out routinely. The research should be in a holistic manner and multi disciplinary in approach. Cowx and Gerdeaux (2004) advised the involvement of all stakeholders and resources users. Tertiary institution located around water body should be giving the responsibility to research, manage and make available, reliable and necessary statistical data of the Inland water resources trend; Greenfacts (2005) that reported that inland catch remains poor in many countries and does not allow for a detailed analysis of trends in the catch competition. As the scientific understanding of fish and its habitat is necessary to aid proper planning. Link and networking between researchers: This calls for technical and financial assistance or partnership with the developed countries. Aesthetic and recreational development: The Nigerian community should be enlightened and sensitized on non consumption uses of these renewable resources to allay stress. Consequently, greater emphasis must be given to sensitizing the citizenry. Special reform programmes for the Inland fisheries management through efficient enforcement inspector with adequate surveillance and monitoring equipment in place, alongside complementary job creation policy. Total elimination of corruption, greed; complete re-orientation of enforcement agent. Policy continuity: Government should imbibe the culture of continuity and consolidation of their predecessor’s policy when it’s a genuine cause.


References [1] Aas, O. and Ditton, R. B. 1998. Human dimensions perspective or recreational fisheries: Social

Economics and Management aspects (eds P. Hickley and H. Tompkins). Fishing News Books,Blackwell Science, Oxford. Pp 153-164

[2] Arlinghaus, R. Mehner, T. and Cowx, I. G. 2002. Reconciling traditional Inland fisheries management and sustainability in industrialized countries, with emphasis on Europe. Fish and Fisheries 3(4) 251 – 300

[3] Charles, A. T. 2000. Sustainable Fishery systems (Fish and Aquatic Resources Series 5). Blackwell Science, Oxford, 370pp

[4] Cochraine, K. L. 2000. Reconciling Sustainability, Economic Efficiency and Equity in Fisheries: the one that got away? Fish and Fisheries 1, 3-21

[5] Cowx, I. G. 2002. Recreational fishing in Handbook of Fin Biology and Fisheries. Vol II (eds P.J.B Hart and J.S Reynolds). Fishing News Books. Blackwell science oxford pp 365 – 390

[6] Cowx, I. G and Gerdeaux, D. 2004. Fisheries management and Ecology Vol. 11 page 145 issue 3-4 doi:10.1111/j.1365-2400.

[7] Dynesius, M and Nilson, C. 1994. Fragmentation and Flow regulation of river system in the northern third of the world. Science 266 753-761

[8] FAO, 1999. Review of the state of world fisheries resources: Inland fisheries. FAO fisheries Circular No 942, 53pp

[9] Federal statistic of Nigeria. 1980. Federal Statistics of Nigeria: 1st Edition FDF report [10] Goodchild, G. 2004. Fish habitat is everybody’s business, Canada’s fish habitat management

programme. Fisheries Management and Ecology 11, 203-212 [11] Greenfacts, 2005. Facts on Health and The Environment: Scientific facts on Fisheries.

www.Greenfacts.org/fisheries index.htm [12] Gulland J.A. 1974. The management of Marine Fisheries “Scientechnical Britol [13] Hickley, P. Marsh, C. and North, R. 1995. Ecological Management of Angling. In the

Ecological Basis for River Management (eds. D.M Harper and A.J.G Ferguson). John Wiley and sons, Chichester pp 415 – 425

[14] Ita, E. O. 1993. Inland Fishery Resources of Nigeria. CIFA Occasional Paper No 20.Rome, FAO.1993.120p

[15] Ita E. O. 1980. Contributions to the dynamics of mean size statistics in a changing fishery. I. Family citharinidae in Kainji Lake. Hydrobilogia. 68(3) 269 – 277

[16] Kapetsky, J. M., 1981. Some Consideration for the Management of Coastal Lagoon and Estuarine Fisheries FAO fisheries technical paper 28

[17] Meaden, G. J. and Kapetsky, J. M., 1991. Geographical Information System and Remote Sensing In Inland Fisheries and Aquaculture F.A.O Fisheries Technical Paper 318: 262pp

[18] McKoller, N. B. 1977. “Restrictive licensing as a fisheries management Tool” FERU Occasional Paper No 6: White fish Authority Edinburgh U.K

[19] Montgomery, D. C. 1984. Design and Analysis of experiments (2nd ed).225- 228.John Wily And Sons New York

[20] Novadaru, I. G, Staras, M and Cernisencu, I. 2001 The challenge of sustainable use of the Danube Delta fisheries. Romania. Fisheries Management and Ecology 8, 323-332

[21] Pearse, H. P. 1980. Fishing Rights Regulations and Revenues. Journal of Business Administration Vol.11: 185 – 209

[22] Raat, A. J. P. 1990. Fisheries Management: A Global Framework in Management of Freshwater Fisheries (eds W.L.T Van Densen, B. Steinmetz and R.H Hughes). Pudoc Wageningen pp 344 – 356

[23] Rasmussen, G. and Geertz-Hansen, P. 2001. Fisheries management in Inland and coastal waters in Denmark form 1987 to 1999 fisheries management and Ecology 8, 311 – 322

[24] Reed et al. 1967. Fish and Fisheries of Northern Nigeria. Min of Agric. Northern Nigeria


[25] Scudder, J. M and Connelly, F. S. 1985. Report on the fisheries of Niger Delta special Area of Nigeria “NIFER Technical paper report no 19

[26] Vitousek, P. M., Mooney, H. A., Lubcheco, J and Meliko, J. M. 1997 Human domination of earth’s ecosystem. Science 277, 494-499

[27] Welcomme R. L. 2001. Inland Fisheries: Ecology and Management. Fishing News Books, Blackwell Science, Oxford 358pp

[28] Welman, J. B. 1948. Preliminary Survey of the freshwater fisheries of Nigeria. Govt. Printer Lagos

[29] White, E (Ed) 1965. The First scientific report of the Kainji Biological Research Team. University of Ife, Ile-Ife, Nigeria


SOM and Cost Optimization Tools for

ITLMS via LOS Link System

Anwar Hassan Ibrahim Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia

Electrical Electronic and System Engineering Multimedia University, Faculty of Engineering

E-mail: [email protected] Tell: +60389216837

Mahamod Ismail

Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia Electrical Electronic and System Engineering Multimedia University, Faculty of Engineering

Kasmiran Jumari


Ayman


Abstract

The aims of this paper to calculate the wave propagation under various Geographical environments and link optimization software development for ITLMS radio. The software presents a design tool for line of sight link planning. The main factor in a ITLMS network depends on antenna heights. The heights antennas are normally chosen to defeat the first Fresnel zone obstruction. A software tool for the analysis and evaluation of a single ITLMS link for point to point has been developed. In addition, link optimization method for the ITLMS network involving more than two antennas has been developed. The method will be an extension of the multiple link algorithms. This paper includes calculations and analysis of the geographical data in the chosen area in order to determine the effective earth’s radius to achieve better optimization. In addition, terrain profile generation and ITLMS point-to-point link calculation was considered. Keywords: Intelligent Traffic light management systems (ITLMS), Communication software,

system operating margin (SOM), cost optimization (CO), line-of-sight (LOS).

SOM and Cost Optimization Tools for ITLMS Via LOS Link System 525

1. Introduction A line-of-sight ITLMS link uses highly directional transmitter and receiver antennas to communicate via a easy focused radio beam. Ideal Radio Transmission occurs under conditions whereby a visually clear path exists between Receiver and Transmitter antennas [1]. A visually clear path or line of sight ensures the strongest possible signal with minimal attenuation (reduction) due to environmental factors.

A path survey can be undertaken by visiting sites and observing that the path is clear of obstruction. It is important to make note of potential future interruptions to the path such as tree or foliage growth, future building plans, nearby airports and subsequent flight-path traffic, and any other transient traffic considerations [2].

To have a clear line of sight there must be no obstacles between the two locations. Line of sight can be verified using binoculars to ensure a clear path between Receiver and Transmitter antennas. However, even under line of sight conditions, signal attenuation occurs depending on the distance between the two antennas as well as proximity of obstacles to the line of sight path. When RF radiates from one antenna to another it spreads out such that an elliptical pattern is created between the two antenna; this elliptical area is known as the Fresnel Zone. The cross-section or height of the Fesnel Zone depends on the distance between antennas and the frequency of the signal. Obstacles protruding into the Fresnel Zone affect signal strength and integrity. Hard obstacles protruding into the Fresnel Zone can deflect signals resulting in short reception delays or in some cases prevent the signal from reaching its intended destination. Soft obstacles such as trees typically attenuate the signal resulting in shorter, less reliable transmissions [3]. The Fresnel Zone can be calculated based on signal path distance and signal frequency. The height of the Fresnel Zone can be used to estimate the required height of antennas to provide sufficient clearance from obstacles. As a general rule, antennas should be raised / located to ensure 60% of the First Fresnel Zone is clear of obstructions. The radio link will then behave essentially the same as it would with a clear path. 2. Line of Sight Characterization Line of sight is commonly used to refer to telecommunication links that rely on a line of sight between the transmitting antenna and the receiving antenna. Such capability is necessary for high frequency ITLMS links that offer relatively high bandwidth communication circuits. Typical operating frequencies are in the gigahertz frequency range where the radio path is not reflected or refracted to any great extent.

Figure 1: Example path profile

526 Anwar Hassan Ibrahim, Mahamod Ismail, Kasmiran Jumari and Ayman

Radio waves travel in a straight line, unless something refracts or reflects them. But the energy of radio waves is a big deal; they spread out the farther they get from the radiating source, like ripples from a rock thrown into a pond. Microwave bands will likely be used in fourth-generation multimedia mobile communication systems [4]. Some research, however, still needs to be done on propagation characteristics [5]. 3. K-Factor Calculation The required path clearance is usually expressed, for a particular k-factor, as some fraction of the first Fresnel zone radius[6].

Radio transmission loss in tropospheric propagation depends on characteristics of the atmosphere and the terrain. The most important atmospheric parameter is the refractive index gradient near the earth surface. This surface gradient largely determines the bending of a radio ray through the atmosphere.

The refraction index of air is very close to unity. The radio refractivity, N, is defined as: ( ) 6101 ×−= nN (1)

where n is the index of refraction. At radio frequencies, the radio refractivity may be approximated by [Bean 1966]:

251073.36.77

T

HTAPN ×+= (2)

where AP: atmospheric pressure (mbar). T: absolute temperature (Kelvin). H: water vapor pressure (mbar). The effective earth’s radius K which is a function of the refractivity gradient or of the mean

surface refractivity, N S , is chosen to characterize average atmospheric conditions. The effective earth’s radius for regional difference in average atmospheric conditions is defined as:

( )[ ] 1005577.0exp04665.016370 −−= SNK (3) The actual radius of the earth was taken to be 6370 kilometer. The refractivity, N S , represents

the surface refractivity reduced to the sea level. The figure produced by Bean, Horn and Ozanich[7] shows minimum monthly mean values of radio refractivity, N, through the world. The corresponding surface refractivity N S is then:

( )SS hNN 1057.0exp −= ο (4) where hS is the elevation of the earth’s surface in kilometer above the mean sea level

Figure 2: The k-factor at Bandar Baru Bangi in 2005


Figure 3: The k-factor at Bandar Baru Bangi in 2006.

Table 1: The maximum and the minimum K-factor values in Bandar Baru Bangi.

year Min K-Factor Max K-Factor 2005 1.95 2.1 2006 2.4 2.82

4. System Operating Margin (SOM) A path profile is established from topographical maps which, by reference to the sea level of the map, can be translated into an elevation profile of the land between the two sites in the path. Earth curvature can be added, as can know obstacles. The Fresnel Zone calculation can then be applied and an indication of any clearance problems gained depending on the K-Factor.

System Operating Margin (also referred to as Fade Margin) is defined as the difference between the received signal level (in dBm) and the receiver sensitivity (in dBm) needed for error free reception. 4.1. Receive Signal Level

Receive signal level is the actual received signal level (usually measured in negative dBm) presented to the antenna port of a radio receiver from a remote transmitter. 4.2. Receiver Sensitivity

Receiver sensitivity is the weakest RF signal level (usually measured in negative dBm) that a radio needs receive in order to demodulate and decode a packet of data without errors.

Figure 4: Example system operating margin


5. Software Design Tools As technologies continue to advance, it becomes necessary to innovate upon existing systems and models in order to better meet the changing needs. This software was originally developed when we are planning to setup wireless link optimization in the primary area.

With most of today’s line of sight activity originating outdoors, the utilization of older propagation models to design networks has resulted in an unacceptable level of increased uncertainty, dropped connections, and link frustration as well.

We believe that the need to address and resolve these issues is apparent from both a commercial and forward progress standpoint. As such, this report will present an improved propagation model for the design of more efficient and effective line of sight link optimization networks.

This software entailed to design a link line-of-sight communication for wireless LAN intelligent traffic light management system via 5.8 GHz . In this study a software plan to optimizing the link by optimizing the antennas height is developed. The software does not need experience to operate, because it is based on menu and icons.

Also the system operating margin and cost cost optimization is considered as well. 6. Result and Discussion By doing an SOM calculation, you can test various system designs and scenarios to see how much fade margin in your link will theoretically have. Regarding the minimum SOM needed, there is no absolute answer to this question, but the higher it is, the better. The problem with accepting a lower SOM is that you have a smaller safety margin. You run the risk of your link going down for such things as interference, an antenna off its aim and atmospheric conditions.

Figure 5 illustrates a sample SOM calculation on a point-to-point link. It presumes that the antennas are aimed at each other properly.

Figure 5: The terrain profile and the calculation of the System Operating Margin

Figure 6: total cost optimization regarding to the antenna height


Figure 7: total cost optimization regarding to the frequency range

This paper has presented the meteorological effect on the ITLMS radio link and the K-factor

calculation in the area of study. The antenna cost optimization program (ACOP) and MatLab software was presented. There is many software exist for wave propagation calculation, but this software is a design tool for ITLMS link and wave propagation calculation package contains the antenna optimization program and digitize map construction program.

Propagation predictions depend primarily on often unavailable building construction parameters such as wall building structures and other parameters. It is often argued that results from deterministic electromagnetic-based calculation models are not expressed in terms of parameters that can be used in the simulation of wireless communications systems. Parameters such as K-factor and the building heights are necessary for system simulations and need to be incorporated as part of the simulation development 7. Conclusions To have some certainty as to whether your wireless link will be reliable, an RF path analysis and SOM Calculations need to be performed. Whether your link is point-to-point or point-to-multipoint, the first thing to do is to verify that it will have not only clear line of sight, but at least 60 percent of the first Fresnel zone clear of obstructions as well. The longer the distance, the more important this is. If the Fresnel zone is blocked, then you will get a lower signal level on the distant end than expected, even if you can literally “see” the other antenna in the distance.

the cost calculation for link optimization

1.25

1.3

1.35

1.4

1.45

1.5

1.55

1.6

10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

antenna height/m

tota

l cos

t/uni

t

total cost regarding to the frequency range

1.34

1.345

1.35

1.355

1.36

1.365

1.37

1.375

1.38

1.385

2 3 4 5 6 10 15 20

frequency/GHz

tota

l cos

t/uni

t


But even if your Fresnel zone is partially blocked, it is still possible to get a link, provided that your system was designed to have a strong signal at the other end of the link. In planning long-range ITLMS links where you are not sure that you have unobstructed line-of-site and clear Fresnel zone, an RF path analysis should be done. There are many software packages available that have terrain data and can create a path profile from a set of latitude/longitude coordinates. But these programs can only indicate for certain if a link will not work due to terrain obstruction. A clear path on paper is not a guarantee that your link will work, since it does not show trees or buildings. So even a “clear” link might have 80-foot trees in the way that could block the signal, you could be wasting your time and money if you ignore Fresnel zone issues, or worse yet, no line-of-site and attempt to set up a link anyway. You will likely not have a reliable link, if one at all. Acknowledgment The author wishes to thank and acknowledge the support and assistance which provided by government of Malaysia. References [1] R. Prasad, (1997) “Overview of wireless personal communications Microwave perspectives,”

IEEE Commun Mag.,. vol. 35, pp. 104 108, Apr. [2] J. Rustako, Jr., N. Amitay, G. J. Owens, and R. S. Roman (1991) “Radio propagation at

Microwave frequencies for line-of- sight microcellular mobile and personal communications,” IEEE Trans. Veh. Technol., vol. 40, pp. 203–210, Feb..

[3] E. Green and M. Hata, “Microcellular propagation measurements in an urban environment,” in Proc. PIMRC, Sept. 1991, pp. 324–328.

[4] H. Masui, M. Ishi, S. Takahashi, H. Shimizu, T. Kobayashi, and M. Akaike, “Microwave propagation characteristics in an urban quasi line-of-sight environment under different traffic conditions,” IEICE Trans. Commun., vol. E84-B, pp. 1431–1439, May 2001.

[5] D.M. Devasirvatham, 1987 “Multipath time delay spread in the Digital portable radio environment,” IEEE Communications Magazine, vol. 25, no. 6, pp. 13-21, Jun..

[6] Ashraf, G. E. A, & Faizal, A. Z. (1995). A software tool for cost Optimization of Microwave radio relay link. New Peach, Calafornia, USA (IEEE AP-S International Symposium and URSI Radio Science)

[7] Ashraf, G. E. A., & Faizal, A. Mohd. Z. 1995. Optimizing the cost of Microwave Radio Networks. Proceeding of 2nd. IEEE Malaysia Conference on Communication 2 (12.6): 1-4.


Impact of a Community Education Model on the Health

Bahaviours of Selected Rural Dwellers in Nigeria

T. I. Izevbigie Department of Health, Environmental Education and

Human Kinetics University of Benin Benin City, Nigeria E-mail: [email protected]

Ede O. S. Iyamu

Faculty of Education, University of Benin, Benin City, Nigeria E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract

Poor environmental sanitation has serious negative impact on the quality of living. The study was an attempt to propose a model of community education as a strategy that can mobilize rural dwellers to understand the problem of sanitation as a personal and community issue. The millennium development goals empasize the need for healthy living that can be realized if the people are mobilized to be active and decisive in looking after their health and the health of the community the study was a quasi type involving groups of undergraduate health education students who were engaged in sensitizing selected rural dwellers in South Central Nigeria on health related issues .The programme lasted for 12 weeks. Measures of their health behaviours showed improvement from the 9th week, implying the efficacy of the programme. Among others, the need for regular mobilization of the rural dwellers for improved quality of living was recommended. Keywords: Community health education, health behaviours, mobilization, rural dwellers,

Nigeria Introduction The concept of health for all muted in 1975 did not suggest that illness would be totally eliminated all over the world by the year 2000. Rather, the concept is driven by the noble expectation that everyone, without exception, would have the right to live in cultural, social economic and physical environment inherently conductive to health and affording protection against hazards that could impair health. Similarly, everyone without exception would have the right and duty to be an active and decisive partner in looking after his or her own health and that of the community (Rivereo, 1985). Regrettably, this has been unattainable in most of the less developed countries including Nigeria, partly because of poor community mobilization, lack of awareness on part of individuals or lack of individual or community participation. The focus of this study was to bring to light how the community could be mobilized to live under a physical environment free from hazards that could impair health. It has become necessary to do this because of global health problems faced by the less developed nations including Nigeria in the 21st century in meeting the millenium health development goals. The four millennium development goals that are critically related to health are

Impact of a Community Education Model on the Health Bahaviours of Selected Rural Dwellers in Nigeria 532 • Reduction of child mortality • Improving maternal health • Combating HIV/AIDS and • Combating malaria and other diseases(United Nations, 2001).

The majority of health problems confronting people in Nigeria fall within the realm of communicable diseases. The epidemiology of diseases in Nigeria is characterized by unsanitary immediate environment; lack of adequate and clean water supply; poor personal hygiene, ignorance about health matters and over crowding (Abiodun, 2006). The prevalence of these conditions is alarming and widespread. Though these conditions are readily amenable to preventive measures rather than curative approaches, the spate of illness among persons of all ages particularly in the rural areas presupposes that the level of awareness of actions and decisions related to the prevention of most diseases is still low. For instance, Bakare(2004) reported that majority (42%) of children and adults who were registered as either outpatients or in-patients in eight community health centres in North Central Nigeria suffered from diarrhea and cholera. Other cases were measles (18%), scabies (16%), malaria(14%) and unclassified (10%). Since these illnesses are related to personal and community health habits and practices, they could be ameliorated through appropriate sensitization and mobilization. The option adopted in this study for the needed sensitization is community education programme.

Health education is one of the most important activities that have been well established for the promotion of general health status of a large population. It is not a coincidence that health education is placed on top of the list of preventive health services of any national health care programme. In fact, general health promotion is usually viewed as the central function of health education in medical and other health institutions (Owie, 2000). It also features prominently in such disciplines as Social Studies and Home Economics. It has been argued by health professionals (Ewuzie, 2005; Ekoko, 2005) that longer life expectancy ensues not because of massive system of health care technology but essentially as a result of clean water, environmental sanitation, improved food supply, good public health laws, immunization programmes and general improved standard of living.

In spite of the foregoing, the national approach to health care in Nigeria, tends to favour curative modalities while preventive measures and approaches are deceptively viewed as appendages. Expressing the same opinion, Abiodun (2006) and Lucas (1981) argued that

Parasitic and communicable diseases that could be preventable are usually seen as the commonest causes of ill health and death and yet the services for the control and treatment of these diseases are usually very poor. While there has been a rapid escalation in the construction of modern hospitals, public health laboratory services are virtually nonexistent or rudimentary in most parts of the country. Although Lucas wrote this more than 25 years ago, the situation today remains basically the

same in rural areas in Nigeria and only slightly better in urban areas. It is against this background that this study seeks to propose a community education model to motivate individuals and communities to be active and decisive partners in looking after their health and that of the communities.

Smolensky and Haar (1978) and Hanlon (1997) suggested that the effective solution to environmental sanitation is to make the people perceive their own health needs. The essence of this study is to make the individuals understand the issues of environmental sanitation as a personal issue and see why it is reasonably important to act in the desired way to promote personal and community health. It is expected that the community health education strategy could help to mobilize the people to be active and decisive partners in looking after their health and that of the community. It is hoped too, that the attainment of good sanitation in the rural community would be an asset in reducing child mortality that is associated with poor environmental sanitation in developing countries (FRN, 2004). Community education is a learning process that could integrate the people in an intervention programme. It has a basis on the awareness of desirable values such as health behaviours of the people thereby motivating personal responsibility for managing desirable health habits and practices.

533 T. I. Izevbigie and Ede O. S. Iyamu

The Study The high prevalence of diseases, some of which are avoidable, among rural dwellers in Nigeria has been attributed largely to lack of adequate knowledge and understanding necessary for improved personal and community health. Though the federal government devotes resources to health promotion, the media for this have often been restricted to the television, radio and newspapers that are not only elitist but also inaccessible to rural dwellers. Thus rural dwellers have not been part of most national health promotion campaigns. Since the millennium health development goals cannot be truly attained without involvement of rural dwellers, appropriate strategies are needed to involve these underprivileged and socially marginalized citizens to become actively involved in the process of health promotion. There is need to go beyond the existing regimented modes by employing some informal strategies in the mobilization of rural dwellers for national development. The concern of this study is therefore on the impact of community education on the health behaviour of selected rural dwellers in Nigeria. The purpose was to find out the impact of community education on the health behaviour of selected rural dwellers in Nigeria. Based on this, the study sought to answer such question as: will supervised community education have influence on the frequency of health problems among rural dwellers in Nigeria?

This study is a means of contributing to the improvement of health conditions in rural areas in Nigeria. It will provide a model and impetus for mobilizing rural dwellers to become more active in the promotion of their personal and community health. If this study is replicated in most African rural communities, the march toward health for all targets will be more visible. Procedure This study employed the quasi-experimental design. The subjects were manipulated by way of sensitizing them to issues and problems related to personal and community health. However, there was no pre-test. The prevailing poor health habits and practices among the villagers that often result in health problems were used as the baseline for the study.

The Ogheghe community constitutes the population of this study. The community is a village located centrally about 20 kilometers south of Benin City. The village serves as a pivot for other rural communities namely Obagie-nevbuosa, Evbuekpen, Obayantor and the Uvbi Camp. On the whole these adjourning villages have a projected population of 2,500. The terrain has a slow flowing stream passing through the communities. The main occupation of the people subsistence farming. They also engage in pig and goat rearing. Though there is a health centre in Obagie-Nevbuosa, one of the villages within the community, it is ill equipped. Besides, the centre is usually not patronized by the villagers due to a number of reasons including ignorance and conservatism.

The sampling for the study was purposive as the research assistants (undergraduate health education students) used all the inhabitants in the three villages selected. However only adults and youth were interviewed and interacted with. It is believed that the health habits practices of adults have significant influence on those of children. The enlightenment covered a wide range of health related problems especially those of personal and community nature, immunization and reception of medical treatment. This lasted for twelve weeks (September to November 2006). Three groups made up of five Health Education students each carried out the enlightenment. They worked in collaboration with the health workers in the community health centre. To ascertain the efficacy of the programme, they kept record of the incidence of health problems at the health centre in the last four weeks. The data were analyzed qualitatively. About the Model

1. Assessment of a health setting: The students’ first point of call at the village community was the Health Centre as a health setting where health education activities can take place. Here the students

Impact of a Community Education Model on the Health Bahaviours of Selected Rural Dwellers in Nigeria 534 were to find out what the felt needs of the people were (what to change) and whom to target for a change and draw up an intervention programme. 2. The Change Process: The second point of call by the students was the community head. This was an attempt to win his interest and that of his people and permission to conduct the project. On his approval, the health teams went on to conduct a house to house open and closed interview to ascertain what the problems of the people in the community were. The non-directive approach in problem solving and decision-making process was adopted. This method helped in targeting whom to change. In order to gain the confidence of the people the health students decided to live in the community with the people in one of the buildings in the health centre designed for the resident health officers. 3. Diagnose problems of the people: The problems identified included the following. (a) Poor sanitary conditions: Air pollution that rented the atmosphere from the decomposing

cassava peelings and the processing of cassava which served as organic feed for the free range piggery needed no explanation that the community was faced with the problem of sanitation. The slow flowing stream which aided the processing of fermented cassava (foo-foo) was a visible source of water pollution.

(b) Poor personal health problems – injuries that have become septic. (c) Pale looking children that suggest malnutrition in the children. (d) Communicable diseases of dysentery and diarrhea from the reported signs and symptoms (e) Malaria.

The data collected on each reported problem were noted. There were no records at the health centre to compare with because of the under utilization of the centre. The problems noted above were indices of poor personal and environmental sanitation. 4. The Health Intervention: The planned health intervention involved the use of multisectoral practices that embraced mass health education, community participation, health talk, and para-professionals.

The Health team went on house visitation to health educate the people on the causes of the observed health problems and what the people could do to protect themselves from the health problems. The community head requested the health teams to come and talk during the elders meeting which held at the community square on every native Sabbath day called the “EKEN” day. This day is the resting day when people abstain from farm work. Health instruction including the use of posters, diagrams and demonstrations were utilized to drive home their health topics. This went on for a period of 10 weeks discussing the various aspects of sanitation and personal health practice.

The resident staff at the health centre assisted by the students moved into the community to offer treatment to the people along side health talk. This was to bridge the strained relationship that had existed between the health centre staffers and the people. People with more serious health problems were referred to the dispensary for treatment.

The use of para-professionals involves voluntary organizations. The students employed the services of the 6th Benin Troop of the Boys Scout Movement. These scouters helped in building wooden incinerators in open places and evacuated the cassava peals into them. This was done to the admiration of the inhabitants. This was to serve the need of having a clean environment and to educate the people that garbage and waste should not be allowed to litter the places.

The youths of the community were encouraged to form environmental sanitation vigilante groups. Each group was made up of five persons whose functions were to: • Routinely inspect the refuse site and ensure that people continually disposed their refuse according

to the rules. • Sanction any person found to violate the sanitation rule. 5. Community Participation: On seeing the good work the health students and the youths were doing the elders within the community came together to take up the responsibility of collectively clearing and cleaning their environment. They planned out how to effectively organise the sanitation exercise of the community.


At the town meeting, health talk bothering on the need to have clean environment and the different ways of disposing refuse were sold to the people in addition to setting up a sanitation vigilante group or health monitoring group. The importance of good nutrition and how to utilize the resources around them were discussed and demonstrated.

The next major problem was ensuring that clean water was collected from the stream. The health team used demonstration in the purification of their drinking water. This was necessary because of the pollution of the stream that is their source of drinking water. New points up the stream were cleared, dredged and made designated drinking points. “Bill boards” were left at the point to prevent the people from bathing and washing their clothes. The people’s efforts were enlisted in protecting the drinking points.

When the children of the community living in the bigger city heard of the good works the students were doing they bought rolls of meshed iron netting to fence round the drinking point.

This was to prevent the pigs from swimming at this point to prevent pollution of the stream. At the village meetings, decisions were taken by the elders that:

(a) Pens should be constructed by owners of pigs to prevent pigs straying and polluting the stream. (b) Each community was advised to sink common drinking wells, which were considered better

than the stream water. (c) Individuals should purchase big cans for the fermentation of their cassava as against the use of

stream. This was to help monitor the health of the people by employing sanitation of the stream. (d) People were encouraged to take advantage of the Health Centres for any ailment, instead of

patronizing the quarks(untrained drug peddlers). Friendly relationship was restored between the health centre staffer and the community. Before

the departure of the students from the village at the end of the 12th week, the activities of the quarks had reduced as people turned to the use of the health centers.

The resident staffers of the health centre pulled out of the health team at the end of the eight-week and restricted their activities to the health centre. The students continued with the mass health education and reinforcing their teaching on environmental sanitation and referring the people with health problems to the health centres for professional treatments. In this process health records were compiled on reported cases. These served the purpose of comparison and evaluation of the health education model Results Table 1: Frequency of health problems

Week Malaria Paresis *URTI Gastro enteritis Diarrhea Strayed pigs Sanitation Default 9th 32 18 33 36 20 40 18

10th 22 15 30 30 16 36 24 11th 23 12 19 24 16 27 16 12th 18 8 14 20 9 15 11

*URTI: Upper Respiratory Track Infection

Table 1 above shows general decline in the frequency of the health problems identified in this study. The incidence of reported cases of malaria was 32 in the 9th week and 18 in the 12th week of the mobilization programme that is a decrease of 43.75%. The frequency of reported cases of Paresis dropped from 18 in the 9th to 8 in the 12th week (55.5%). There was a 57.5% reduction in the incidence of reported cases of URTI (33 to 13). It was 36 to 20 or 44.4% in the case of gastro enteritis from the 9th to 12th week. The reported cases of diarrhea dropped by 55% or 20 to 9. The trend in the incidence of strayed pigs dropped from 40 to 15, or 62.5%. Lastly, the incidence of sanitation default initially increased by 33.3% (18 to 24), it dropped to 11 in the 12th week.

Impact of a Community Education Model on the Health Bahaviours of Selected Rural Dwellers in Nigeria 536 Discussion The results of this study showed that community education has impact on the health behaviours and practices of rural dwellers in Nigeria. They showed that the villagers’ health behaviours continued to improve with sensitization. These results are supportive of the existing literature on the need for mass mobilization of rural dwellers to redirect their values and beliefs in manners consistent with desirable social behaviours (Gigho, 2005). The results also confirm the earlier point made by Bakare(2004) that the increasing prevalence of communicable but yet controllable diseases in most African communities is largely attributable to ignorance and conservatism. These according to Bakare(2004) can only be dismantled by effective orientation and sensitization. Isyaku(2005) had earlier posited that the health conditions of rural communities in Africa can be made a lot better if informal strategies are evolved to increase their awareness and understanding of some issues related to their personal and community health. The present research findings are clear evidence of the efficacy of informal approach to the mobilization of rural dwellers to achieve some set goals including the need to make villagers active in matters that concern their lives. Iyamu (1992) had applauded such informal approach in an earlier work on the mobilization of rural dwellers for community development. Conclusion and Recommendations Following the findings in this study, the following conclusion could be drawn. • The high frequency of health problems among the villagers before the sensitization programme

was probably due to the people’s lack of adequate knowledge of the desired health behaviours. • The gradual reduction in the frequency of health problems toward the end of the health

education programme presupposes that the personal and community health situations in the rural area are likely to be improved if the rural dwellers are sensitized on desirable health behaviours.

• If similar programmes are extended to other communities in Nigeria, the match toward the millennium development goals on health is likely to be a reality.

• Consequently, the following recommendations have been made. • The government and non-governmental organizations should intensify the mobilization and

sensitization of rural dwellers on health related issues • Departments of Social Studies, Sociology and Anthropology. Home Economics and Health

Education in the universities should intensify emphasis on extension works in their programmes and engage students in community works especially in the rural areas.

• Rural dwellers should take advantage of appropriate community education opportunities meant to sensitize them on important personal and community problems by continuing to apply all the knowledge and understanding acquired for their own improvement.


References [1] Abiodun, P. O. (2006). “Sweet Mother” the pain, the burden and the Hope”. 84th inaugural

lecture series, University of Benin, Benin City. [2] Alma-Ata (1978). Primary Health Care. WHO Geneva. Health for All series No. 1. [3] Bakare, S.V. (2004). Your Health and You. Vol.36. [4] Dennison & Galaszewski (2002). The activated health education model: Refinement and

implication for health education. Journal of school Health Education. 72(1), 67-74. [5] Federal Republic of Nigeria. (2004). National Health Policy. Abuja: Federal Ministry of

Information. [6] Fielding, J.E (1999). Public health in the 29th century: Advances and challenges. Annual Review

of Public Health, 20, 13-30. [7] Gigho, H.T. (2005). Issues in community health. Journal of Health Technology, 12(2), 23-31. [8] Isyaku, Y.M. (2005). Health problems in developing countries. Journal of Health technology,

12(2), 78-92. [9] Iyamu, E.O.S. (1992). Mobilization of rural dwellers for community development, Nigerian

Journal of Social Studies, 2(1&2), 45-52. [10] Lucas, A (1981). A priority in national health planning. In Akinkugbe O., Olatunbosun, D. &

Esan, G. (Eds.). National Health Planning. Ibadan: Spectrum Books, 43-49. [11] Owie, I. (2003). Health Education base theories and models, Nigerian Journal of Health

Education, 2(1), 15-37. [12] Rivero, D.T. (1985). The right to health. In WHO Community in Action. Geneva, 2-3. [13] Schwartz, S. Susser, E. & Susser, M. (1999). A future for epidemiology. Annual Review of

Public Health, 20, 15-33. [14] Smolensky & Haar (1978). Principles of Community Health (3rd ed.). W. B. U.S.A.: Sanders &

Co. [15] United Nations, (2003). Millenium Declaration. A/RES/55/2. New York.


Pharmacological Studies of Cycas Circinalis (Cycadaceae) as a

Purgative

Sani Audu Ali Dept of pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry

Faculty of Pharm Science. Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria

Abdu Kaita Haruna Dept of pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistr


Mohammed Ilyas Dept of pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry


Egwu E.Chinwe Dept of pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry


Abstract

The purgative properties of acetone extract (Purified) of the leaves of Cycas circinalis (cycadaceae) was investigated. It was observed that the extract of the leaves produced dose dependent relation of the smooth intestinal muscle (Ileum) of the Isolated rabbit Ileum at a Conc. of 40ng/ml to 160ng/ml.

The extract at moderated doses abolished acetylcholine (Ach) induced contractions on isolated rabbit and guinea pig Ileum at a Conc. Of 20ng/ml to 80ng/ml. The effect of the extract is similar to that of antagonist (Atropine at dose of 20ng/ml to 80ng/ml) since the extract relaxes the isolated rabbit and guinea pig Ileum it cannot be substantiated that it is the extract that caused the purgative action as claim for the local use.

Introduction Cycas circinalis is a small monocalous saranna tree commonly found in eastern tropical Africa and Asia reaching a height of 5 meters.

They are found in deciduous forest reaching a height of up to about 3. 500 ft. A species of Cycas is much used by the Zulus as medicine, the tuberous root for a wide varieties of condition and the underground stem as a purgative. The seed is also purgative and some parts of the plant are apparently edible. (Halle et al)

The leaves was extracted in acetone and purified by column in chloroform ethyl acetate, pet either. The extract was screen for biflavonoids, which was confirm present. This purified extract was investigated on isolated intestinal tissue of Rabbit which was compared with the effect of standard drugs such as acetylcholine and atropine that are known to cause contraction and relaxation of the intestinal muscles respectively.

This work was done to establish scientifically the basis for the local use of the plant.

Pharmacological Studies of Cycas Circinalis (Cycadaceae) as a Purgative 539

Experimental Section General Experimental Procedures

Silica gel for TLC and column was from BDH chemicals LTD U.K. U.V spectra was measure on a PU 8700 series UV/visible spectrophotometer in methanol, by Philips scientific and analytical equipment. Colour analysis by U.V using pye – micam SP80 – 100 UV spectrophotometer.

Melting point was determined using gallenkamp capillary melting point apparatus. Response was recorded using microdynamometer model no 70-50 ugo basil from Italy. All chemicals use in the analysis were either made by BDH chemicals LTD U.K or Sigma chemical company St Louis Mo U.S.A. Plant Material

Cycas circinalis leaves use in this study was collected from sakaru village tashar fulami, Jos Road Zaria kaduna Nigeria in June 2002. Animal Material

The animal used in these studies includes Rabbits and Guinea Pigs were bred and collected from animal house of the faculty of pharmaceutical science Ahmadu Bello University Zaria Nigeria. Extraction And Isolation

Plant Extraction and purification The dried powdered plant material 120g was extracted to exhaustion using acetone by cold process (maceration) (Bhutal.et al). The combine acetone extract was concentrated to give a dark brownish mass which weighed 8.6g (7.2% yield) part of the extract was eluted with (1) petroleum ether (2) chloroform (3) ethyl acetate then washed with ethyl acetate / methanol in the ration 9:1.

The purified extract was confirm to contain Biflavonoids and used for the investigation in intestinal muscles. Animal Tissue Isolation And Preparation

Locally bred Rabbit and guinea Pigs were starved for 24 hours in the animal house before use and were killed by a blow on the head. The blood was drained through an incision in the throat. The abdomen was opened and pieces of the ileum were isolated and placed in a petridish containing tyrode solution aerated by electric pump. The tissue was transferred to an organ bath and allowed to stabilize for about I hour before studying the effect of the drugs on it, and the temperature was set thermostatically at 37oC. Stock Solution

The purified extract and standard drugs were dissolved in distilled water to obtain the following stock solution.

Extract (10µg/ml) Acetylcholine (5µg/ml) and Atropine 5µg/ml. Tyrode solution was also prepared using the standard formula.

540 Sani Audu Ali, Abdu Kaita Haruna, Mohammed Ilyas and Egwu E.Chinwe

Result and discussion Result Table 1: Contraction Produced By 5µg/ml Acetylcholine on isolated Rabbit Ileum

Volume of Ach (ml) Conc of Ach ng/ml Response Log dose % Response 0.1 20 1.7 1.3 21 0.2 40 6.7 1.6 64 0.4 80 8.0 1.9 100

Table 2: Relaxation Produce by 10µg/ml of Purified Extract of Cycas circinalis on Rabbit ileum

Volume of Extract (ml) Conc of Ext.ng/ml Response Log dose % Response 0.1 40 2.2 1.6 81 0.2 80 2.7 1.9 100 0.4 160 2.0 2.2 74

Table 3: contraction produce by 0.1 ml/5µg/ml atropine antagonist in the presence of various doses of 5 µg/ml

of Acetycholine (Agonist)

Volume of Extract (ml) Conc of Extract ng/ml Response Log dose % Response 0.1 20 - 1.3 - 0.2 40 2.0 1.6 25 0.4 80 3.5 1.9 44

Table 4: Contraction Produce by 0.2ml of 5 µg/ml Ach with varying volume of 10 µg/ml of purified extract.

Volume of Extract (ml) Conc of Ext.ng/ml Response Log dose %Response 0.1 40 8.0 1.6 98 0.2 80 6.4 1.9 78 0.4 160 5.2 2.2 63 0.8 320 4.2 2.5 51 1.6 640 3.0 2.8 37

Discussion The integrating action of the autonomic nervous system is of vital importance for the well being of the organism. In general the autonomic nervous system regulate the activities of structures that are not under voluntary control and that, as a rule function below the level of consciousness. Digestion metabolism and secretion are controlled by the autonomic nervous system (Goodman and Gilman’s).

Acetylcholine and atropine on isolated tissue has been known to produce dose dependent contraction and relaxation respectively and there response were used as standard.

Acetylcholine been a neuro transmitter at all neuro effector junction and all autonomic ganglia produce both muscarnic effect and nicotinic effect (i.e stimulation and then blockade of autonomic ganglia and the end plate of skeletal muscle as exhibited by Ach)

As expected Acetylcholine produces a dose dependent contraction at concentration of 5µg/ml for 0.1ml to 0.4ml on the Rabbit ileum and the (antagonist) atropine, also produce a dose dependent relaxation on the Rabbit ileum. The purified extraction of Cycas circinalis leaves cause a dose dependent relaxation at Conc of 10µg/ml from 0.1ml to 0.4ml. Similar to that of Atropine, Table 2. The maximal effect of Ach on isolated tissue was antagonized by various dose of atropine at Conc of 5µg/ml form 0.1 to 0.4ml and also various dose of the purified extract at Conc of 10µg/ml for 0.1ml – 0.4ml at a dose dependent manner.

Pharmacological Studies of Cycas Circinalis (Cycadaceae) as a Purgative 541

From the response it can be concluded that the purified extract really function as a relaxation effect similar to that of Atropine though less potent than the standard atropine in producing this effect this can be observed from the percentage response of both antagonist and extract.

Since Atropine and other cholinergic antagonize blocks the colic and spastic action brought about by Ach on intestinal muscle they are therefore beneficial in colic spasms. The purified extract of Cycas circinalis leaves also antagonize acetyclcholine induced contraction in Isolated Rabbit ileum which shows a contrast between the traditional use as a purgative and the observed pharmacological action. Acknowledgement The authors thank Mal Ibrahim of pharmacology dept. A.B.U. and Mr. Augustine Ahmadu of pharm.Chem. Dept. A.B.U. for certain technical assistance References [1] A.C. Dutta. Botany for degree student 5th edition page 662-3 calcutta Oxford University press,

Delhi Bombay madras 1979 India [2] Bhutal et al flavonoid by Harborne and Marbry pg 3 1974. [3] Goodman and Gilman’s. The pharmacological basis of therapeutics. Pergamon press Inc; 8th

edition 1990 pp 402-435. [4] Hallé F., R.A.A Otdemon, R.B. Tomlinson Tropical trees and forest, 1978, spinger-verlag.

Berlin, Heidelberg Germany. Pg 110 , 136 [5] Harold J. Burn the autonomic nervous system for student of physiology and pharmacology 2nd

edition pg 1-10, 46-54.black well scientific publications oxford 1965. [6] Randis B Indian trees, an account of trees, shrubs, woods, climbers, bamboos and palm

indigenous “or commonly” Cultivated in the British Indian empire Bishen Singh Mahendra Oct 1971 23-A, New Connanght place India.

[7] Watts J.M, John Mitchel Watts and Maria Gardina Breyer- Brand wijk. The medicinal and poisonous plants of southern and eastern Africa; being an account of their medicinal and other uses, chemical composition pharmacological effect and toxicity in man and animal 2nd edition Edinburg E and S Livingstone 1962.


Magnetic Moment Based Modeling & Simulation of Electro

Dynamic Vibration Actuation System

K.P.S Rana Instrumentation and Control Engineering Netaji Subhas Institute ofTechnology

Dwarka Sector - 3, New Delhi - 11 00 75, India E-mail: [email protected]

Shrey Khanna

Instrumentation and Control Engineering Netaji Subhas Institute of Technology Dwarka Sector - 3, New Delhi - 11 00 75, India


Ranjit Singh Netaji Subhas Institute of Technology

Dwarka Sector - 3, New Delhi - 11 00 75, India

K.S. Sayann Guru Teg Bahadur Institute of Technology

Guru Gobind Singh IndraprasthaUniversity G-8, Area Rajouri Garden Delhi - 110 0027, India

Abstract

Modeling and simulation of an instrumentation system is very important to understand the behavior of the system under consideration. This approach sometimes saves the cost of repetitive fabrication. The model may be subjected to changes without further incurring any cost. Input and output relationship can also be well understood through modeling the system. Here in this article, single degree of freedom Electro Dynamic Vibration Actuation System (EDVAS) is the device under consideration. The configuration involves interaction between two electromagnets (coils). The coils are assumed to be behaving as bar magnets and the force of interaction between them is computed. Moreover, velocity and displacement curves are generated for the model under vibration. A LabVIEW™ program is designed and developed to carry out the modeling and simulation of the actuator having single degree of freedom. We investigate a simpler method for modeling of EDVAS. The results are in close agreement to the experimental observation. The EDVAS model and the program developed demonstrate the single degree of freedom, real time working of the physical set up under consideration. Keywords: Vibration, Acceleration, Actuator, Modeling and simulation, Instrumentation

modeling, Virtual instrumentation.

Magnetic Moment Based Modeling & Simulation of Electro Dynamic Vibration Actuation System 543

Introduction For any device subjected to vibration, the user must anticipate the effect of vibration on the health/performance of the device. Any component used in space or military applications need to be subjected to vibration test critically to anticipate the effect of vibration during its life-time usage. Vibration testing is other application area of vibrations where the process of applying a controlled amount of vibration to a test specimen, usually for the purposes of establishing reliability or testing to destruction is done. In practice the test article is securely mounted on a shaker table or actuator, which may be operated by electro-dynamic vibrator [1].

The system finds its application under following domains of analysis [2]: 1. Product development 2. Engineering analysis 3. Reliability Evaluation 4. Strategical applications 5. Vibration cancellation 6. Quality Control. The EDVAS is a fairly costly instrumentation system platform ranging from 2 to 10 Lacs INR

depending upon the range of acceleration it provides and the degree of freedom it offers. Since instrumentation systems are costly affair, modeling enables to take preemptive measures to redesign the system parameters; moreover, for a beginner it also provides the look and feel of how an actual physical system will be in place. The talked about modeling system in this article gives fairly realistic results.

The EDVAS is a classical vibration platform. It consists of a two coils. One of the coils is used to generate the permanent magnet effect (Permanent Magnet) and the moving coil is given the alternating voltage. The moving coil (Armature Coil) experiences motion as a result of the interaction of two fields. Fig.1 shows the basic schematic structure of EDVAS.

Figure 1: Basic EDVAS System

It has a moving coil located in an annular air gap of an axis symmetric magnetic circuit. The coil is bonded to a fixture table whose purpose is to allow the force generating coil to be coupled to an external load. Positioning of the coil and fixture table assembly (together called ‘armature’) is attained by means of a flexible suspension arrangement which constrains the movement to the axial direction only and supports the weight of the external load. The magnetic circuit comprises of an electromagnet excited separately, a main body, a top plate and a centre pole tip.

LabVIEW™ is preferred as the programming platform as it provides strong display capabilities for real time vibration animation. Version 8.0 has been used in this work.

544 K.P.S Rana, Shrey Khanna, Ranjit Singh and K.S. Sayann

Theory Some work has been done for modeling and simulation of electromagnetic moving coil vibration generators treating the device as equivalent electrical circuit [3], [4]. The actuator works on the phenomenon of generation of alternating magnetic poles at the two ends of a coil excited by AC current source. Another coil excited by DC current behaves as a permanent magnet and hence an oscillating force is developed between fixed pole of permanent DC excited magnet and alternating pole of AC excited magnet when currents are supplied to both the coils.

Analysis and modeling of the actuator has been done considering the two coils, armature (AC) and permanent (DC), as two bar magnets each having its magnetic moment m, depending on the electrical and physical parameters of the coil like excitation current area of coil, length of coil and number of turns. Force between the two poles of two bar magnets is given by following expression:

(1) Where µo is constant of magnetic permeability and m1 and m2 are magnetic moments of the two

coils with r being the instantaneous distance between the poles. Magnetic moment for a pole is given by:

(2) Where N is number of turns, I being current supplied and A is the area of the pole given by

(3) The fact that, force between two magnets follows the inverse square law i.e. the force is

inversely proportional to the square of instantaneous distance between the two magnets, is well taken care of to calculate the work done and hence force involved. As the distance between the two magnets keeps changing due to the periodic motion of the armature magnetic pole hence net force is calculated by net work done. Partial work done, dW, by the coil to move a distance dx when the instantaneous distance between the coils is x is given by:

(4) Assuming the amplitude of vibration between the two coils at extreme positions is in order of

few millimeters, integrating the above function from –x/2 to x/2, net work done W is achieved. Net force is calculated from the work done and hence acceleration by knowing the mass of the table of the assembly. This acceleration hence can be scaled to g values as standards for measuring vibrations. Case Study A prototype computer-in loop EDVAS [5], [6] is developed in house having the specifications as given in Table 1, Fig.2. Signal acquisition and processing was done by using National Instrument’s software and hardware components [7].

Figure 2: The Prototype EDVAS


Table 1: Coil Parameters

Armature Coil Permanent Electromagnet Diameter 47 mm 68 mm No. of turns 160 20800 Length 100 mm 45 mm Current 3 A r.m.s 129 mA

Results & Analysis Magnetic moment of the permanent magnet for 129mA current is 9.74453 Am whereas in armature coil magnetic moment due to its physical parameters is 0.277591 meters per Ampere. Net work done between the two poles, considering 10mm is the distance between the poles as per the actuator design, is 0.262848 Joules. Hence the force calculated is 52.4696 Newton. Considering mass of the table as 0.5 Kg leads to the acceleration of the actuator as 105.139 m/s2

i.e. 10.6524g. A prototype EDVAS was developed in-house having the above specifications and the 10g

acceleration was measured, validating the modeling and design as proposed. A computer program using LabVEIW platform is developed for modeling and simulation of the

actuation system. User Interfaces in terms of providing the coil parameters and mass of the table were created. Output for the vibration level, displacement and velocity of the table were generated. Fig.3 shows the front panel of the developed code.

Figure 3: Front panel of the LabVIEW™ Program

Most interesting part has been the sinusoidal current excitation to the armature. It shows the

real time working of the instrument. The acceleration is integrated to get velocity of the vibrating platform. The acceleration is double integrated to get displacement curve for the vibrating platform. As clear from the Fig.4, a phase difference of π/2 is observed between velocity and acceleration and more so of π in displacement and acceleration. A plot showing all the parameters involved in the program are plotted on time axis viz. current, acceleration, g, velocity and displacement.

546 K.P.S Rana, Shrey Khanna, Ranjit Singh and K.S. Sayann

Figure 4: Plots of Acceleration, Velocity and Displacement v/s Time.

Displacement of the armature coil is used to build an X-Y graph (Fig. 5) to show the simulated

movement of the armature coil over permanent magnet.

Figure 5: Simulated Movement of the Armature coil over Permanent Magnet

Conclusion The EDVAS model presented here has proved to be handy in simulating the response of the device. A systematic and easy approach based on magnetic moments of two electromagnets is proposed. The approach can be extended to multi- degree of freedom vibration systems. It has proven a useful tool to demonstrate the Electro Dynamic Actuation Vibration System and currently being used to demonstrate/teach the concept of vibrations instrumentation fundamentals for undergraduate and graduate levels. The response from the students has very encouraging as the concepts taught to them are very well realized with simulation.


References [1] George Fox Lang, Data Physics Corporation, San Jose, California, “Electrodynamics Shaker

Fundamentals,” Application Notes, Data Physics Inc. [2] Ansari, S.A; Baig, R., “A PC-based vibration analyzer for condition monitoring of process

machinery” IEEE Transactions on Instrumentation and Measurement, Volume 47, Issue 2, pp 378 – 383, April 1998.

[3] H.M McDonalds, T.C Green and B.W. Williams, “Analysis and control of a moving coil actuator” IEEE international conference, IECON ‘93.

[4] R. Pair and H.R Bolten, “Analysis and design of electromagnetic moving coil vibration generators”, IEEE Sixth International conference on Electric machine and Drives, 1993, pp 529-534.

[5] Hsing-Hsin Huang; “The research and manufacture of an educational PC-based vibration control system”, International IEEE/IAS Conference on Emerging Technologies: Industrial Automation and Control, pp 723 – 727, 22-27, May 1995.

[6] Acc Tan, T. Tang and G. Paterson, “PC based vibration simulator for assisting students learning of mechanical vibrations”, Exploring Innovation in Education and Research, CEER-2005, Taiwan, 1-5 March 2005.

[7] Ravi R. Reddy, et. all, “Vibration Signal Acquisition and Analysis Using LabVIEW”, J. Instrumentation Society of India, 35(4), pp400-405.


A Comparative Analysis of Nigerian Undergraduates’

Perception of the Personal Characteristics of their Lecturers

R. O. Olubor Institute of Education, Ekenwan Campus

University of Benin, P.M.B.1154, Benin City, Edo State, Nigeria E-mail: [email protected].

B.O. Ogonor

Dept Of Educational Studies And Management Ugbowo Campus, University Of Benin. P.M.B.1154

Benin City, Edo State, Nigeria E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract

Personal characteristics of teachers are a very vital factor in the process of learning. They can ruin students’ school career or indeed, entire future. This study is therefore meant to find out how undergraduates in public and private universities view their lecturers.

Seven hundred and fifty final year undergraduates comprised of five hundred and two hundred and fifty students from public and private universities respectively formed the sample of the study. These respondents were drawn from the faculties of Arts, Science, Education, Engineering, Social Science and Law. Tools such as statistical mean, t-test and analysis of variance were adopted for the analysis of data

The study revealed among others that lecturers in public and private universities are positively rated in personal characteristics such as capability, motivation of students, lecturers’ integrity and comportment. However, the undergraduates in both public and private universities were unanimous in rating their lecturers negatively in the area of attitude to work.

Among the recommendations is that there is need for the National Universities Commission to reorientate Nigerian Lecturers on improving their attitude to work.

Introduction Societal and economic transformation are increasing the challenges that nations face as they seek to provide their residents with opportunities to pursue and achieve education and training beyond secondary education. Public subsidies on public higher institutions continued until the mid 1980s when the political process questioned the economic rationale for subsidizing higher education. Consequently, universities in many developing countries experienced deterioration of facilities and erosion of the quality of services provided. Both universities and governments rapidly adopted alternative strategies to address the increasing social demand for higher education as shown in table one. Nigeria has therefore encouraged private initiative in higher education establishment. Public universities are also encouraged to run part-time programmes, which are, profit making in nature.

Table one shows the number of applicants and admission into Nigeria Universities.

A Comparative Analysis of Nigerian Undergraduates’ Perception of the Personal Characteristics of their Lecturers 549

Table 1: Number of Applicants and Admissions into Nigerian Universities

Year Application Admission Admission 1995/96 508,280 32,473 6.4 1996/97 472,362 76,430 16.2 1997/98 419,807 72,791 17.3 2000/2001 550.399 60,718 11.0 2001/2002 823,214 78,416 9.5

Source: JAMB in Okebukola, P A.O. (2002)

Table one shows that the majority of the applicants were not admitted. This therefore necessitated alternative higher institution by private individuals and corporate bodies.

Private universities in Nigeria were not created by turning public institutions into private but rather by organizing new institutions from the scratch. Individuals have their misgivings on the establishment of private universities. An example is the alarm raised by the Non-Academic Staff Union of Educational and Associated Institutions (NASU) querying the proliferation of the issuance of licenses for private universities in Nigeria. This is based on the fact that corrupt moneybags now own private universities and could destroy the university system in the country because the set up is purely for profit making motives (Young, 2005)

Public higher institutions may also run part time programmes thus creating space for those who could not get into the regular full time programmes.

Varghese (2002) pointed out that higher education might include those institutions that are self-financing (profit-making enterprise as any other corporate entity), those that receive partial public funding support and those public institutions that run profit-making courses.

Many reasons have been adduced to show why private higher education is introduced. Varghese explained that the expansion in Kenya is due to a curb in the public funding and in Bangladesh, it is due to the inability of public institutions to satisfy the growing social demand for higher education. In Nigeria, the following reasons necessitated the need for the establishment of private universities. Among them are it is a potent way of sharing the task of reviving a decaying educational system that is bedeviled with incessant strikes, antisocial student activities and steady rot in morals (Orhibabor, 2003). Assurance of a specific time of graduation is a boost that’s drawing students to private universities. Inclusive is the high social demand for education.

In order to reduce cost on salaries (especially lecturers’ salaries), which is a dominant part of expenditure of educational institutions in the public domain, many private institutions economize by employing teaching staff on part-time bases. Varghese was quick to point out that most of the part-time teachers come from public institutions. If this is so, it may therefore be necessary to find out to what extent the views of students in private and public higher education differ as regards the characteristics of their lecturers.

Profit making courses in public universities are termed part-time and sandwich. Part-time programmes are run during weekends (Friday evening to Sunday) while sandwich programmes are run during long vacation periods (July-September in a year) it is only the faculty of education that runs sandwich programme because of the long holiday period of pre-tertiary institutions.

Joseph Stetar et al (2005) in their study of Ukrainian Private Higher Education with a sample of 77 faculty and 239 students at five private universities revealed that approximately 10 percent of the students acknowledge they had either paid a professor or were personally aware of a situation in which a student had paid a professor for assistance outside of the classroom. Similarly, 12 percent of faculty indicated they had either experienced or personally knew of situations where money or gifts were exchanged for consultation outside the classroom. About the same percentage of students and faculty reported either personally being in or knowing of a situation in which students were required to purchase a book written by their professors and provide a proof of purchase. However more than 90 percent of the students and 95 percent of the faculty reported they had neither experienced nor know of

550 R. O. Olubor and B.O. Ogonor

situations in which bribes were used to gain a favourable grade on an entrance examination or a course examination at their university – No data exist to indicate any personal experiences of sexual favours between faculty and students for favourable grades. The researchers were quick to say that they recognized that data on this latter aspect of corruption may be the most difficult to obtain.

The Nigerian higher education is also being alleged of substantial if not pervasive corruption. Parents and the public complain of extortion and sorting. Sorting is the condition when an academically deficient student sorts himself out with the teacher or other persons in authority in the institution with a view to securing favour that will wipe out such deficiency. Items such as money, gift items and sex are used to curry favour. (The Nigerian Observer, 2005).

Private universities in Chile are not by any means a marginal academic appendix to the public sector. They compete with the more established institutions on many fronts; and some even surpass public universities in prestige and quality of their student bodies as measured by rankings and test scores respectively. Twenty years after Chilean higher education was reformed privateness has come to be its dominant feature with the private sector representing 93 percent of institutions and 71 percent of enrolments (Bernasconi, 2003). Chilean higher education is extolled as a model especially by the World Bank because of the presence of genuine academic work.

Lopez (2005) stated that it is precisely through the teacher/student relationship that the success and failure, stories of children and adolescents are written. The whole process in schools takes place within that relationship, but it is not the mere passive intake of knowledge by students; it is a direct on-going process of co-building knowledge between students and their teacher. Teachers represent the school with its rules, practices, deficiencies and achievements. They represent the education system and its action in general and convey their institution’s teaching ethos and project. On the other hand, students are the expression of their families and of the values, preferences, customs and quality of life. Theoretical Orientation The study is hinged on Getzel and Gubal conceptualization of an organizational effectiveness as a derivative of the extent to which the personnels observed behaviour is congruent with bureaucratic expectations held for the role. It is rationalized that the personnel is effective if social behaviour is consistent with their need disposition. In this study, the personal characteristics of the lecturers is investigated as these have consequences for the quality of interaction with the students and consequently the performance of learning outcome of the students.

The characteristics of an effective teacher comprise all the skills, behaviours and attitudes the teacher has that enable him to perform his job in a manner that ensures the realization of the goals and objectives of teaching and education. A teacher formulates the rules, norms, sanctions and rewards in the classroom, thus influencing the social system of the students more than anyone else if we realize that the teacher is in charge for the entire school year. (Awotua-Efebo, 1999) The people we teach have a view of us based on what they perceive our actions or inaction to be. Students perceive an effective teacher as one who nurtures them by treating them as intelligent people with potentials; showing them love and kindness; taking time to know and understand them, treating them fairly, explaining why he teaches and acts the way he does; listening to them etc.

Laminack and Long (1986) in a survey asked the respondents (university students) to recall their best elementary school teacher and give reasons for their choice. They classified the responses under; 1. classroom management; 2. personality; 3. technique and strategy; and 4. appearance.

Onwuku (1981) asserted that much of what the pupils turn out to be depends upon what they learn. This in turn depends upon the school atmosphere which is largely the creation of the teachers. He went further to explain that in order to establish the requisite relationship with their pupils teachers


must be pleasant, kind, dignified, humorous, tolerant, responding, friendly and approachable. Personal characteristics of teachers are a very vital factor in the process of learning. They can ruin pupils’ school career or indeed, entire future. On the other hand, they may give the pupils such psychological backing that will enable them confidently to face any challenge in life.

The teaching profession is not merely a matter of qualification and the ability to impart knowledge it involves the inculcation of positive qualities that can bring about the necessary atmosphere for effective learning. According to Okebukola (2002) a teacher in a university is one who is empowered by his or her instrument of appointment to teach and evaluate students, carry out and publish research and offer his/her expertise to the community – local, national and international in terms of consultancy, public enlightenment and other services.

Egbobamwonyi (2002) remarked that teaching can be marathon of hurdles-coping with over-size classes, excessive work, overbearing bureaucracy, unresponsive students and inadequate pay. He went further to say that a good teacher instills confidence and makes learning a fascinating challenge. A good teacher therefore is a successful and competent teacher who touched your heart, who understood you or who cared about your future and you as a person.

Hernes (2001) opined that teachers are leaders of the pupils community of work and they make a great difference not just in the functioning of a class but also in the lives of their students. The most important tools teachers have are themselves. He went further to explain that the teacher’s command of his or her field is vital when the experiences of the young are to be converted into insights. A teacher must know a subject well in order to teach with skill and authority – as well as with sensitivity to individual students’ needs and capacities.

Teachers everywhere in Africa are regarded as the most vital resource in the education industry. If education is the door that opens to modernization and development, then the teacher holds the key to that door. This is acknowledged in the National Policy on Education which states that “no educational system can rise above the quality of its teachers”. (Federal Republic of Nigeria, 2004).

Lopez asserted that if equal access to knowledge is to be achieved for all, then the gap between teachers and students must be bridged. This implies bringing teachers closer to their students and asking teachers and schools to adopt a curriculum that is tailored to meet the actual needs of the children who sit in their classroom everyday.

Studies so far carried out on university education concentrate on some aspects of programmes, lecturers’ perceptions are usually sought concerning programmes and issues. Undergraduates who eventually form the output are usually neglected in seeking their views concerning the situation in the campuses. This study will therefore fill the gap.

The specific questions addressed in the study were: 1. What were undergraduates’ perceptions of the personal qualities of their lecturers? 2. Is there any significant difference in students’ perception of the personal qualities of their

lecturers by sex, type of programme and university? 3. Is there any difference faculty wise in the students’ perception of the personal qualities of their

lecturers?. One research question was raised and two hypotheses proposed for this study.

Research Question 1. How do undergraduates perceive the personal qualities of their lecturers? Hypotheses 1. There is no significant difference in students’ perception of their lecturers’ personal

characteristics by the criteria of sex, type of programme and university. 2. There is no significant variation in students’ perception of their lecturers personal characteristics

based on course of study.


Purpose and Significance of Study The main purpose of this study was to find out the perception of Nigerian undergraduates of the personal characteristics of their lecturers. A study of this nature will expose the impression that undergraduates have of their lecturers. Lecturers would need to know how they are being viewed and perceived. The findings of this study will help to reveal these views. Methodology This study employed a survey method. It used a random sample of 500 final year undergraduates of public university, 250 final year undergraduates of privately owned universities drawn from the faculties of Arts, Science, Education, Engineering, Social Science and Law. These faculties were chosen because they are common to private and public universities. Final year students were also chosen because it is expected that they have stayed fairly long enough to effectively perceive the characteristic of their lecturers.

The instrument used for the collection of data was a 31-item structured questionnaire designed to find out how undergraduates perceive the personal qualities of their lecturers. The questionnaire was designed on two-point scale of Agree and Disagree. The research question raised and the reviewed literature guided the formulation of research questions in the questionnaire. The questionnaire was divided into two sections. Section A sought to find out the students course, level and type of programme. The perception of the students, about the personal qualities of their lecturers formed the content of the Section B of the questionnaire. Analysis of Data Statistical mean t-test and analysis of variance were the statistical tools adopted for the analysis of data.

Two lecturers in the two private universities under study assisted n administering the questionnaire in their institutions while the researchers administered the ones for the public university where they are lecturers. Results The analysis of the data was performed in 3 sequential phases. In the first phase the mean scores of the Lecturers personal characteristics subset index were computed and compared with the normative mean for the groups. To determine differences in each index of the perceived characteristics by respondents, sex, year of study, type of programmes and ownership of institution, t-test of difference between two independent means was adopted. The third phase of the analysis is performed using a one-way analysis of variance to determine variation of perceived lecturers personal characteristics indices by the criterion of faculty. Students Perception of Lecturers Personal Characteristics

Lecturers were positively rated in personal characteristics as capability, motivation of students, lecturers’ integrity and comportment as shown in Table 2. These traits had higher rating mean scores of 13.76, 9.35, 7.99 and 8.03 as compared with the normative means of 12, 9, 7.5 and 7.5 respectively. However, lecturers had negative rating for attitude to work with a mean score of 5.6 as compared with normative students mean score of six (6).


Table 2: Students’ perception of Lecturers Personal Characteristics

Lecturers Personal Characteristics

No of Subjects

Total Weighted Score

Statistical Mean Normative Mean S.D. Decision

Lecturers capability 717 1434 13.76 12 1.46 Positive Motivation of Students

717 1434 9.35 9 1.81 Positive

Lecturers’ Integrity 717 1434 7.99 7.5 1.43 Positive Lecturers’ attitude to work

717 1434 5.6 6 1.15 Negative

Comportment 717 1434 8.03 7.5 1.7 Positive Hypotheses One

There is no significant difference in students’ perception of lecturers personal qualities based on the criteria of sex, type of programme and university ownership. Table 3A-3C: t-test of significant difference in students’ perception of lecturers’ Personal characteristics by

Sex, type of programme and type of university.

Lecturers Personal

Characteristics

Sex N Mean S.D. t. df. Level of Sig.

Decision

Male 332 13.63 1.67 Not sig. Capability Female 385 13.83 1.332 - 1.786 715 .075 Male 332 9.96 1.899 - 1.870 .062 Not sig Students

motivation Female 385 9.45 1.733 715 Male 332 7.98 1.455 715 .978 Not Sig Integrity Female 385 7.98 1.431 - .028 Male 332 6.05 1.217 1.251 715 .212 Not Sig Attitude to

work Female 385 5.94 1.103 Male 332 8.00 1.761 - .278 715 .781 Not Sig Comportment Female 385 8.04 1.633 0.05

Table 3B:

Lecturers Personal

Characteristics

Type of Programme

N Mean S.D. t.-test df. Level of Sig.

Decision

Full 648 12.85 1.733 .101 .920 Not sig. Capability Part-Time 715 Full 648 8.49 1.729 .99 715 .921 Not sig Students

motivation Part-Time 69 8.45 1.565 Full 648 7.335 1.474 .865 715 .388 Not Sig Integrity Part-Time 69 7.335 1.161 Full-Time 648 5.981 1.031 3.88 715 .000 Significant Attitude to

work Part-Time 69 5.050 .944 Full-Time 648 7.267 1.614 .543 715 .587 Not Sig Comportment Part-Time 69 7.053 1.899


Table 3C:

Lecturers’ Personal

Characteristics

Ownership of

University

No of Respondents

Mean S.D t-test df Level of Significance

Decision

Public 549 13.604 1.5147 - Capability Private 173 14.156 1.2594 4.337 715 .0001 Significant Private 549 9.213 1.8564 - 715 .002 Students

Motivation Public 173 9.712 1.5967 3.163 Significant Private 549 7.8606 1.4600 - Integrity Public 173 8.3353 1.3276 3.769 715 .0001 Significant Private 549 6.0018 1.1738 -.362 Attitude to

work Public 173 5.9653 1.1044 718 .718 Not Significant Public 549 7.8471 1.7315 - Comportment Private 173 8.5576 1.4540 4.756 718 .001 Significant

Lecturers did not vary significantly in their personal characteristics based on the criterion of

sex. Table II shows t-test scores for significant difference in lecturers capability as (t-1.786) P>0.05 students motivation (t-1.870) P<0.05, lecturers integrity (t-.028) P<0.05, attitude to work (t- 1.251) p<0.05 and comportment (t-.781) p<0.05. Significant difference was recorded only in lecturers attitude to work based on the type of programme (t 3.880} p>.001 as shown in table 3B. Lecturers differ according to undergraduates views based on the type of programme in personal characteristics as capability, students’ motivation, integrity and comportment. A similarity in view was recorded in the aspect of attitude to work

The t-test of two independent means revealed that lecturers varied significantly by ownership of universities in personal characteristics as capability (t-4.337) p<001, students motivation (t-3.163) p<.002, lecturers integrity (t-3.769) p<.001 and comportment (t-4.756) p<.001. However significant difference was not observed in lecturers’ attitude to work in public and private universities. This is shown in Table 3C

Hypothesis 2 There is no variation in students’ perception of the personal characteristics of lecturers by course of study

A one-way analysis of variance was adopted to determine variations in the students’ perception of lecturers’ personal characteristics by faculty. Significant differences were observed among the faculties of Social Sciences, Science, Engineering, Law Education and Art in perceived personal characteristics as lecturers capability F (13.341) p<.000, motivation of students F (15.672) p<.000, lecturers integrity F(5.851) p<.000 and comportment F (8.302) p<.000. No significant variation was observed among faculties in lecturers attitude to work F(.999) p>.419.

A multiple comparisons of mean differences among the faculties revealed a significant turkey test score of students perception of lecturers in comportment between Social Science and Science F (1.0214) <.000, Social Science and Education F (.6687) P <. 011. Science and Engineering F (1.0894) P<.000 Engineering and Education F(.73660)P <.013. As regard lecturers’ capability, significant mean differences were observed between Science and Social Science F(.1.0903)P< .0001, Science and Engineering F(-1.0026)P<.0001, Science and Law F(-1.0881)P<.001 Science and Education F(-.8811)P<.0001, Science and Art F (-1.0002) P<.003. Similarly, in the aspect of lecturers motivation of students, the locus of significant mean differences were between the faculties of Science and Social Sciences F(-1.5393)P <.0001, Science and Engineering F(-1.2763) p<.005, Science and Law F(.1.2896) p<.0001, Science and Education F(-1.1098) p<.0001. Variations observed in lecturers integrity were among Social Science and Science F(.7629) p<.0001, Social Science and Education F(.5892) p<.006, Science and Engineering f(.6061)p<.009.


Discussion of Findings Students perceived lecturers as positive in such personal characteristics as capability, motivation of students, integrity and comportment. However, lecturers’ attitude to work was perceived as negative. These findings are in consonance with Academic Staff Union of Nigerian Universities (ASUU) who stated that lecturers in Nigerian universities are among the most qualified and capable worldwide. The fact is exacerbated by the reports that the Nigerian academics that migrated as a result of brain drain to foreign countries continue to break new grounds in the foreign countries where they are employed. The finding on attitude to work is not unexpected as the terrible conditions the Nigerian academic was forced to work during the military era took its toll on lecturers’ commitment to the job. During the period, the lecturers in Nigerian universities were the least paid and were therefore pressurized to engage in other money yielding activities, which were non-academic. Academics remuneration may now be comparable to other countries but the air of uncertainty appears to be the reason why a considerable number of them still cling to such jobs. The non-academic money yielding ventures cannot be dismantled yet.

There were no significant variations in the students perceptions of lecturers’ personal characteristics based on sex. The implication is that both male and female students have the same perception of lecturers in their personal characteristics. The finding suggests that gender plays an insignificant role in making academic judgments by undergraduates.

Findings regarding students’ perception on lecturers’ personal characteristics by type of programme indicated a significant difference between full-time and part-time students in lecturers’ attitude to work. Full-time students reported that, lecturers had better attitude to work than part-time students. . This situation may not be surprising because the full time students have the five days in a week to interact with their lecturers. Whereas the part-time students come in on Fridays. Lecturers at this at this period are already in the weekend mood for social activities such as marriage ceremonies and burial activities etc. They are therefore often impatient with any request from students. The findings corroborate which found that lecturers motivation in participating in part-time programme is mainly for financial benefits. The implication of the finding is that since lecturers are not poised to giving their best in the part-time programme, the quality of teaching and learning that occur in such programmes is questionable. No wonder, there has been calls for the scrapping of part-time programmes from various quarters due to the doubts raised regarding the quality of such programmes. In all Nigerian Universities, part-time degree law programmes have been abolished. Other programmes are also being monitored

Significant differences were recorded for students’ perceptions of lecturers’ characteristics in public and private universities in capability, students motivation, integrity and comportment. Students in private universities rated their lecturers higher in the stated characteristics. The findings are expected, as private universities tend to have fewer numbers of students consequently the student/lecturer ratio is likely to be far lower. Furthermore, there is the tendency for personal contact between lecturers and students. Surprisingly, the rating of lecturers in private universities did not differ significantly from those in public universities in attitude to work. It would have been expected that the attitude to work of lecturers in private institutions should vary significantly from those in public universities since they have fewer number of students to cope with. A plausible reason could be, the reported stressful condition under which the academic staff function in terms of over the shoulder supervision. In addition a significant number of the lecturers in private universities are hired from public universities. It is not impossible that those traits exhibited by lecturers of public universities are carried over to the private universities.

Lecturers varied in personal characteristics such as capability, motivation of students, integrity and comportment, in the faculties of social sciences, science, Engineering, Law, and Education. The lecturers in Social Sciences were considered more highly rated in comportment than those in Science and Education. Similarly lecturers in Engineering were considered as more highly rated than those in Education and the former had a lower rating than those in Science. These findings appear to be the


reflections of social values in the larger society, the social scientists invariably tend to become administrators and bureaucrats. The traits associated with such positions tend to be reflected in the lecturers’ carriage even in the universities while the scientists tend to pay less attention to personal comportment, as he is busy in the laboratory most times. The rating of the lecturers’ comportment in Education is not unexpected as teachers tend to be rated lower in comportment by the general public as compared with other professionals. What is unexpected is the higher rating of scientists than Engineers in comportment.

The findings as regard lecturers’ capability revealed that lecturers in Science had lower mean rating than Social Sciences, Engineering, Law, Education and Art. This finding is worrisome as it implies that the student s in the Faculty of Science had lower confidence in the competence of their lecturers than students have in the lecturers in other faculties. One begins to wonder why that perception. Could it be that the non-existence of a lot of equipment and materials for experiments is contributory to the eroding of confidence by the students in their lecturers? There is the need to probe this further particularly as the respondents were those in the final and penultimate years of their programme and therefore understand very well the implication of research work.

Similarly, undergraduates rated lecturers in Science lower than Social Sciences, Engineering, Law and Education .in motivation of students. The finding reveals that lecturers in Science do not motivate their students as much as in the other listed faculties. It would have been expected that the faculty of Education would have had a much higher mean than the other faculties because they are the specialists in pedagogy. However, lecturers in social sciences were rated as having higher integrity than those in Science and Education while those in Science were rated as having higher integrity than those in Engineering. Implication of findings for Educational Management The implication of the findings on no significant difference by gender in the personal characteristics of lecturers is an indication that gender should not be a factor in the decision of recruitment, selection and retention of lecturers in both the public and private universities. However, the findings of negative attitude to work by academic staff of public and private universities is a pointer to the urgent need of the National Universities Commission which is the body charged with the supervision of Nigerian Universities to determine the motivational needs of lecturers in Nigerian Universities so as to put strategies in place to address and redress the ugly situation. A low attitude of staff to work implies that university education is not positioned to generate the right caliber of specialists required for social, cultural and technological development. These have grave consequences for the rapid development of the nation as well as the quality of Nigerian Universities in the global arena. Conclusion Lecturers in the selected universities were perceived by undergraduates as capable, of high integrity, able to comport themselves properly and can adequately motivate students. However, they were perceived to have negative attitude to work. Full-time and part-time undergraduates varied in their perceptions of lecturers’ attitude to work. Lecturers in public and private universities were perceived by undergraduates to differ in personal characteristics as capability, students’ motivation, integrity and comportment. Similarly there were variations in the faculties of Social Sciences, Science, Engineering, Law, Education and Art in Lecturers capability, motivation of students, lecturers’ integrity and comportment in both public and private universities. It can therefore be concluded that Nigerian undergraduates in both public and private universities perceive their lecturers in the same way.


Recommendations In view of the findings of the study, it is obvious that there is need to adapt codes of conduct for teachers. This may help to change their behaviour as long as teachers are involved in designing and implementing these codes and effective enforcement procedures are established.

Since ethical behaviors of teachers largely depends on the nature and quality of political and educational governance, as well as institutions, there is therefore need for the National Universities Commission to organize workshops and Seminars to orientate the academic staff on positive attitude to work cannot be overemphasized. The suggested interventions are required if the higher Education industry is to function effectively. There is need to carry out further research in the area of attitude to work. References [1] Awotua-Efebo, E.B. (1999) Effective Teaching Principles and Practice Port Harcourt: Jeson

Services [2] Bernasconi, Andress (2003) “Private Higher Education with an Academic Focus: Chile’s New

Exceptionalism” International Higher Education Summer 2003. Extract from Internet 30th of May 30th.

[3] Egbobamwonyi, Dorothy (2002) “Teaching Profession in Distress” The Nigerian Observer Vol. 32, NO. 9522, p. 14.

[4] Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004) National Policy on Education Lagos: NERDC. Hernes, Gudmund (2001) “Managing Learning by managing teachers” IIEP Newsletter. Vol.xix, No.2, April-June 2001, p.2

[5] Laminack, L.L. and Long, B.M. (1986) “What makes a Teacher Effective? – Insight from pre-Service Teachers Pre-Service Teacher Vol. 86 p. 268 – 269.

[6] Lopez, Nstor (2005) “The teacher/student relationship – crucial to equity in education” International Institute for Educational Planning in Newsletter. Vol. xxiii, No. 1, January – March, 2005. p. 4.

[7] Okebukola, P.A.O. (2002) The State of Universities in Nigeria. Ibadan: Heinemann [8] Onwuka, Uga (1981) “General Guide for Classroom Teaching” (Onwuka, Uga ed.) Curriculum

Development for Africa. Onitsha: Africana-Fep Publishers Limited. [9] Orhibhabor, Rose (2003) “Of Private Universities and Academic Excellence” The Nigerian

Observer Vol.33 No 9691 p. 9. [10] Stetar, Joseph, Oleksiy Panyah and Bin Cheng (2005) “Confronting Corruption: Ukrainian

private Higher Education” International Higher Education, Winter 2005 an extract from the Internet on 30th of May 2005.

[11] The Nigerian Observer (2005) “Combating Sorting in Universities” The Nigerian Observer Thursday May 5, 2005 p.4.

[12] Varghese, N.V. (2002) “Private Higher Education” International Institute for Educational Planning. Vol. xx, No 3, July – Sept. 2002 p. 12.

[13] Young, Victor Ahulma (2005) “NASU raises alarm over private varsities licenses” Vanguard Monday June 13 vol. 21 (5673) p. 38.


Method for Harmonics Detection Using

TMS320C6711DSP in Real-time

Mohammed E. Salem Student at the Department of Electrical, Electronic and Systems Engineering

University Kebangsaan Malaysia E-mail: [email protected]

Azah Mohamed

Professor at Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM), Malaysia Head of Electrical, Electronic and Systems Engineering department

Email: [email protected]

Salina Abdul Samad Lecturer at the Department of Electrical

Electronic and Systems Engineering, University Kebangsaan Malaysia Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM)


Abstract

Real time detection of power quality (PQ) disturbances is an important consideration to electrical utilities and many industrial customers so that diagnosis and mitigation of such disturbance can be implemented quickly. Harmonics is one type of power quality disturbances. This paper presents a simple and accurate method for detection of individual harmonics distortions (IHD) and total harmonic distortion (THD) in real-time. The input signal, spectrum analyses graph, THD and IHDs values can be shown in real-time and in one dialog. The analysis based on Texas Instruments radix-2 optimized fast Fourier transform (FFT) function which is coded in the digital signal processor (DSP).The hardware in this work uses the TMS320C6711DSP starter kit with a TI ADS8364EVM 250-kHz, 16-bit, 6-channel analog digital converter mounted on the daughter card. The hardware can cater for single-phase and three-phase voltage and current measurements. The results of analysis show the accurate values of IHD and THD according to the IEEE standard 1459 in real-time. As well as harmonics detection, this system can be used to detect other PQ disturbances (voltage sag, swell, transient, etc.) using other algorithms like continuous wavelet Transform. Keywords: Digital signal processor, harmonics, power quality, real-time.

I. Introduction There is a need for a power quality measurement system that can be used to perform accurate and real-time detection of power disturbances such as voltage sag, voltage swell, transient, voltage notching and harmonics. Harmonics distortions in distribution systems are major problems which have been of great

Method for Harmonics Detection Using TMS320C6711DSP in Real-time 559

concern these days. The problems of harmonics keep on increasing due to the growth of the modern technology which converts the bulky power system loads into small size power electronic loads. Nowadays, the proliferation of power electronic loads such as adjustable speed drives and switch mode power supplies has lead to increasing harmonic distortion problem. These loads use diodes, silicon controlled rectifiers, and power transistors to convert 50/60Hz ac to dc. In adjustable speed drives, the dc is converted to variable frequency ac to control a motor speed [1]. These efficient and controllable power electronic loads are proliferating and can be found at all power levels.

Harmonic measurements in industrial power systems are essential to achieve three objectives. Firstly, for the identification of the sources and characteristics (magnitude, frequency and location) of the harmonics. Secondly, for the design and installation of a filtering system to reduce the harmonic impacts to the power system. Thirdly, to ensure that total harmonic distortion, after compensation, will be in compliance with the regulatory requirements such as IEEE Standard 1459 [2]. So there is a need to monitor the harmonic distortions in real-time in power system to know the reason and overcome this distortion, in this work a simple and comfortable way comparing to work in [3] is used to monitor the analysis of input signals (current or voltages), THD, IHD and spectrum analysis in one dialog and in real-time.

This paper presents a real-time implementation of FFT using the DSP hardware for detecting harmonics and displays the input signal, spectrum analyses, THD and IHDs in one dialog. DSP hardware is used because it is distinct from the general-purpose microprocessor due to its high computing power. The hardware architecture uses the Texas Instrument TMS320C6711 DSP development starter kit (DSK) with an ADS8364EVM 250-kHz, 16-bit, 6-channel, simultaneous sampling analog digital converter (ADC) mounted on its daughter card. The results of analysis obtained according to IEEE standard 1459[4]. II. Fast Fourier Transform in DSP The fast Fourier transform (FFT) is one of the most commonly used operations in digital signal processing to provide a frequency spectrum analysis [5]. In this work the analysis of the signals for detect harmonics is based on Texas Instruments radix-2 optimized fast Fourier transform (FFT) function which is coded in the digital signal processor (DSP). The code has been done using c-language and Code Composer Studio (CCS) software, and THD and IHD is coded as following:

THD = sqrt(IHD3* IHD3 +IHD5* IHD5 +IHD7* IHD7 +IHD9* IHD9 +IHD11* IHD11 +IHD13* IHD13 +IHD15*IHD15) (1)

IHD3 = (H3/H1)*100 (2) IHD5 = (H5/H1)*100 (3) IHD15 = (H15/H1)*100 (4)

where THD is total harmonic distortion and IHD is individual harmonics distortions. III. DSP Based Hardware Architecture The PQ disturbance detection hardware is designed by considering the DSP hardware, a data acquisition device using an ADC converter and a signal-conditioning module connected to the voltage and current probes. The system is DSP-based because this design offers several advantages such as being software upgradeable, low cost and with low power consumption. The architecture of the system hardware in terms of block diagram is shown in Figure 1. The prototype uses a signal-conditioning module for mains input isolation, current probe to measure the current between 0 to 100 amps, a

560 Mohammed E. Salem, Azah Mohamed and Salina Abdul Samad

TMS320C6711DSP in the DSK evaluation board and a high performance 16-bit ADC, ADS8364 EVM. A PC running on Windows XP is interfaced with the DSK through a parallel port, DB25.

Figure 1: DSP-based hardware architecture

The DSK is a complete DSP system with a powerful (150 MHz, max. 900 MFLOPS) processor, and it comes with all the necessary hardware and software support tools for real-time processing, including the Code Composer Studio (CCS) software. The TMS320C6711DSP processor is a floating-point DSP with very-long-instruction-word architecture, which is ideal for mathematical processing [5]. For the required accuracy and resolution, a 12-bit ADC is adequate to measure the voltage variation and harmonic distortion. However, for measuring voltage sag, swell and current harmonic distortions, at least a 16-bit ADC is needed [6]. Therefore, a 16-bit ADC (ADS8364EVM) is used for this purpose.

The ADS8364EVM features high-speed, low power, 6-channel simultaneous sampling ADC, analog inputs (0-5V) configurable as single-ended or differential, direct connection to the C5000 and C6000 DSK platforms through the 80-pin interface connectors and a high-speed parallel interface. The conversion time for the ADS8364 is 3.2 µs with a 5-MHz external clock and the acquisition time 0.8 µs, both of which are sufficiently fast for working in real time. To maximize the output rate of 250 KSPS, the read function is performed at the start of the next conversion [7]. For current measurement, a current probe LEM PR 1030 with range 0 to 100 amps is used in this work. This device is directly connected to the analog input of ADS8364EVM. IV. Software Implementation In this work, all the processing of the FFT algorithm has been executed in the DSP. 512 samples of a PQ signal are applied to the DSP via external memory interface (EMIF) and the multichannel buffered serial port (McBSP) which is used as general purpose input/output (GPIO)only to control the timing of the convert starts and provide a clock. The enhanced direct memory access (DMA) allows for transfer of data to and from internal memory or external devices without intervention from the CPU. The data flow through the system is illustrated in Figure 2. McBSP sends an interrupt to the DSP core whenever a new completed sampled data arrives from ADC and then this data is analyzed by FFT in DSP. The output of the analyses is displayed on the PC.


Figure 2: Data flow through the system

Programming in the DSP is by means of using the Code Composer Studio (CCS) software and the C language. The CCS provides an integrated development environment incorporating the software tools for code generation, such as a C compiler and assembler. It has graphical capabilities and supports real-time debugging. CCS is used in this application because of its advantages described as follows [3]: (i) The code is easily ported to DSP without having to substantially modify the source code. (ii) It offers a pre-emptive multitasking environment. Software expansion is easy and also the real-

time analysis module provides detailed real-time information on the algorithms being run. (iii) It has a real-time data exchange module transferring data in real-time between the DSP and PC.

Implementing the FFT analysis based on DSP is described in Figure 3. Both the CCS and the C languages are used to interface the DSK with PC and display the results. After initializing the DSK, the ADS8364EVM is then initialized to prepare the ADC for converting the analog input signal to its digital form via software. If a sampling size has 512 numbers of input data, an interrupt response is given to enable interrupt service routine which is FFT algorithm. The output of FFT analysis is displayed through the interrupt service routine using the CCS graphical display.


Figure 3: Implementing FFT analysis in DSP

V. Results and Discussion The processing and analysis of captured data from the mains or function generator using DSP is considered as real-time analysis. In this work, real-time analysis of PQ disturbances was done using the C language based FFT implemented in DSP. A voltage signal from the mains supply is applied to DSP after attenuated using signal-conditioning module. The signal was applied to the ADS8364EVM ADC and the output of the analysis in real-time using FFT is shown in Figure 4. From the figure can see the values of THD and IHDs where the value of THD is 2.733185 % and indicates that there is no harmonic present in the signal according to IEEE Standard [3] and also it is clear that no harmonic from the spectrum analyses in the figure.

A current signal obtained from the mains using the LEM PR 1030 current probe was analyzed in real-time in DSP. The output of this signal, its spectrum analysis and values of THD and IHDs in real-time using the FFT is shown in Figure 5. It is clear from the spectrum analyses of the current waveform that there are harmonics present in the signal and the value of THD which is 25.52521 %, confirms the presence of harmonics.

The next signal considered for real-time analysis of signals in DSP is a sinusoidal and square wave signals from a function generator. Figures 6 show the sinusoidal signal and its FFT analyses with the values of THD and IHDs. Also from this figure and the value of THD can see that the signal is free of harmonics. The next figure which is Figure 7 shows the square wave and the harmonics of this wave after analysis using FFT. The value of THD of this wave is 33.78795 %.


Figure 4: Mains voltage waveform, spectrum analyses, THD and IHDs values

Figure 5: Mains current waveform, spectrum analyses, THD and IHDs values


Figure 6: Sinusoidal function generator waveform, spectrum analyses, THD and IHDs values

Figure 7: Square function generator waveform, spectrum analyses, THD and IHDs values


VI. Conclusion A real-time implementation of FFT using the DSP hardware has been carried out to detect harmonics in simple and accurate method. The hardware system architecture for the implementation considers the TMS320C6711 DSP with ADS8364EVM analog digital converter and the current probe LEM PR 1030 with a range of 0 to 100 amps. The input voltage or current signals, spectrum analyses graph, THD and IHDs values can be shown in real-time and in one dialog. The THD values of voltage and current waveforms measured according to IEEE Standard 1459 as proven from the results. References [1] Noraliza H, Azah M, Aini H. “Harmonic source location at the point of common coupling on

voltage magnitude” TENCON 2004. IEEE Region 10 Conference Publication Date: 21-24 Nov. 2004 Volume: C, on page(s): 220- 223.

[2] Hsiung C. L. 2005 “Remote Real-time Power System Harmonics Detection and Monitoring via the Internet ” Systems, Man and Cybernetics, 2005 IEEE International Conference on Publication Date: 10-12 Oct. Volume: 3, On page(s): 2867- 2872.

[3] Gherasim, C.; Van den Keybus, J.; Driesen, J.; Belmans, R. 2004 “DSP Implementation of Power Measurements According to the IEEE Trial-Use Standard 1459,” IEEE Trans on Instrumentation and Measurement,, Volume: 53 , Issue: 4, 2004, pp.1086-1092.

[4] Alexander E. E. “Summary of IEEE Standard 1459: Definitions for the Measurement of Electric Power Quantities under Sinusoidal, Nonsinusoidal, Balanced, or Unbalanced Conditions” IEEE Trans on Industry and applications, Volume: 40, No. 3, May/June 2004.

[5] Chassaing R., “DSP application uses C and the TMS320C6X DSK,” New York: Jone Wiley & Sons. Inc, 2002, pp. 1-3.

[6] Shiun Chen. A. “Quantitative analysis of the data acquisition requirements for measuring power quality phenomena,” IEEE Trans on Power Delivery, Volume: 18, Issue: 4, Oct. 2003, pp. 1575 – 1577.

[7] ADS8364EVM User’s Guide, 2002.


Monitoring Equipment Failure in Oil Well Drilling Operations

Using Wireless Application Protocol (WAP)

Ureigho R. J Department of computer Science, Delta State Polytechnic

Otefe-Oghara, Nigeria

Onibere E.A Department of Computer Science, University of Benin

Benin City, Nigeria

Ekruyota, O. G Department of Computer Science/Information Technology

Delta State Polytechnic, Ozoro, Delta State

Abstract

This study was carried out to design a WAP system where mobile phone would be used in monitoring equipment failure during oil well drilling operations. Equipment failure is the major challenge to early completion of oil well drilling. It accounts for the highest Non-Productive Time (NPT) thereby increasing the cost of delivering an oil well. This work places equipment failure reports on the lap of all parties: the servicing companies and the oil companies. It is no more necessary for servicing companies to visit rig or “company man’s” office before they can get the reports. Mobile phone can be used to access the database from anywhere. Since report is readily available, planning is made easy. This work was implemented using Wireless Markup Language (WML) on ColdFusion 4.5 as Common Gateway Interface (CGI). Since there is no WAP gateway in Nigeria, the testing was done using ccWAP phone emulator. Structured programming was adopted for the design of this program. Keywords: WAP, WML, top-down, deck, card, modular programming.

Introduction One of the most recent and significant changes in the business environment has been the growing demand for mobility. This means customers, partners, and employees should be able to access information resources and services of a company wherever they are and whenever they want. In most major cities in Nigeria, it seems as though everyone has a mobile phone, including children. The implication of this trend is that Nigerians have accepted mobile telecommunication with open arms despite the high cost of usage. According to David (2000), most of the mobile phone users in United State said they wanted to use mobile phone for mobile data instead of a computer or some other devices. In 1997, Rifaat projected in his book titled “Mobile Data and Wireless LAN technologies” that by 2005, there will be about one billion mobile phone subscribes. Judging from Nigeria experience, this one billion mark must have been exceeded with a wide margin!

Monitoring Equipment Failure in Oil Well Drilling Operations using Wireless Application Protocol (WAP) 567

Most of these mobile phones have multimedia capabilities and can access the Internet because they are WAP compatible. WAP is a set of specifications for developing web-like applications that run over wireless networks. It is an open standard for communication between a mobile handset and the Internet or other computer applications, defined by the WAP forum (http://www.wapforum.org). WAP-based technology enables the design of advanced, interactive and real-time mobile services, such as mobile banking or internet-based news services, which can be used in digital mobile phones or other mobile devices.

Oil Well Drilling involves a set of operations that are allotted a maximum expected time of completion based on the experience from previously completed (delivered) oil wells. There is always a need to capture the actual time taken to drill the oil well for future learning. Most of the time, equipment used in drilling operations account for more than 80% of the down time or lost time due to equipment failure. Equipment failure reports are kept in database for future learning. With the evolution of Wireless Application Protocol (WAP) which gives ride to wireless devices designed to enable subscribers independent access to the internet and advanced telephony services, monitoring equipment failure during drilling operation is possible via the use of mobile phone. Methodology The computer programming language of choice for this study is ColdFusion. This is because ColdFusion can serve as an application platform (middleware) for WAP–enabled applications, which allow embedded Wireless Markup Language (WML) the language for WAP to run as a single program. ColdFusion has the capacity to extract record(s) from database application (David, 2000) hence, the program made use of a database created with Microsoft Access 2000.

The most prevalent format approach to modern programming called modular programming or structured programming was adopted for the design of the program. During the course of using this structured designed, the top-down design technique was used. In this technique, the development process begins with the most general view of the application and progressively moves towards a more detailed view. This technique also ensures the testing of each of the modules as soon as they are developed without necessarily completing the project. Each module is referred to as “Deck” in WML. A deck is made up of one or more “cards”.

This application is for two types of users. A user can either be a contractor/service provider or the “company man” (is referred to here as SPDC official). The diagram (figure 1.0) illustrates the flow of data through the system as a user makes his enquiry. This data flow diagram showing how the different modules relate with one another is shown in figure 1.0 above. Microsoft Vision 2003 was used.

568 Ureigho R. J, Onibere E.A and Ekruyota, O. G

Figure 1.0: Data Flow Diagram of Mobile Monitoring System

Contractor/Service Provider

SPD C Official

Initiate Application from M obile

Phone

Welcome Screen

Logon Screen

View List of R igs

SPDC Official

Select a R ig

View List of Wells

Contractor

Select a Contractor

View Equipment

Failure

Select a Well

View all Equipment

FailureStop


Figure 2.0: Top Level Enquiry

The diagram (figure 2.0) illustrates the fact that the main objective of the system is for a user to make an enquiry. This is called Top-level Enquiry.

Figure 3.0: Low Level Enquiry

The diagram shown above (figure 3.0) depicts the details of the enquiries that can be made by either of the user group.

A relational database was created in Microsoft Access 2000. This database consists of six different tables. These tables obeyed the database normalization rules to guide against data redundancy and inconsistency. The database captures rig/well names, contractor names and their category, well equipment list and their performance during drilling operation. The main focus here is the lost time/down time associated with these equipment during drilling operation. Coding was done in ColdFusion environment using Wireless Markup Language (WML) together with CFQUERY and SQL to interact with the database. The testing of the application was done using ccWAP phone emulator. Phone emulators are virtual devices that emulate phones on your PC, which can be used to test WML codes without using actual device. Emulators can browse local files even when there is no WAP serve or gateway. Result and Discussions The system was designed in such a way that any level of user can easily use it. To start up the system, the user just need to type in the URL that refers to the deck that contains the home page. If the URL is


properly typed, a connection to the serves is established and the welcome screen is displayed. The user can easily move backward or forward without previous knowledge of the mode of operation of the application. The application is user friendly.

The modular approach of programming which is a prominent feature of the modern system of programming was applied. Each subsystem was designed as a deck of cards, which can be activated at the different menu as the user navigates through the system just like going from one web page to the other, or from one site to the other. This modular approach made the program more interesting and it enhances easy modification and debugging.

The size of the display area is critical to user interface design. Here, the application is to run on non-PC terminal-wireless phones. The screen display is made as brief as possible for proper paging. Scrolling is also possible to enable user move the displayed information up or down on the screen, one line at a time. Each screen carries sufficient instructions as to what operation is being performed at any time the user selects a function. Users can edit a wrongly typed text and can also modify any default value set by the application. Software Requirement There are several other software that must be installed before the installation of “Mobile Monitoring System”. These software are Cold fusion Studio 4.5, ColdFusion Application Server 5, Microsoft Access 2000 and WAP emulator (e.g. ccWAP browser) Starting the System To start “Mobile Monitoring System”, perform the following task: 1. Make sure the source file is opened up in ColdFusion studio 2. Load the WAP emulator program 3. Type the URL of the home page of the application i.e.

http://localhost/waproj/home.wml where local host is the server name, WAPPROJ is the name of the virtual Directory created at the Internet Information Service (IIS).

4. The home page, which is the welcome screen, will be displayed on the device.

Figure 4.0: Welcome Screen


Figure 4.1: Option Menu

Figure 4.2: Login Screen

Figure 4.3: Select User

Using the Sytem To navigate through the system, the application is user-friendly enough for the user to move back and forward without much assistant. The action to be triggered by a key on the device is placed very close to the key on the display. Where the information required cannot be displayed on the mobile screen at once, the user can easily use the scroll key to move up and down.


Figure 4.4: Illustrates the Display of the List of Rigs as ‘company man’ login to the system

Figure 4.5: Illustrates the Display of the List of Wells in a RIG

Figure 4.6: Illustrates the Display of Equipment Failure Report and scroll down effect


Figure 4.7: Illustrates the Display of Equipment Failure Report of a Well and scroll down effect

The implementation of “Mobile Monitoring System” was found to be very interesting and challenging. It was simplified because of the thoroughness of the design of the system. Though it requires more or less a fast system to host the application in order to minimize user’s access time to information, but the minimum hardware and software requirements were specified. Conclusion and Recommendation The task of developing a WAP-enabled system for monitoring equipment failure in oil well drilling operation was a challenging one. This is because in Nigeria, WAP applications are at the embryonic stage. The GSM companies in Nigeria are just beginning to introduce GPRS and other skeletal WAP services. This implies that WAP–based application development will soon become the order of the day and the benefit will be numerous to WAP developers, subscribers, multinational companies and Nigeria economy. In view of this, we recommend that: • This project should be implemented as soon as WAP gateway is commercialized and made

available for public use. • Students should be encouraged to do more research work in this area and see how to apply WAP

and GPRS to different strata of Nigeria economy. This will prepare them and keep them abreast latest technologies in ICT.

• The federal government and corporate bodies should encourage research work in areas such as this by financing research works in our universities.


References [1] Anderson, C. (2001). GPRS and 3D Wireless Applications- The Professional Developer’s

Guide. John Wiley and Sons. [2] ccWAP Browser, (2000). Phone Emulator at http://www.ccwap.de/wml/index.wml [3] David, A., (2000). “Tutorial: Serving Dynamic WML Content Using ColdFusion” at

http://www.anywhereyougo.com [4] Design of the WAP Simulator at http://www.it.iitb.ac.in/xnet/wap/user_guide2.htm [5] Future Outlook For WAP at http://www.mobileinfo.com/wap/future_outlook.htm [6] Rifaat, A. D.(1997). Mobile Data & Wireless LAN technologies. Prentice Hall ,New Delhi. [7] The Yankee Group Report. (1998). “Wireless Intelligent Terminals: Smarter Than Your

average Phone”. Vol. 2, No. 10 [8] Ureigho, R.J. (2005). Mobile Monitoring System: An Implementation of Wireless Application

Protocol (WAP) in Oil Well Drilling Operation. MSc Thesis submitted to Department of Computer Science, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka, Nigeria.

[9] Wigley, A. (2004). “The Future of WAP: v1.2 and Beyond” at http://www.topxml.com/wap/articles/wap_future/andytext1.asp

[10] Wireless Application Protocol at http://www.wapforum.com


MRET Activated Water and its Succesful Application for

Prevention Treatment and Enhanced Tumor Resistance in Oncology

Igor Smirnov Global Quantech, Inc., San Marcos, CA 92078, USA

E-mail: [email protected] Tel. (760)510-1333; Fax (760)510-1999

Abstract

This particular article relates to a fundamental nature on how MRET Activated Water with the modified molecular structure, physical and electrodynamic characteristics may enhance specific molecular mechanisms in living cells. The research regarding the physical parameters of water confirmed that MRET treatment of distilled water leaded to substantial modification of basic physical-molecular properties of water. The anomalous viscosity of MRET water (subject to very low tangent pressure) and electrodynamic characteristics of MRET water (subject to applied electromagnetic field of low frequency range) confirm the high level of long-range dynamic structuring of water molecules in polarized-oriented multilayer formations in activated water produced with the help of MRET activation process. The similarity of molecular formations of cell water and MRET activated water contributes to their compatibility, easy bio-availability and assimilation of MRET activated water in biological systems. The introduction of MRET water to biological systems can contribute to the enhancement of the cellular transduction mechanism and the proper function of cells in biological systems. The significant positive effect of MRET Activated Water regarding the tumor resistance on animals was observed in all groups of mice on different fractions of MRET water in the experiments conducted on 500 mice at Kiev Institute of Experimental Pathology, Oncology and Radiobiology, Ukrainian Academy of Science. The best results were observed in the groups of mice on MRET water activated for 30 minutes (optimal regime of activation). The significant anti-tumor effect of MRET Activated Water on mice was close to the action of the chemotherapy agents and allowed to avoid the side effects that typically follow chemotherapy treatment in oncology. Keywords: MRET Activated Water, Ehrlich Carcinoma, Sarcoma, Preventive Regime,

Enhancement of Cellular Functions, Tumor Resistance, Index of Cytotoxic Activity, Viscosity, Electrical Conductivity, Dielectric Permittivity.

Objectives MRET Activated Water is produced with the help of patented in the USA Molecular Resonance Effect Technology (MRET). MRET water activator is the stationary source of subtle, low-frequency, resonant electromagnetic field with composite structure. The origin of the low-frequency composite electromagnetic field is the intensive electrical activity inside the nano-circles formed by linear molecular groups of MRET polymer compound (volumetric fractal geometry matrix) when polymeric

MRET Activated Water and its Succesful Application for Prevention Treatment and Enhanced Tumor Resistance in Oncology 576 body is exposed to the external electromagnetic fields of specific frequency and wavelength [Vysotskii, Smirnov 2005].

This particular article relates to a fundamental nature on how MRET activated water with the modified molecular structure, physical and electrodynamic characteristics may enhance specific molecular mechanisms in living cells. The goal of this investigation was to study on mice the effect of MRET activated water as a potential agent for the prevention and treatment of two kinds of oncology diseases (laboratory models of Ehrlich's ascites tumor and Sarcoma ascites form). The research was conducted under supervision of Prof. V. Vysotskii (Kiev State University, Ukraine), S. Olishevsky, Ph.D., Y. Yanish, Ph.D. (Kiev Institute of Experimental Pathology, Oncology and Radiobiology, Ukrainian Academy of Science), and A. Kornilova, Ph.D. (Moscow State University, Russia) [Vysotskii 2006].

The research regarding the physical parameters of water confirmed that MRET treatment of distilled water leaded to substantial modification of basic physical-molecular properties of distilled water. The level of modification of properties of MRET water depends on the duration of the process of activation. The results also confirmed the ability of MRET activated water to keep its anomalous characteristics for several hours or days at room temperature and especially at low temperature (known in physics as the “long-term water memory” phenomenon [Vysotskii 2005, 2004]).

The experiment conducted on MRET activated water subject to tangent pressure revealed that at very low velocity of motion of water (tangent pressure in the range of 0.004 – 0.005 Pa, temperature 20˚C) viscosity of water activated for 60 minutes decreased about 200 – 250 times compare to non-activated water from the same source. The most significant phenomenon of anomalous low viscosity of activated water, the decrease about 300 – 500 times, was observed for water activated for 30 minutes. These results confirm the hypothesis regarding the alteration of molecular structure in MRET activated water. Particularly, the anomalously low viscosity of MRET activated water in the area of very low tangent pressure confirms the polarized-oriented multilayer molecular structuring of MRET water: the high level of long-range molecular coupling (hydrogen bonding) inside the “layer” and very low level of molecular coupling between the “layers.”

The significant modification of electrodynamic characteristics of distilled water subject to applied electromagnetic field in the range of low frequencies was observed after MRET activation. The electrical conductivity of MRET activated water at 20˚C in the range of frequencies of 0.1 Hz – 100 kHz decreased by 80 – 90% in 30 minutes activated water, and by 66 – 70% in 60 minutes activated water respectively compare to non-activated distilled water. The dielectric permittivity in the very low frequencies range of 0.1 – 1000 Hz decreased by 80 – 90% and in the range of frequencies of 1 – 100 kHz it decreased by 18% in 30 minutes activated water; the decrease by 70 – 85% was observed in the range of 0.1 – 1000 Hz in 60 minutes activated water compare to non-activated water from the same source. It is reasonable to admit that in the range of very low frequencies 0.1 – 1000 Hz the long-range multilayer molecular structures of MRET water (with high level of molecular coupling inside the “layers” and extremely low level of hydrogen bonding between the “layers”) create lower level of resistance of water dipoles to the alignment and, as a result, the dielectric permittivity of MRET water is substantially lower by 70 – 90% compare to non-activated water. This substantial decrease of dielectric permittivity also confirms the direct correlation between viscosity and dielectric permittivity of water in the range of low frequencies of applied EMF [Chaplin 2005].

The investigation regarding the electrodynamic characteristics of MRET water also revealed that the long-term storage of activated water (up to 5 hours at 20˚C) did not substantially affect the modified electrodynamic characteristics of 30 minutes activated water (the reduction of conductivity still kept the level of 66 – 70% and dielectric permittivity kept the level of decrease by 50 – 55% in the range of 0.1 Hz – 1 kHz and by 18% in the range of 1 – 100 kHz respectively). The storage of 60 minutes activated water under the same conditions practically did not affect its electrodynamic characteristics (maximum difference is 2%). These results confirm the ability of MRET activated water to keep its anomalous properties for rather long period of time (known as “long-term water memory”

577 Igor Smirnov

phenomenon) in case of 30 minutes activation and even higher level of “long-term water memory” phenomenon in case of 60 minutes activation.

The anomalous viscosity of MRET water (subject to very low tangent pressure) and electrodynamic characteristics of MRET water (subject to applied electromagnetic field of low frequency range) confirmed the high level of long-range dynamic structuring of water molecules in polarized-oriented multilayer formations in activated water produced with the help of MRET activation process. The fundamental biophysical theories revealed the scientific paradigm regarding polarized-oriented multilayer (PM) structuring of cell water in biological systems [Ling 2003, 2001, Drost-Hansen 1971, 1991]. According to the PM theory, the assumption of the formation of distinctive dynamic structure by the cell water results from its interaction with some intracellular proteins. More specifically, the dynamic structure of cell water results from its direct or indirect interaction with the positively-charged CO groups (P sites) and negatively-charged NH groups (N sites) on the “backbones” of a pervasive matrix of fully-extended proteins. These P and N-site-bearing proteins and the water molecules with which they interact constitute what is called a NP-NP system. Electrical polarization and directional orientation of multiple layers of water molecules may occur under the influence of one or two (juxtaposed) checkerboard(s) of alternatively positive and negative sites (Fig. 1): Figure 1: The illustration of the way that individual ions and checkerboards of evenly distributed positively

charged P sites alone (a) or negatively charged N sites alone (b) polarize and orient water molecules in immediate contact and further away. Emphasis was, however, on uniformly distanced bipolar surfaces containing alternatively positive (P) and negative (N) sites called an NP surface. When two juxtaposed NP surfaces face one another, the system is called an NP-NP system (c). [Ling 2003].

a) b) c) Parenthetically, water molecules may also be polarized and oriented in “layers” by a NO

system or a PO system, in which electrically-neutral O sites replace properly-spaced electrically-charged P or N sites of a classic NP system respectively. The aggregate physical impacts of the NP sites on the bulk-phase water may be somewhat arbitrarily divided into three components: to enhance the average water-to-water interaction of (all) the water molecules in the system (Component 1); to reduce the translational as well as rotational motional freedom of the water molecules (Component 2); and to prolong the stay or residence time of each water molecule at a specific preferred location (Component 3). [Ling 2003].

The suggested model of polarized-oriented multilayer structuring of cell water due to the interaction of water dipoles with pervasive matrix of fully-extended proteins constitutes the basis for the cellular transduction mechanism. Based on this scientific approach the similarity of molecular formations of cell water and MRET activated water can contribute to their compatibility, easy bio-availability and assimilation of MRET activated water, as well as to the enhancement of cellular functions in biological systems.

MRET Activated Water and its Succesful Application for Prevention Treatment and Enhanced Tumor Resistance in Oncology 578

The anomalous electrodynamic characteristics and viscosity of MRET Activated water provide some evidence regarding the possible effect of MRET water on the proper function of cells in biological systems. It is well known that cellular processes in biological systems are driven by the low energy of bio-chemical reactions inside and between the cells and cellular structures. Consequently, such processes create subtle low frequency electromagnetic field and low tangent pressures along water surfaces and the membranes between the cells. The anomalously low viscosity, dielectric permittivity and electrical conductivity of MRET water in the range of very low frequencies that exists in biological systems can contribute to the enhancement of the cellular transduction mechanism and result in improved intracellular/extracellular water exchange and the proper function of cells in biological systems.

The enhancement of the human body hydration was confirmed by Bioelectric Impedance Test conducted on eight human subjects at Global Quantech, Inc., USA with the help of FDA approved Bioelectric Impedance instrumentation, model Imp SFB7 and the following application of multi-frequency bioelectric impedance analysis. The experiment showed 3 times increase of the rate of intracellular/extracellular water exchange: the water exchange took 20 minutes after the ingestion of MRET activated water by human subjects compare to the 60 minutes in case of the ingestion of non-activated water by the same human subjects.

Taking into consideration the ability of MRET water to enhance morphology of human blood cells and to suppress mutated cells in vitro [Smirnov 2006-2, 2006-1, 2003], high germicidal activity of MRET water, the inhibition of growth of kaluss tissue (mutated cells of botanical origin) in MRET water (Pic 1) already confirmed by previous researches [Vysotskii 2006], the goal of this investigation was to study the effects of different fractions of MRET water on mutated cells in tumors and on the cells of immune system in vivo. As a result of this investigation the significant positive effect of MRET Activated water on the development of tumor resistance in animals was observed in the experiments conducted on 500 mice (22 groups with 20 mice in each group and 10 groups with 5 mice in each group). Pic 1: The effect of MRET water (30 minutes and 60 minutes of activation) on the growth and development of

kaluss tissue (mutated cells of botanical origin).

Methods In order to find out how different fractions of MRET Activated water affect the tumor resistance of organism the following experimental approaches and techniques were used in this research: • study of possible anti-tumor efficacy of preventive administration of different fractions of

activated water; for this purpose mice received activated water during 2 weeks before tumor cell transplantation and for 3 weeks after transplantation (“preventive treatment” regime);

579 Igor Smirnov

• study of possible anti-tumor efficacy of therapeutic administration of different fractions of activated water; for this purpose mice received activated water for 3 weeks after tumor cell transplantation (“therapeutic treatment” regime);

• investigation of functional cytotoxic activity of lymphocytes containing natural killer cells (NK-cells) isolated from spleens of mice (without tumors) which received activated water; for this purpose lymphocytes were further incubated with tumor target cells. Five different fractions of MRET activated water were prepared to elucidate effectiveness of

anti-tumor effects of MRET activated water depending on time of its activation. Four water fractions were obtained after water activation for 15, 30, 45 and 60 minutes respectively. Furthermore, before the beginning of investigations a large volume of water was activated for 30 minutes and stored at 4˚C during 45 days. This fraction of activated water was called "old activated water". The inbred adult male BALB/c mice, 11 weeks old, with 23 – 24 g corporal weight were used in the study. These white mice are very susceptible to various oncology diseases. In both experiments (ascitic Ehrlich carcinoma and Sarcoma ascites form) the 5 experimental groups of mice received activated water in “preventive treatment” regime. The other 5 groups were treated with activated water in “therapeutic treatment” regime. One of the 11 groups served as a control and mice from this group received non-activated distilled water. Each group consisted of 20 mice. The cytotoxic activity of NK-cells was studied on 11 groups of mice with 5 mice in each group.

The ascitic Ehrlich carcinoma tumor cells were transplanted to all groups of mice for the first experiment. The first stage of the investigation was finished on the 8th day after tumor cell inoculation, when 10 mice from each group were sacrificed and ascitic fluids containing tumor cells were obtained from peritoneal cavities. The comparison of ascitic fluid volumes and the number of viable tumor cells from “preventive treatment”, ”therapeutic treatment”, and ”control” groups of mice allowed to determine the effects of applications of different fractions of activated water on growth and size of tumors in tumor-bearing mice. At the second stage of experiment the life span of tumor-bearing mice was studied.

In order to understand the possible mechanism of anti-tumor effects of MRET activated water the study of modification in cytotoxic activity of lymphocytes was conducted on another 11 groups of mice without tumors treated with different fractions of activated water. The lymphocytes contain natural killer cells (NK-cells) which have the natural function of spontaneous cytotoxicity (without prior immunization), very important for proper immune system reactions. Due to such capacity NK-cells are considered to play a critical role in immune surveillance and cancer therapy. NK-cells that infiltrate tumors may protect against tumor spread. They also produce cytokines which can contribute to the elimination of infection. Due to such capacities NK-cells and the methods of enhancement of their functional activity based on the substances of natural origin have great potentials for immune-stimulation.

The purpose of this investigation was to evaluate optimal regimes of MRET water activation and the regime of application of activated water in order to maximize the stimulation of NK-cells cytotoxic activity. In the first stage of the research mice of experimental groups received activated water during different periods of time. Mice of “preventive treatment” groups received different fractions of MRET activated water for 21 days, and mice from “therapeutic treatment” groups received it for 14 days. After the treatment with activated water mononuclear lymphocyte fractions containing NK-cells were isolated from spleens of mice of experimental groups. In the second stage cytotoxic activity of NK-cells incubated with tumor target cells obtained from peritoneal cavities of mice transplanted with ascitic Ehrlich carcinoma was studied. The incubation was conducted for 18 hours at 37˚C in humidified atmosphere with 5% CO2 and then the micro plates were gently centrifuged during 5 minutes.

MRET Activated Water and its Succesful Application for Prevention Treatment and Enhanced Tumor Resistance in Oncology 580 Results The experimental results confirm that consumption of all types of MRET activated water leads to the significant inhibition of tumor growth observed in mice with transplanted tumors. The best results were observed in the groups of mice on MRET water activated for 30 minutes (optimal regime of activation). The substantial anti-tumor efficacy was confirmed by very high level of reduction of Total Number of Viable Tumor Cells which is comprised of two processes: diminishing volume of ascitic fluid in peritoneal cavity of tumor-bearing mice (by 50% for animals in “preventive treatment” group) and decrease of the number of viable tumor cells per unit of tumor tissue (by 52% in the same group). The resulting decrease of the Total Number of Viable Tumor Cells was 76%. The viable tumor cells were determined by Trypan blue exclusion test: the uncolored cells were considered as viable. The test results show the dual mechanism of MRET water effect on tumors: the prevention and reduction of volume of tumors together with the inhibition of viable tumor cells. Approximately the same level of efficacy was observed in other groups (water activated for 15 and 45 minutes) with “preventive treatment” regime of application of activated water. The application of MRET water in “therapeutic treatment” regime was less effective with the similar tendency in dependency of the level of anti-tumor efficacy on the activation time. The reduction of Total Number of Viable Tumor Cells by 55% was observed for the optimal 30 minutes activated water. It is important to note that the long-term preservation of activated water for 45 days decreased its anti-tumor efficacy but left it on the significantly high level compare to other fractions and non-activated water. Thus, this investigation confirms that MRET activated water is efficient anti-tumor agent. The results of experimental measurements of Average Total Number of Viable Tumor Cells of ascitic Ehrlich carcinoma are presented on Fig 2. Figure 2: The effect of preventive (1–5) and therapeutic (6–10) application of MRET activated water on

average total number of viable cells <C> in an ascetic tumor, obtained from mice inoculated intraperitoneally with tumor cells of Ehrlich carcinoma.

The survival of the investigated animals was daily monitored in order to study the effect of different activated water fractions on dynamic and survival indices of tumor-bearing mice. The data of the dependence of changes of life span of tumor-bearing mice for both application regimes and all types of activated water are presented on Fig 3. It shows that the consumption of MRET Activated water substantially increased survival of tumor-bearing animals. The increase of life span was observed in all groups of mice except “therapeutic treatment” group on water activated for 60 minutes. Water activated for 30 minutes (optimal regime of activation) produced the most significant effect on survival of mice with transplanted tumors. The life span of mice which received optimal activated water in “preventive treatment” regime increased by 61%. Significant increase in life span (about

581 Igor Smirnov

45%) was also observed when mice were treated with MRET activated water (activation time 15 minutes, and 45 minutes) in “preventive treatment” regime. The increase of life span by 43% was observed in “therapeutic treatment” regime for the optimal 30 minutes activated water. Figure 3: The change of the percentage increase of life span of tumor-bearing mice with ascitic Ehrlich

carcinoma which received different types of MRET activated water in “preventive treatment” and “therapeutic treatment” regimes. The digits under the charts correspond with the duration of water activation in minutes.

The similar investigation conducted on mice with transplanted ascitic sarcoma revealed similar

tendencies in the efficacy of MRET water as anti-tumor agent with the best results on optimal 30 minutes activated water.

The effect of application of different fractions of MRET activated water on the development of cytotoxic activity of spleen mononuclear lymphocytes with NK-cells is shown on Fig 4. The increase of cytotoxic index in both regimes (21 days and 14 days of application of activated water for mice without tumors) by 26% and 10% respectively was observed only in the groups of mice under MRET water activated for 30 minutes. The cytotoxic index also increased in the group of mice under “old” 30 minutes activated water in “preventive” regime (21 days of MRET water application). No significant changes in cytotoxic index were observed for other water fractions. Figure 4: The effect of MRET activated water on cytotoxic activity of lymphocytes containing NK-cells.

Activated water was applied for mice without tumors in two regimes (for 21 and 14 days), called “preventive” (1–5) and “therapeutic” (6–10).

The comparative picture of tumor-bearing mice on Non-activated water and on MRET

activated water (optimal activation time 30 minutes) is presented on Pic 2.

MRET Activated Water and its Succesful Application for Prevention Treatment and Enhanced Tumor Resistance in Oncology 582 Pic 2: The appearance of mice from “control” (A) and “preventive treatment” groups (optimal activation time

30 minutes) (В) on the 18th day after ascitic Ehrlich carcinoma cell inoculation.

Conclusions The results of investigation of the application of water activated by non-ionizing Molecular Resonance Effect Technology (MRET) process for prevention treatment and enhancement of tumor resistance of animal organisms to two types of oncology diseases in vivo on 500 mice are presented. The research conducted on physical parameters of water confirmed that MRET activation process contributed to substantial modification of the basic physical-molecular properties of distilled water (substantial reduction of viscosity as a function of applied tangent pressure, as well as substantial decrease of electrical conductivity and dielectric permittivity as functions of the frequencies of applied electromagnetic field). The significant positive effect of MRET activated water on tumor resistance of biological organisms was observed in the process of this investigation in all groups of mice on different fractions of activated water. The best results were observed in the groups of mice on MRET water activated for 30 minutes (optimal regime of activation). The results were better in “preventive treatment” regime compare to “therapeutic treatment” regime. Additionally, this investigation confirmed that the long-term preservation of activated water at low temperature (around 0˚C) for 45 days decreased its anti-tumor efficacy but left it on the significantly high level compare to other fractions. The discussion and detailed description of the mechanism of “long-term memory effect” of MRET activated water was earlier presented and published in [Vysotskii, Smirnov 2005]. The test results show the dual mechanism of MRET water effect on tumors: the prevention and reduction of volume of tumors together with the inhibition of viable tumor cells. The significant anti-tumor effect of MRET activated distilled water on mice was close to the action of the chemotherapy agents and allowed to avoid the side effects that typically follow chemotherapy treatment in oncology.

In the process of investigation of cytotoxic activity of NK-cells the significant increase of lymphocyte cytotoxicity levels was observed when donor mice were treated with MRET water activated for 30 minutes. The results also showed that the extension of the application of MRET water from 14 days to 21 days significantly increased the value of cytotoxicity index. It is possible to admit that the extension of time of application of MRET water will lead to higher levels of enhancement in NK-cells activity. Thus, the application of MRET activated water can be quite promising approach for non-drug stimulation of NK-cells immunization vaccines.

583 Igor Smirnov

References [1] Chaplin, M. (2005) “Water Dielectric and Microwave Radiation” London South Bank

University, http://www.lsbu.ac.uk/water/microwave.html [2] Drost-Hansen, W. (1971) In “Chemistry of the Cell Surface” Part B. (H.D. Brown, ed.)

Academic Press, New York, p.1 [3] Drost-Hansen, W. and Singleton, J.L. (1991) “Our Aqueous Heritage: Evidence for Vicicnal

Water in Cells” in “Fundamentals of Medical Cell Biology” (E.E. Bittar, ed.) Vol.3A, Chapter 5, JAJ Press, Inc.

[4] Ling, G.N. (2003) “A New Theoretical Foundation for the Polarized-Oriented Multilayer Theory of Cell Water and for Inanimate Systems Demonstrating Long-range Dynamic Structuring of Water Molecules” Physiol. Chem. Phys. & Med. NMR 35: 91-130, USA

[5] Ling, G.N. (2001) “Life at the Cell and Below-Cell Level: The Hidden History of a Fundamental Revolution in Biology” Pacific Press, New York

[6] Smirnov, I.V. (2006-2) “The Physiological Effect of MRET Activated Water on Patients Suffering from AIDS” Explore, Vol.15, No.2: 37-40, USA

[7] Smirnov, I.V. and Peerayot, T. (2006-1) “The Physiological Effect of MRET Activated Water” Explore, Vol.15, No.1: 38-44, USA

[8] Smirnov, I.V. (2003) “Mechanism of Activated Water’s Biological Effect on Viruses” Explore, Vol.12, No.4: 34-36, USA

[9] Vysotskii, V.I. (2006) “Investigation of Physical Properties of MRET Activated Water and its Successful Application for Prophylaxis and Treatment of Oncology” Program and Abstract Book, International Congress on Medical Physics and Biomedical Engineering, August 27 – September 1 of 2006, Seoul, Korea

[10] Vysotskii,V.I., Smirnov, I.V. and Kornilova,A.A. (2005) “Introduction to the Biophysics of Activated Water,” Universal Publishers, USA

[11] Vysotskii,V.I., Kornilova,A.A. (2004) “The Physical Basis of Long-term Water Memory Effect,” Moscow University Physics Bulletin, Vol.59, No.3: 58-62, Russia


On the Temperature Field of a Power Law Fluid with Variable

Thermal Conductivity

B.I Olajuwon Department of Mathematics, University of Agriculture

Abeokuta, Ogun State, Nigeria E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract

We examine the temperature field of pseudoplastic and dilatant power law fluids near moving wall with variable thermal conductivity. The thermal conductivity depends ontemperature and time. The governing nonlinear partial differential equations aretransformed into a nonlinear ordinary differential equation and then solve numericallyusing Runge - Kutta shooting method. The result is presented as temperature profile forpseudoplastic fluids and dilatant fluids and this shows the influence of the variablethermal conductivity and power law exponent on the heat flow when the viscousdissipation is important. Keywords: Variable thermal conductivity, viscous dissipation, power law fluid, dilatant

fluid, pseudoplastic fluid. Subject Classification: Fluid Dynamics.

Introduction The study of non – Newtonian fluid has been of much interest to scientist because some industrial materials are non – Newtonian. Of particular interest is power law fluid for which the shear stress , is given by

(1) where,

m is the flow index

is the shear rate n is the power law exponent. When n is less than 1, the fluid is pseudoplastic, for n equal to 1,

the fluid is Newtonian and when n greater than 1, the fluid is dilatant. Some examples of a power law fluid are cement rock in water, napalm in kerosene, lime in water, Illinois yellow clay in water.

In fact, the study of heat transfer in non Newtonian power law fluid is gaining the attention of scientists and researchers due to its interesting application in chemical and engineering processes.

Ibrahim et al (2005) investigated the method of similarity reduction for problems of radiative and magnetic field effect on free convection and mass transfer flow past a semiinfinite flat plate. They

On the Temperature Field of a Power Law Fluid with Variable Thermal Conductivity 585

obtained new similarity reductions and found an analytical solution for the uniform magnetic field by using lie group method. They also presented the numerical results for the non-uniform magnetic field.

Yurusoy and Pakdemirli (1999) examine the exact solution of boundary layer equations of a non-Newtonian fluid over a stretching sheet by the method of lie group analysis and they found that the boundary layer thickness increases when the non-Newtonian behaviuor increases. They also compared the results with that of Newtonian fluid. Makinde (2005) examined the free convection flow with thermal radiation and mass transfer past a moving vertical porous plate. The plate is maintained at a uniform temperature with uniform species concentration and the fluid is considered to be gray, absorbing – emitting. The coupled non-linear momentum, energy and concentration equation governing the problem is obtained and made similar by introducing a time dependent length scale. The similarity equations are then solved numerically by using superposition method.

Chung (2006) examined the nonlinear stability of steady flow and temperature distribution of a Newtonian fluid in a channel heated from below and the viscosity is a function of temperature.

Howell et al. (1997) examined momentum and heat transfer on a continuously moving surface in a power law fluid .They examined the momentum and heat transfer occurring in the laminar boundary layer on a continuously moving and stretching two dimensional surface in non Newtonian fluid. Their results in clued situation when then velocity is nonlinear and when the surface is stretched linearly.

Hassanien et al. (1998) investigated the flow and heat transfer in a power law fluid over a non-isothermal stretching sheet. They presented a boundary layer analysis for the problem of flow and heat transfer from a power law fluid to a continuous stretching sheet with variable wall temperature. They performed parametric studies to investigate the effect of non-Newtonian flow index, generalized Prandtl number, power law surface temperature and surface mass transfer. Their result showed that friction factor and heat transfer depend strongly on the flow parameter.

Hassanien (1992) examined the problem of a non-Newtonian viscoelastic fluid obeying the Walter’s model with heat transfer over a continuous surface in parallel over a continuous surface in parallel stream using finite difference method.

Hassanien and Gorla (1990) investigated the problem of the flow and heat transfer in a non-Newtonian fluid with micro – rotation past a stretching porous sheet.

In this paper, we examine the temperature field of a power law fluid with variable thermal conductivity; the thermal conductivity is a function of temperature and time. And the result is presented as temperature profiles for pseudoplastic fluids and dilatant fluids with various values of the power law index and heat flow coefficient. Mathematical Formulation Consider an unsteady flow of a non-Newtonian power law fluid near a moving wall with variable thermal conductivity. The infinite plate lies at rest for t<0 on the y=0 plane in xy space. In the volume described by y > 0 exists a power law fluid of semi – infinite extent which is at rest at t < 0.At t = 0, the plate is suddenly accelerated to a constant velocity V, entirely in the x – direction. Let u and v be the velocity components along the x and y direction respectively. The relevant governing equations are:

Continuity Equation

(2) Momentum Equation

(3)

586 B.I Olajuwon

Energy Equation

(4) With boundary and initial conditions,

(5)

(6) where ,

(7)

(8)

(9) Note:

u is the x- component of velocity v is the y-component of velocity T is the temperature

is the density c is the specific heat p is the pressure

is the stress t is the time K is the thermal conductivity G is the heat flow coefficient.

Method of Solution We first seek the solution of the momentum together with the condition (5). Define a variable

(10) Such that

(11) Using equation (7), (8), (10) and (11) in the momentum equation (3).Then, equation (3)

together with the conditions (5) becomes,


(12) Solving (12), we obtain

(13) And so, by (10),

(14) Remark (i) The similarity solution exist for

(15)

(ii) (16) Now, consider the energy equation (4), together with the condition (6). Let.

(17) Using equations (7), (9), (10), (15) and (17) in the energy equation (4),we have,

(18)

(19) We resolve equation (18) together with (19) into system of equations as follows: Let,

(20) We consider,

588 B.I Olajuwon

(21) Together with the initial conditions,

(22) Problem (21) together with the initial condition (22) is solved numerically using Runge – Kutta

shooting method for various values of the power law exponent and the heat flow coefficient respectively. The result is presented as temperature profiles in figures 1, 2, 3 and 4.

Figure 1: Temperature profile for pseudoplastic fluids various values of n and for afixed value of G = 0.2


Figure 2: Temperature Profile for a pseudoplastic fluid with various values of values of G.

Figure 3 : Temperature profile for dilatant fluids for a fixed value of G = 0.2

590 B.I Olajuwon

Figure 4 : Temperature profile for a dilatant fluid with various values of G

Discussion of Result and Conclusion The effect of the heat flow coefficient and the power law exponent is studied on the temperature field of pseudoplastic and dilatant fluids.

The temperature profile for the pseudoplastic fluids various values of n; n = 0.25, 0.5, and 0.75 and for a fixed value of G = 0.2 is as shown in figure 1. The profile shows that when the values of the power law exponent is increasing the rate at which the temperature g( ) tends to zero increases, so, with increase in value of the power law exponent, the rate of heat flow increases. This implies that at a low power law exponent the heat in the flow system is slowly distributed and the heat takes a long time before going to extinction.

The temperature profile for a pseudoplastic fluid for various values of G: G = 0.2, 0.5 and 1.5 is as shown in figure 2. As G, the heat flow rate coefficient increases the rate at which the temperature g( ) tends to zero increases. So, with increase in the heat flow rate coefficient the rate of increasing of the temperature of the flow system increases and the heat distribution is slow for a low heat flow coefficient.

Figure 3; shows the temperature profile for the dilatant fluid for various values of n; n = 1.5, 2.0, and 2.5 and it is observed that the rate at which the temperature g( ) tends to zero as tends to infinity increases with increase in the value of the power law exponents.

Figure 4; represent the temperature profile for dilatant fluid for various values of G; G = 0.2, 0.5, and 1.5. It is observed that the rate at which the temperature g( ) tends to zero as tends to infinity increases with decreases in the value of the flow coefficient. This is because with a low heat flow coefficient the heat in the flow system goes into extinction in a very short time.

The fact that the temperature g( ) tends to zero as tends to infinity suggest that the fluid flow is a slow flow and the difference in the temperature distribution is due to the fact that during the fluid flow some heat escape from the fluid surface into the surrounding air. So, the heat flowing in the fluid


at a particular temperature and time is less than that entering the fluid by the amount which escapes from the fluid surface during the fluid flow and the heat flow per second along the direction decreases. Therefore at a particular time, the temperature gradient along the fluid flow direction is greatest where the heat flow is greatest. In conclusion, it is very obvious that variation in the temperature has a significant influence on the temperature field. Also, the power law exponent and heat flow coefficient has appreciable effect on the temperature field. Acknowledgement The author thanks Professor R. O Ayeni for his useful suggestion and encouragement. References [1] Bird R.B, Stewart W.E, and Light Foot E.N. Transport phenomena, John Wiley and Sons, Inc.

New York, U.S.A (1960). [2]. Chung B.J, Vaidya A and Wulandana.R Stability of steady flow in a channel with linear

temperature dependent viscosity. Int. J. of Appl. Math. and Mech. 2(1) pp 24 – 33, (2006). [3]. Hassanien , I.A, Abdullah A.A and Gorla R.S.R. Heat transfer in a power law fluid over a non

– isothermal stretching sheet. Math. Comp. Modelling 28 pp 105 – 116. [4] Howell,T.G, Jeng D.R, and De Witt K.J. Momentunm and heat transfer on a continuous

moving surface in a power law fluid. Int. J. Heat and Mass Transfer, 40 pp 1853 – 1861.(1997).

[5] Ibrahim F.S, Mansour M.A and Hamad M.A.A.Lie – group analysis of radiative and magnetic field effects on free convection and mass transfer flow past a semi – infinite vertical flat plate. Electronic Journal of Differential Equation 39, pp 1- 17, (2005).

[6]. Makinde O.D. Free convection flow with thermal radiation and mass trnsfer past a moving vertical porous plate . Int. comm.. Heat and Mass Transfer 32,pp 1411 – 1419.(2005).

[7]. Yurusoy M and Pakdemirli M. Exact solutions of bouudary layer equations of a special non – Newtonian fluid over a stretching sheet. Mechanical research communication,26 (2),pp 171 – 175,(1999).


Otorhinolaryngologic Emergencies in Nigeria, Subsaharan

Africa: Implication for Training

Lasisi OA Department of Otorhinolaryngology

College of Medicine, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria

Imam ZK Department of Otorhinolaryngology


Adeosun AA Department of Otorhinolaryngology


Abstract

Background: The anatomy and function of the ear, nose and throat (ENT) make pathologies potentially catastrophic. Reports on the epidemiology of otolaryngologic emergencies put the prevalence at between 30 and 80%. There are however very few studies from the developing countries. This study was carried out to describe the size and spectrum of otolaryngological emergencies in a teaching hospital in a developing country and review the management. Method: This was a two year retrospective review set at the department of otorhinolaryngology in the University College Hospital, Ibadan, Nigeria. The clinical records of patients managed as emergencies between July 31, 2001 and 30 June, 2003, were reviewed and the biodata, diagnosis and treatment were extracted and analysed. Results: Emergencies constituted 22% of the 2544 cases reviewed. The top five diagnoses were recurrent otitis media (24%), foreign bodies in the orifices (21.0%), head and neck trauma (20%), epistaxis (16%) and chronic sinusitis (8.8%). Children accounted for over 40% of the population, though there is a peak in the third decade due to trauma. More than 80% of the cases were referred by general practice doctors. Only 41% of the cases were managed surgically, the others requiring only conservative treatment. Conclusion: The greater proportion of the cases referred as emergencies did not require surgical intervention and could have been managed conservatively by the referring doctors. It is recommended that the curriculum of otolaryngology posting for general practice trainees be reviewed so as to increase the duration from the present one month. This will enable general practitioners to be more adept at instituting the conservative management of otolaryngological emergencies.

Introduction The proximity to the brain and presence of the airway in the region of the ear, nose and throat make pathologic processes potentially catastrophic. Swift recognition and prompt institution of management becomes crucial to successful outcome. In the United state, otorhinolaryngologic emergencies are

Otorhinolaryngologic Emergencies in Nigeria, Subsaharan Africa: Implication for Training 593

reported to represent between 30% and 80% of presentations seen by emergency department physicians1,2. There have been few reports on the epidemiology of otolaryngologic emergencies especially in the developing countries despite the apparent increasing tendency. We report the epidemiology and management of the emergencies and discuss the implication for medical curicullum in Nigeria. Methodology This is a retrospective study of the total number of ENT cases referred during call - duty hours or managed as emergency cases within a period from July 2001 and 30th June 2003 . The clinical records were reviewed and the biodata, diagnosis and treatment were extracted. We included all the cases of vital emergencies needing immediate intervention to save life and urgent cases needing intervention for control of pain, bleeding and drainage of abscesses. The data was analysed using Microsoft excel, and the results are presented in pictorial forms. Result The emergency cases accounted for 554 (21.8%) of 2,544 patients seen in the Oto-Rhino-Laryngology Department in the period under study. Of this, there were 316 (57%) males and 238 (43%) female. The age ranged between 4 months and 80 years with peak in the third decade. The paediatric age group (0- 14years) constituted the majority 237(42.8%) Figure 1. General practitioners referred 459 (83%) of the cases and 95 (17%) were referred by Paediatricians.

Figure 1: The age distribution of the subjects

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

0-1

1+-3

3+-5

5+-1

010

+-20

20+-

3030

+-40

40+-

5050

+-60

60+-

70 >70

Number of patients

Recurrent otitis media accounted for 134 (24%) cases, followed by foreign bodies in the orifices in 119 (21%) of cases. Head and neck trauma accounted for 111 cases (20%), epistaxis for 88 cases (16%) and chronic rhinosinusitis for 29 cases (5%). These findings are summarized in Table 1.

594 Lasisi OA, Imam ZK and Adeosun AA

Table 1: Frequency distribution of the diagnoses

Recurrent otitis media 134 (24%) Acute otitis externa 8 (1%) Acute otitis media 5 (1%)

Acute Ear infections (n=151; 27%)

Malignant otitis externa 4 (1%) Ear 73(13.2%) Nose 25(5.0%)

Foreign bodies in the orifices (n=119; 21%)

Throat 21(3.8%) 21(4%) Head and Neck Trauma 111(20%) Epistaxis 88 (16.0%)

Chronic sinusitis 29(5%) Deep Neck Abscesses 11(2%)

4(1%) Acute Tonsilitis/Peritonsilar abscess 3 (1%)

Acute nose and throat infection (n=49; 9%)

Acute Laryngotracheobronchitis Acute Epiglotitis 2(0.0%) Laryngotracheomalacia 7 (1%) Congenital (n=11; 2%) Choanal Atresia 4 (1%) Laryngeal Carcinoma 12 (2%) Vertigo 9 (2%)

Others

Acute corossive oesophagitis 4(2%) Total 554 (100%)

Conservative management was offered in 324 cases (58.5%%). Surgical procedures required

included removal of foreign body from the ear in 72 cases (13%), tracheostomy in 61 cases (11.0%), rhinoscopy and nasal packing in 28 cases (5.1%) and rigid oesophagoscopy in 20 cases (3.6%). These results are summarized in Table 2. Table 2: Treatment options. Treatment Number (%) Conservative Treatment 324 (58.5%) Removal of foreign body 72 (13%) Tracheostomy 61 (11.0%) Rhinoscopy And Nasal Packing 28 (5.1%) Rigid Oesophagoscopy 20 (3.6%) Laryngoscopy 19 (3.4%) Antrostomy 9 (1.6%) Frontoethmoidectomy 7 (1.3%) Drainage Of Peritonsilar Abscess 6 (1.1%) Mastoid Exploration And Tympanoplasty 4 (0.7%) Neck Exploration With Soft Tissue Repair 4 (0.7%) TOTAL 554 (100%)

Discussion Emergency cases constituted 22% of otorhinolaryngologic workload in our center; this is similar to the report of Sorensen3. The top five are recurrent otitis media, foreign bodies, head and neck trauma, epistaxis and chronic rhinosinusitis. It also compares with other workers4,5. Palchun et al4 reported acute otitis externa and chronic otitis media were highest in a study of 580 emergencies. However, there is a slight variation from the report of Huang et al6. Out of 2561 cases reported, the top five are epistaxis 22.7%, foreign body in the throat 18.7%, acute tonsillitis 11.4%, acute otitis media 7.7% and foreign body in the ear 6.4%. The preponderance of acute otitis media in our report further confirms the high prevalence. This may be due to predisposing factors such as poverty, malnutrition, over crowding and delayed presentation. Severe otalgia and the danger of intracranial or systemic spread of infection constitute the basis of emergency intervention. The complication encountered were acute

Otorhinolaryngologic Emergencies in Nigeria, Subsaharan Africa: Implication for Training 595

mastoid abscess, meningitis and brain abscess. Similar to Hon et al7, the ear was the most common site for foreign body, making removal of foreign body from the ear the commonest surgical procedure. Epistaxis was commonly idiopathic, usually mild to moderate and was controlled by nasal packing, except a few which were severe necessitating blood transfusion; and external carotid ligation was done once. The complications of chronic sinusitis resulting in emergency consultation were mainly orbital abscess with sepsis, mucocoeles and carvernous sinus thrombosis. Airway obstruction constituted the emergency in foreign bodies, tumours, trauma of the laryngotrachea and acute neck abscesses necessitating tracheostomy. Besides foreign body removal from the ear, it is the most common emergency procedure. The trauma case was found in the third and fourth decade of life, the active economic force, upper airway obstruction constitute the indication for emergency. The mortality of 20%1,2 has been reported in head and neck injuries. This was attributed to damage to vascular structures, cervical spine, oedema and laceration of the laryngotrachea cartilage, fracture of floor of the mouth and excessive bleeding with aspiration1,2. However, all the neonates with laryngomalacia were managed conservatively.

This series confirmed the preponderance of paediatric population. Furthermore, all the patients had earlier been managed by general medical practioners and paediatricians before referral to otolaryngologist, despite only about 55% needing surgical intervention. In addition, all the children with laryngomalacia were managed conservatively. This may suggest that a high proportion of these cases could be treated by the referring physicians if appropriate conservative treatment could be instituted. The principle of management iclude airway maintenance and oxygen adminstration, control of epistaxis, analgesics, antibiotics therapy, and use of anti-inflammation. However, this will also require appropriate knowledge and skill in the management which is related to training. The present training of general practice specialists involves a one month exposure in ENT out of 60 – 72 months. It is our opinion that the duration of ENT exposure be increased with more intensive practicum training of general practice. This is expected to improve management of common ENT cases and proper sorting, so that only the real emergencies needing specialist care will get to the otolaryngologists. References [1] Thomas GR, Dave S, Furze A, Lehman D, Ruis J, Checcone M and Balkany T. Managing

common otolaryngologic emergencies. Emerg Med 2005, 37(6): 39-45. [2] Thomas GR, Dave S, Furze A, Lehman D, Ruis J, Checcone M and Balkany T. Managing

common otolaryngologic emergencies. Emerg Med 2005, 37(5):18-47. [3] Sorenson B. Injuries of the ear, nose and throat encountered at a casualty department. A one

year caseload. Ugeskr Laeser 1990, 152(11): 739-743. [4] Palchun VT, Kunel skaia NL, Kislova NM. Emergency diseases of the ear (comparative data)

Vestn Otorhinolaryngol 1998.6: 4 – 10. [5] Granick MS and Obeiter RD. Patient profile of an otolaryngologic emergency department.

JAMA 1983. 250: 7. [6] Huang SE, Hung HY, Jou WB and Lin WS. An epidemiological study of otolaryngologic

emergency diseases. Zhonghua Yi Xue Za Zhi(Taipei) 1991; 48(6):456-461. [7] Hon SK, Izam TM, Koay CB and Razi A. A prospective evaluation of foreign bodies

presenting to the ear, nose and throat clinic, University Hospital, Kuala Lumpur. Med. J. Malaysia 2001, 56;(4): 463-470.


Policies to Coerce Car Drivers to Utilize Public Transportation

(for all Trips and School Trips) in Malaysia

Abdullah Nurdden Department of Civil and Structural Engineering, Faculty of Engineering

University Kebangsaan Malaysia. 43600 UKM Bangi, Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia E-mail: [email protected]

Tel: 0060389216209

Riza Atiq O.K.Rahmat Department of Civil and Structural Engineering, Faculty of Engineering


Tel: 0060389216213

Amiruddin Ismail Department of Civil and Structural Engineering, Faculty of Engineering


Tel: 0060389216203

Abstract

In Malaysia as elsewhere, the rapid increase in the use of own transport prompted by inadequate public transport has resulted in increased traffic congestion, accidents, inadequate parking space and air pollution among other evils. This study aims to explore the differences in the characteristics of bus, train and car users for all trips and school trips. It identifies the factors contributing to their choice of transport mode and estimates the probability that car users might a change their travel mode to s safer alternative namely, bus and train travel. In this paper, a survey of 1200 car, bus and train users was conducted in Kuala Lumpur city center. A binary logit model was developed for the three alternative modes, bus, train and car. It was found that travel time, travel cost, gender, age, income level and car ownership are significant in influencing car users’ mode choice behavior. The probability of car drivers shifting to public transport was also examined based on a scenario of a reduction in bus and train travel time and travel cost. Reduction of total travel time and travel cost for the bus and train mode emerges as the most important element in a program aimed at attracting car users towards public transport and away from car mode. Keywords: public transport policy, car reduction, Logit Model, Mode Choice, Modal Shift

1. Introduction The last 20 years have been characterized by a dramatic increase in the use of own transport of most developing countries. The increasing number of car users involved in crashes and the associated injury

Policies to Coerce Car Drivers to Utilize Public Transportation (for all Trips and School Trips) in Malaysia 597

has prompted the government of Malaysia to undertake various studies to address the problem. One of these studies was the shift of transportation mode from private car to public transportation (Bus and Train) in Malaysia (Riza UKM 2004). The study targeted to evaluate policies and strategies than can help to formulate, model shift of transportation mode from private car to public transportation in Malaysia, to formulate the modeling of possible model shift from private car to public transportation and to predict the future model shift. The current paper is a part of the research that has focused on model shift initiatives.

To date, research efforts have focused primarily on modeling modal shift from private car to public transport. Many cities have attempted to restrict the use of private cars in favour of public transport (Mackett, 1994). Such policies exist in France (Harrison et al., 1998), Germany (FitzRoy and Smith, 1998), Britain (Mackett, 1994; Harrison et al., 1998), Netherlands (Ploeger and Baanders, 1995; Cheung and Hoen, 1996), Romania (Marshall and McLellan, 1998), Australia (Black, 1996), Asian countries (Shimazaki et al., 1994; Land Transport Authority, 1996) and Canada (Schimek, 1996).

This study describes modeling of transportation policies to formulate, model shift from private car to public transport for all trips and school trips. The survey data collected from Kuala Lumpur city center were used to develop the models. The explanatory variables included in the models were demographic, socio-economic characteristics of individuals, trip characteristics, and mode attributes. A binary logit model was used to identify factors that are significant in determining the choice of transport and to predict the probability of a change in bus and train ridership with respect to various travel times and cost. 2. Methodology A questionnaires study was carried out in selected urban environments of the Kuala Lumpur City Center area to determine reasons for travelers mode choice from among three transport modes: private cars, bus and train. The survey was carried in a selected corridor in Kuala Lumpur city center where there was high car ownership and use, and public transport (bus and rail) available. A total of 1200 questionnaires1 were collected over a period of 5 months from (1April to 1 September 2005). Respondents were randomly selected based on a stratified sampling approach in order to achieve a representative sample reflecting demographic and socio-economic profiles. The demographic details, such as 1 .The questionnaire is available from the authors upon request.

income, age, gender, and educational level, trip characteristics, travel behavior and how to react the scenarios of proposed policy variables (measures) of each transport mode user, were also collected. The questions addressed to bus and train users included information on transport mode attributes such as current travel mode available to the respondent, total travel time (including walking, waiting and transfer), cost, accessibility and the purpose of the most recent trip. Other details such as vehicle ownership in the household were also collected in the survey. The questionnaire1 was pre-tested and the response rate was 77%. Respondents were also asked to rate specific statements related to their attitudes to certain travel modes and their preferences.

For car, the questionnaire addressed both revealed and stated preferences. The survey information included socio-economic characteristics of individuals, trip information of individuals, and attitudes and perceptions on travel and policy measures.

Socio-economic information included household income, individual’s income, age, gender, vehicle ownership, and total number of members in household, occupation and education level. Trip information of individuals included the purpose of the trip, mode of travel, total travel time and travel cost etc. For questions related to the attitudes and preferences, the respondents were asked to rate attitudinal statements with the objective of including a list of travelers’ attitudes toward every attribute

598 Abdullah Nurdden, Riza Atiq O.K.Rahmat and Amiruddin Ismail

of travel. Multiple choices and rating scales questions were used to indicate the level of agreement with the various statements.

These statements were classified into three major categories: 1. Statements that reveal factors influencing car use, 2. Statements that reveal factors discouraging car users’ use of public transport, 3. Statements that reveal car users’ perception and opinions towards various aspects of public transport.

A binary logit model was developed for three alternatives namely, bus, train and car, with the aim of comparing the utility of these travel modes and to identify the factors that would influence car users to move from traveling by car to choosing the public transport alternative. In these models, model car and bus, the dependent variable was “1” if the commuters’ traveled by bus and “0” for car use and model 2 car and train the dependent variable was “1” if the commuters’ traveled by train and “0” for car use. The explanatory variables were: age, gender, income, travel time, travel cost and car ownership. Some of the explanatory variables such as age, income per month and gender were categorized. For instance, the income was categorized as; <RM 1000, RM 1001-2000, RM2001-3000, RM 3001-4000, >4001 (1USD = RM3.65) while gender was categorized as 0 for male and 1 for female. Age was also categorized as; 16-29, 30-44, 45-60 and >60. 3. Results 3.1 Characteristic of commuters

Table 1. Presents a descriptive analysis of General Characteristics of Respondents. In overall terms, almost 56.1% of the sample is male and 43.9 % are female. Most of the respondents fall into the age range of 16 to 29 years (65.4). The average total travel time on trips to all trips or school was 60 minutes for bus users, 45 minutes for train users and 25 minutes for car users and the average weekly travel cost for bus users was RM 25, RM 35 for train users while weekly travel cost for car users was RM 70. A comparison of average travel time and travel cost across the modes highlighted that the car had the lowest average travel time; it also had a substantially highest travel cost than the bus and train modes. In terms of travel cost on average, car was the highest expensive mode of travel. These values would lead one to expect travel time and travel cost to be significant factors in the choice of travel mode for car users. The mode choice distribution is based on the most frequently used mode for the commuter to and from work. About 73% of commuters are car users while 27% are bus and train users. Table 1: Profiles of the respondents (n 1200)

Statement Category Frequency % Male 56.1 Sex Female 43.9 16-29 65.4 30-44 26.4 45-60 7.2 Age

>60 1.0 Average bus and train rider’s income RM 1100 Average car users income RM 2300 Average weekly travel cost (car users) RM 70 Average weekly travel cost (bus) RM 25 Average weekly travel cost (train) RM 35 Average travel time for all/school trips (car) 25/20minutes Average travel time for all/school trips (bus) 60 /60minutes Average travel time for all/school trips (train) 45/40 minutes


3.2 Modal Choice Models

3.2.1 Modal 1. (Car and Bus) all trips The estimated coefficients for travel time, travel cost and car ownership for the bus mode (see Table 2) are negative, implying that an increase in travel time, travel cost and car ownership for the bus mode is likely to increase the probability of a car users to continue choosing the car as the preferred transport mode. The likelihood of shifting car users to buses are likely if reductions in travel time and cost could be achieved.

In the models, demographic variables such as age, income and gender were found to significantly explain mode choice behavior. For the gender factor, the model estimation suggests that if the gender is female the preference would be for bus use rather than car. The odds ratio increases by approximately three times for females compared with males. For age, younger people are more likely to use the bus as opposed to car. The odds ratio increases about 94% for younger people compared with the older commuters. The models explanatory power, the two R-Square values indicate the model’s strong explanatory power. The factors included in the model account for 90.1% of the variation for the Negelkerke, while Cox & Snellt can explain 64.7%. Classification matrices were calculated to assess whether the model fits the data and it was found that the model correctly classified about 93.7% of car cases and about 82% of the bus mode cases. The overall accuracy of the prediction model was 96.7%.

The mode share probabilities categorized by various levels of travel time and travel cost are shown in Figure 1& 2. Mode choice probabilities ranged from 93% likelihood of car use with current bus total travel time (70 minutes) to 10% likelihood of car use with a reduction in bus total travel time per trip (15 minute). At the same time, the probability of bus ridership increased from7 % with current bus total travel time of (70 minutes) to 90% of likelihood with a 15 minutes reduction in bus total travel time per trip. A 50:50 split may be achieved when the travel time are set at 40 minutes per trip for bus travel.

Mode choice probabilities for travel cost ranged from 80% likelihood of car use with current bus total travel cost (RM=40) to 65% likelihood of car use with a reduction in bus total travel cost per trip (RM =5). At the same time, the probability of bus ridership increased from 20% with current bus total travel cost per trip of (RM=40) to 35% of likelihood with a (RM =5) reduction in bus total travel cost per trip. Table 2: Estimation results for binary mode choice model (car and bus) (n = 1200) all trips

Constants Coefficients SE Sig Odd ratio Age -0.059 0.031 0.05 0.941 Gender 1.070 0.400 0.009 2.915 Car ownership -0.432 0.181 0.012 0.649 Income -0.001 0.000 0.000 0 .999 Travel time -0.092 0.014 0.000 0.912 Travel cost -0.191 0.015 0.000 0 .828 Constant 2.5 1.058 0.000 12.18 (-2)log likelihood 203.538


Figure 1: Effect of bus travel time reduction on car users mode choice probability

Figure 2: Effect of bus travel cost reduction on car users mode choice probability

3.2.2 Modal 2. (Car and Train) all trips The variables shown in (Table 3) are all significant. Demographic and socio-economic variables are found to provide statistically intuitive results. In this model, typical demographic variables such as age, income, car ownership and gender were found to significantly explain mode choice behavior. Most of the coefficients have the expected sign. For the gender factor, the model estimation suggests that if the gender is female the preference would be for train use rather than car. The odds ratio increases by approximately 3.5 times for females compared with males. For age, younger people are more likely to use the train as opposed to car. The odds ratio increases about 97% for younger people compared with the older commuters. The estimated coefficients for travel time, travel cost and car ownership for the train mode (see Table 3) are negative, implying that an increase in travel time, travel cost and car ownership for the train mode is likely to increase the probability of a car users to continue choosing the car as the preferred transport mode. The likelihood of shifting car users to train are likely if reductions in travel time and cost could be achieved

The models explanatory power, the two R-Square values indicate the model’s strong explanatory power. The factors included in the model account for 77.9% of the variation for the Negelkerke, while Cox & Snellt can explain 55 %. Classification matrices were calculated to assess

0.000.100.200.300.400.500.600.700.800.901.00

70 65 60 55 50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15

TRAVEL TIME (minutes )

SWIT

CH

ING

PER

CEN

T

BusCar

0.000.100.200.300.400.500.600.700.800.90

40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5

travel cost (RM)

switc

hing

per

cent

carbus


whether the model fits the data and it was found that the model correctly classified about 94.3% of car cases and about 86.3% of the train mode cases. The overall accuracy of the prediction model was 92.1%.

The mode share probabilities categorized by various levels of travel time and travel cost are shown in Figure 3 & 4. Mode choice probabilities ranged from 90% likelihood of car use with current train total travel time (60 minutes) to 20% likelihood of car use with a reduction in train total travel time per trip (10 minute). At the same time, the probability of train ridership increased from 10% with current train total travel time of (60 minutes) to 80% of likelihood with a 10 minutes reduction in train total travel time per trip. A 50:50 split may be achieved when the travel time are set at 30 minutes per trip for train travel. Mode choice probabilities for travel cost ranged from 98% likelihood of car use with current train total travel cost (RM=50) to 30% likelihood of car use with a reduction in train total travel cost per trip (RM =15). At the same time, the probability of train ridership increased from 2% with current train total travel cost of (RM=50) to 70% of likelihood with a (RM =15) reduction in train total travel cost.

Thus, by promoting the appropriate policy, in relation to travel time and travel cost, one could provide opportunities for mode shifts among car users, which in return, will reduce their exposures and therefore, the risk of injury. Table 3: Estimation results for binary mode choice model (car and train) (n =1200) all trips

Constants Coefficients SE Sig Odd ratio Age -0.028 0.015 0.04 0 .972 Gender 1.239 0.308 0.00 3.453 Car ownership -0.627 0.133 0.00 0.543 Income -0.236 0.110 0.03 0.790 Travel time -0.070 0.008 0.00 0.932 Travel cost -0.142 0.010 0.00 0 .868 Constant 2.908 0.764 0.00 18.320 (-2)log likelihood 365.554

Figure 3: Effect of train travel time reduction on car users mode choice probability

0.0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0

60 50 40 30 20 10

TRAVEL TIME ( minutes )

SWIT

CH

ING

PER

CEN

T

TrainCar


Figure 4: Effect of train travel cost reduction on car users mode choice probability

3.2.3 Modal 3. (Car and Bus) School trips The estimated coefficients for gender for the bus mode (see Table4) came out positive, implying that if the gender was male, the preference would be for commuting by bus tinstead of driving the car. The odds ratio increased by approximately 18% for males compared to females. The estimated coefficients for travel time and travel cost for the bus mode (see Table 4) were negative, implying that an increase in travel time and travel cost for the bus mode was likely to increase the probability of car users to continue choosing the car as the preferred transport mode. The likelihood of shifting car users to public transport was likely if reductions in travel time and cost could be achieved. In the model, demographic variables such as age and income were found to significantly explain mode choice behavior. In terms of age, younger people were more likely to use the bus as opposed to driving. The odds ratio increased about 120 % percent for younger people compared to older commuters.

The models explanatory power, the two R-Square values indicate the model’s strong explanatory power. The factors included in the model account for 88.65% of the variation for the Negelkerke, while Cox & Snellt explained 83.9%. Classification matrices were calculated to assess if the model fits the data and it was found that the model correctly the overall accuracy of the prediction model was 88.15%. Table 4: Estimation results for binary mode choice model (car and bus) (n = 250) school trips

Constants Coefficients S.E. Sig Odd ratio Age .178 .080 .027 1.195 Gender -1.716 .752 .023 .180 Car ownership .903 .364 .013 2.467 Travel time -.083 .028 .003 .921 Travel cost -.175 .027 .000 .839 Constant 3 2.229 .001 20.08 (-2)log likelihood 60.178

The mode choice probabilities were categorized by various levels of travel time (see figure6).

Mode choice probabilities ranged from 90% likelihood of car use with current bus travel time per school trip (60 minutes) to 10% likelihood of car use with a reduction in bus travel time per trip (5 minute). At the same time, the probability of bs ridership increased from 10% with current bus travel time per trip (60 minute) to 90% of likelihood with a 5 minute reduction in bus travel time per trip. A 50:50 split may be achieved when the travel time are set at 30 minutes per trip for bus travel to school.

0.00

0.20

0.40

0.60

0.80

1.00

50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15

TRAVEL COST ( RM )

SWIT

CH

ING

PER

CEN

T

TRAINCAR


Figure 5: Effect of bus travel time reduction on car users mode choice probability (school trips)

3.2.4 Modal 4. (Car and Train) School trips The variables shown in (Table 5) are all significant. Demographic and socio-economic variables are found to provide statistically intuitive results. In this model, typical demographic variables such as age, car ownership and gender were found to significantly explain mode choice behavior. Most of the coefficients have the expected sign. For the gender factor, the model estimation suggests that if the gender is female the preference would be for car use rather than train. The odds ratio increases by approximately 23% for males compared with females. For age, older people are more likely to use the train as opposed to car. The odds ratio increases about 116 % for older people compared with the younger commuters. The estimated coefficients for travel time, travel cost and car ownership for the train mode (see Table 6) are negative, implying that an increase in travel time, travel cost and car ownership for the train mode is likely to increase the probability of a car users to continue choosing the car as the preferred transport mode. The likelihood of shifting car users to train are likely if reductions in travel time and cost could be achieved. Table 5: Estimation results for binary mode choice model (car and train) (n = 250) school trips

Constants Coefficients S.E. Sig Odd ratio Age 0.150 0.077 0.050 1.162 Gender -1.495 0.702 0.033 0.224 Car ownership -0.788 0.344 0.022 045 Travel time -0.061 0.017 0.000 0.941 Travel cost 0.128 .0022 0.000 1.137 Constant -4.667 2.302 0.043 0.009 (-2)log likelihood 230.99

Classification matrices were calculated to assess the fit of the model to the data .The model was

found to correctly classify about 93.7% of car cases and about 82.2% of the train mode cases. The prediction model was 89.7% accurate.

Thus, by promoting the appropriate policy, in relation to travel time and travel cost, one could provide opportunities for mode shifts among car users, which in return, will reduce their exposures and therefore, the risk of injury.

0.0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0

60 55 50 45 40 35 30 25 20 10 5

TRAVEL TIME

SWIT

CH

ING

PER

CEN

T

BusCar


4. Conclusion In order to promote greater use of public transport for work and school rips, this study examined the effect on car use if total bus and train travel time and travel costs were reduced. This was understood by solving the binomial logit equation for probability using several options of travel time and cost scenarios. The results suggest that travel time and travel cost are characteristics that determine why car use is a favored modal choice. In order to promote greater use of public transport and less dependence on car, an efficient public transport system is clearly needed. Higher capacity transit systems, use of bus lanes, bus gates, and ITS systems are among initiatives that could be implemented to improve the public transport system. The use of traffic restraint policies such as in France (Harrison et al., 1998), Australia (Black, 1996), Area Licensing in Singapore (Geok 1981) or London Road Pricing (Litman 2005) could further enhance a policy that promotes public transport; a policy that is moving towards a more sustainable transport system compared with total dependence on private vehicles.

In light of the above discussions, some reflection is necessary in relation to the modal split model for developing and newly developed countries. Although the tendency is more towards shifting to public transport, this has proven unsustainable, long-term, in the developed countries. As such, promoting a shift from car to an efficient public transport system would be advocated as a model in a sustainable transport policy in highly car-registered countries such as Malaysia. Although, in the short-term, the introduction of a comprehensive public transport system will require government infrastructure funding, such a system is sustainable and will result in higher road crash cost saving. Developing countries should not repeat the mistakes of earlier industrialized countries. Acknowledgment Support of this research was provided by grants from faculty of engineering, university Kebangsaan Malaysia. Mr. kamba would like to thank the University Kebangsaan Malaysia for funding this work and special thanks to professor Riza Atiq O.K.Rahmat and associate professor Amiruddin Ismail for their guidance.


References [1] Black, J (1996) Higher density housing and transport in Australian cities. In Transport, Land-

Use and the Environment, (eds) Y Hayashi and J Roy. Kluwer Academic Publishers, London. [2] Cheung, F and Hoen, A (1996) ‘Relationships between transport and land use in the

Netherlands’, in Proceedings of PTRC 24th European Transport Forum: Transport Policy and its Implementation, 2–6 September 1996, Brunel University, UK.

[3] FitzRoy, F and Smith, I (1998) Public transport demand in Freiburg: why did patronage double in decade? Transport Policy 5, 163–173.

[4] Geok L.L. (1981), Singapore Area Traffic Restraint and Mass Transit, Traffic Quarterly, Vol. XXXV pp 230

[5] Harrison, S, Henderson, G, Humphreys, E and Smyth, A (1998) ‘Quality bus corridors and green routes: can they achieve a public perception of “permanence” of bus services?’ in Proceedings of PTRC 26th European Transport Conference: Public Transport Planning and Operations, 14–18 September 1998, Loughborough University, UK.

[6] Land Transport Authority (LTA) (1996) ‘A world class land transport system’ White Paper presented to Parliament, 2 January 1996.

[7] Litman, T. (2005), London Congestion Pricing, Victoria Transport Policy Institute, Victoria Canada

[8] Mackett, R L (1994) ‘Transport and urban development: policies and models’ in Proceedings of PTRC 22nd European Transport Forum: Transportation Planning Methods, 12–16 September 1994, University of Warwick, UK.

[9] Marshall, S and McLellan, A (1998) ‘Reducing the need to travel: a European guide to good practice’ in Proceedings of PTRC 26th European Transport Conference: Policy, Planning and Sustainability, 14–18 September 1998, Loughborough University, UK.

[10] PDRM (2002), Statistical Report Road Accident, Bukit Aman, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. [11] Ploeger, J and Baanders, A (1995) ‘Land use and transport planning in the Netherlands’ in

Proceedings of PTRC 23rd European Transport Forum: Transport Policy and its Implementation, 11–15 September 1995, University of Warwick, UK.

[12] (Riza, UKM 2004) Urban Transport Management System, Engineering Faculty, UKM IRPA 0 4 - 02 - 02 - 0000 – PR59/09 (RM 2.732 millions).

[13] Shimazaki, T, Kazunori, H and Shihana, S M (1994) Comparative study of transportation modal choice in Asian countries. Transportation Research Record 1441, 71–83.

[14] Schimek, P (1996) Automobile and public transit use in the United States and Canada: comparison in the postwar trends. Transportation Research Record 1521.


The Impact of Internet Usage: A Case Study of Delta State

Tertiary Institutions

R.J. Ureigho Department of Computer Science

Delta State Polytechnic, Otefe-Oghara, Nigeria E-mail: [email protected]

G.U. Oroke

Department of Computer Science Delta State Polytechnic, Otefe-Oghara, Nigeria

G.O. Ekruyota

Department of Computer Science/Information Technology Delta State Polytechnic, Ozoro, Nigeria

Abstract

The Internet is one of the greatest recent advancement in the world of information technology and has become a useful instrument that has fostered the process of making the world a global village. However, despite the added benefits of the Internet to learning, teaching and research, there is no provision of effective Internet services in most of the tertiary institutions in Delta state. The objective of this study was to evaluate the impact of the Internet for learning, teaching and research in institutions of higher learning in Delta State. Questionnaires were administered to students and staff in four tertiary institutions within the state. The results from the analysis of the responses showed that students and staff use Internet mainly for on-line chatting (24.89%) and e-mail (24.16%). The use of Internet as a source of research materials ranked third (23.21%). This study concludes that research would significantly improve through proper enlightenment, formal training on the use of Internet and provision of effective Internet services in tertiary institutions in Delta State. Keywords: Internet, institutions, research, e-mail

Introduction The Internet provides several opportunities for the academia. It is a mechanism for information dissemination and a medium for collaborative interaction between individuals and their computers without regard for geographic limitation of space (Leiner et al, 2000; Singh, 2002).

The word Internet is derived from two words: INTERnational” and “NETwork”. The Internet therefore can be defined as an international computer network of information available to the public through modem links (Bassey, 2003). According to Lagos (2003), the Internet is a worldwide system of linked computers networks.

The Impact of Internet Usage: A Case Study of Delta State Tertiary Institutions 607

The Internet has brought tremendous changes to the society and the world at large. The information retrieval in the Internet is relatively fast, and accessible 24 hours a day, seven days a weeks. Despite these advantages, it should be noted that the information found on the Internet has both the useful and the useless co-existing (New Mexico State University Library, 2002). This study was aimed at investigating and evaluating the impact of Internet usage in Institutions of Higher learning in Delta State of Nigeria. Importance of the Internet The Internet is the world’s largest and most widely used network. It is an international network of networks that is a collection of hundreds of thousands of private and public networks all over the world. There are rich and varied learning experiences available on the Internet that would have been inconceivable just a short while ago. The Internet has a range of capabilities that organizations are using to exchange information internally or to communicate externally with other organizations. The primary infrastructure for e-commerce, e-banking, e-business, e-learning and virtual library is provided by the Internet technology. The Internet provides several opportunities for all academia, business organizations, the employed and the unemployed, the young and the old. The Internet is a ‘live’ constantly ‘moving’, theoretically borderless, potentially infinite space for the production and circulation of information. The Internet might thus be described as a ‘sea of information’, containing texts which are not housed between library or bookshop walls and subject areas span across all fields of knowledge

The Internet can be used for other things besides e-mail. One can listen to international radio station on research and education on the Internet, read national dailies of other countries, speak to friends around the global, read books and other materials on the Internet. The list of things that can be done on the Internet is a very long one. The Internet contains more information than the world’s largest libraries. (Emeagwali, 2000). With access to the Internet one can retrieve information from the world’s largest information database. Methodology This study made use of questionnaire to solicit for information from staff and students of four higher institutions in Delta State of Nigeria namely: Delta State University, Abraka, Delta State Polytechnic, Otefe-Oghara, Petroleum Training Institute, Effurun and College of Education, Warri. One hundred and twenty questionnaires consisting of 13 questions was equally distributed to these 4 institutions and were randomly administered on the staff and students, male and female. A total of 111 questionnaires were returned at the end of the exercise, representing a 92.5 percent response rate. The data collected was analyzed using SPSS 10.0 and Microsoft Excel 2000. Results and Discussion Services sought for

The respondents were asked to rank in order of importance between the values of 1 and 10 the major services they sought for on the Internet. The mean scores and the percentage values are as shown in table 1.

608 R.J. Ureigho, G.U. Oroke and G.O. Ekruyota

Table 1: Ranking the services sought for on the Interne

Service sought for Frequency Sum Mean score of respondents

Percentage value of mean score

Research 98/111 650 5.86 19.87% Internet chatting 102/111 710 6.40 21.70% E-mail 105/111 685 6.17 20.92% Religious 18/111 106 0.95 3.22% Entertainment 60/111 508 4.58 15.53% On-line dating 51/111 614 5.53 18.75%

Table 1 shows that Internet chatting ranked first as the service sought for on the Internet among

staff and students of high institutions in Delta State (21.70 percent). This was closely followed by e-mail services (20.92 percent). Using the Internet as a source of research materials ranked third (19.87 percent). On-line dating ranked fourth (18.75 percent), followed by entertainment (15.53 percent) and lastly religious information ranked lowest (3.22 percent).

Figure 1: Ranking of the services sought for on the Internet

Predominant Group of Users

The table below shows the number of respondents by age. Table 2: Number of respondents by age

Age groups Frequency Percentage 15 – 17 7 6.3 18 – 20 28 25.2 21 – 23 33 29.7 24 – 26 19 17.1 27 – 29 16 14.4 30 – 32 4 3.6 33 – 35 1 0.9 36 – 39 1 0.9 40 and above 2 1.8 Total 111 100.0

Resear ch20%

Internet chatting21%

E-mai l21%

Reli gious3%

Enter tainment16%

On-l ine dati ng19%

The Impact of Internet Usage: A Case Study of Delta State Tertiary Institutions 609

Table 2 shows that most Internet users are in the age group of 21 – 23 years, contributing 33 respondents (29.7 percent).

Respondents were also grouped by genders to measure if gender had an influence on Internet usage Table 3: Number of respondents by gender

Gender Frequency Percentage Male 60 54.0 Female 51 45.0 Total 111 100.0

Out of the 111 respondents covered in the study, 54 percent were male and 46 percent were

female. We assume that females are not usually adventurous as males. Therefore, we conclude that more males visit the Internet than the females.

Of the 111 respondents, 106 (95.5 percent) agreed that Internet technology has significant benefits on the educational systems of Delta State while 5 (4.5 percent) did not agree to this. This may be due to low level of awareness among these set of students and/or staff. Also 108 (97.3 percent) respondents agreed that the dividend of Internet technology would be more if there is provision of Internet facilities within the campus. This will bring Internet to the doorstep of every member within the campus community. Conclusion and Recommendations The potential of the Internet as a major tool for globalization and source of materials for academic research and learning is still high. The study has revealed that the present state and level of utilization of the Internet is still very low in tertiary institutions in Delta state.

On the basis of these conclusions, we would like to make the following recommendations 1. There should be a review of the current school curriculum cutting across primary, secondary

and tertiary institutions. The purpose of this review should be to integrate information technology into the mainstream of education and training.

2. Delta state government should stimulate the private sector most especially the oil/gas companies to invest in research and development (R&D) of IT in our tertiary institutions. This can be achieved by creating special incentive programs to induce investment in IT sector.

3. Delta State Government should ensure that there is 24/7 power supply so that IT infrastructure can be properly utilized

4. The state Government should restructure the educational system at all levels to respond effectively to the challenges and imagined impact of the information age and in particular, the allocation of a special IT development fund to education at all levels.

5. Internet training courses need to be organized at all levels to create awareness of the importance of Internet and to equip staff and students in the institution of higher learning with the necessary skills so that maximum usage can be derived out of this evolving technology.

6. Finally, provision of Internet facilities within our campuses should be a matter of urgency to all stakeholders

610 R.J. Ureigho, G.U. Oroke and G.O. Ekruyota

References [1] Bassey, E.N. (2000): Anatomy of Internet, Gonel System Limited, Effurun Nigeria. [2] Brabazon, T. (2001): “Internet Teaching and Administration of Knowledge”. First Monday,

Volume 6, number 6 (June) at http://www.firstmonday.org/issue/issue6_6brabazon. [3] Emeagwali, P. (2000): “Vaulting Nigeria into the Information Age”. The Guardian on Sunday

September 24, 2000. [4] Leiner, B.M., Cert, V.G., Clark, D.D., Kahn R.E., Kleinrock, L., Lynch D.C., Postel J., Roberts

L.G., and Wolff S. (2000): “A brief history of the Internet: at http://www.isoc.org/Internet/history/brief.shtml.

[5] Lagos, E.J.U. (2003): “Internet Usage Campaign”. JobiVoice Publishers, Benin-City. Nigeria. [6] New Mexico State University Library, (2002): “Using the Internet for academic research”

introduction”, at http://lib.nmsu.edu/ital/research.html [7] Singh, A.M. (2002):“The Internet Strategy for Optimum Utilization in South Africa”. South

Africa Journal of Information Management. Volume 4, Issue/(March) [8] Ureigho, R.J. and Ekruyota, O.G. (2006): Basic Concepts of Information Technology. Macony

Press, Effurun Nigeria. [9] Ureigho, U.N., Agbodigi, O.M., and Ureigho, R.J. (2005): “Impact of Internet on Forestry

Research and Education”. In: L. Popoola, P.Mfon and P.I. Oni (eds.). Pproceedings of the 30th Annual Conference of the Forestry Association of Nigeria held in Kaduna, Kaduna State, 07-11 November, 2005: pp 479 – 484.


Reconstruction of Objects from 3D Cross Sectional Data Using

Subdivision Techniques

Shahid S. Siddiqi Department of Mathematics, Punjab University, Lahore 54590, Pakistan


Nadeem Ahmad Department of Mathematics, Punjab University, Lahore 54590, Pakistan


Abstract

The construction of a mathematical model of a three dimensional object, using cross sectional data has been considered. A hybrid scheme for generating quadrilateral net is presented, the contours have been generated interpolating the data at each section, using a linear subdivision scheme, while for the blending of contours non linear subdivision scheme has been applied. For efficient practical use, an adaptive refinement algorithm is developed. The resulting net is illustrated by considering different examples, which is visually pleasing and inherit the properties of both curve subdivision schemes.

1. Introduction The problem of reconstructing a 3-D object from cross sectional data has been discussed by many researchers due to its importance in many scientific fields, particularly in medical science. Reconstruction of C1 closed surfaces from cross sectional data is discussed by Goodman et al [9]. A comprehensive survey in this field by Schumarker [11] is referred for further reading.

de Rham, a French mathematician, first time published the recursively corner cutting piecewise linear approximation to obtain a smooth curve [3], Chaikin [2] also developed a corner cutting method in modified form. Hassan et al. [7] presented the 4-point ternary interpolatory subdivision scheme with tension parameter, the scheme is proved to be C2 for a certain range of tension parameter. Zhang et al. [12] developed a new 4-point approximating subdivision scheme for quadrilateral net. The limiting surface is claimed to be C3. The smoothness of the surface is claimed to be better than their previous result. Dyn et al. [4] recently presented a new 4-point subdivision scheme that generates C2 curves. The scheme is approximating and is claimed to be close to the interpolatory scheme.

Catmull and Clark [6] introduced an approximating subdivision scheme to generate surface with an arbitrary topology. Catmull’s scheme is regarded as the first surface subdivision scheme and also most popular among the existing subdivision schemes which are being used in modelling applications. Peter and Reif [10] introduced an approximating simple subdivision scheme known as

Mid Edge scheme. Kobelt [8] introduced interpolatory subdivision scheme for quadrilateral control mesh.

In this paper the data points obtained from each cross-section, are interploated using the scheme developed by Dyn et al [5]. The contours, thus, obtained are blended using the scheme developed by

Reconstruction Of Objects From 3d Cross Sectional Data Using Subdivision Techniques 612

Apsert [1]. An adaptive refinement algorithm is developed and thus is illustrated by considering different examples. 2. 4-Points Interpolatory Subdivision Scheme The data points at each height and their interpolation using 4-point Linear subdivision curve scheme introduced by Dyn et al [5] is discussed. The choice of applying 4-point linear subdivision scheme is that, the scheme comparatively gives a flexible and smoother curve.

Let z1, z2, z3,…, zn be the heights of the different sections with the assumption that z1 < z2 < z3 <…< zn and the cross-sectional data is sufficient to determine a closed curve passing through these points.Let P

ij , j = 0, 1, 2, … , N i

be the set of ordered data points for each i th section, i = 1, 2, … , n. Since the closed surface is under consideration so, a closed curve is required for each section, hence N i+1 is defined to be equal to 0, for each section. There are two possibilities of having data points at each section. Firstly all sections have the same number of data points, either even or odd, so this is a straight forward case. Secondly different sections have different number of data points. In such a situation suitable ghost points can be added so that the number of points at each section becomes same. Once the number of points becomes same at each height the index i for N i, will be ignored. The choice of getting points using 4-point subdivision scheme at the k + 1st subdivision level is defined to be [5]

and where is taken as a tension parameter. For the sake of convenience, the suffix i is ignored i .e.

and 3. One-One Correspondence between the Adjacent Contours The one-one correspondence between the points of adjacent contours is discussed. Before applying the subdivision scheme for blending the contours, it is essential to rearrange the points of the consecutive contours in such a way that the twistness can be minimized.

Let be the points of contour at the ith height and , be the points of contour at the (i+1)st height respectively where Ns is the number of

points obtained after applying subdivision scheme. The rearrangement of the points between two consecutive contours is obtained by minimizing the distance between the corresponding points of the contours i.e.

where addition modulo Ns. The value of m is, then, determined which minimizes Sm. The points of contour at height (i+1)st are relabelled as

It may be noted that the one-one correspondence defined above can also be established between

the corresponding data points of each section, which also avoids the twistness in the surface to some extent but the one-one correspondence between the points of the contours is more effective as can be observed in the examples considered in section 6.

613 Shahid S. Siddiqi and Nadeem Ahmad

4. Base and Crown points Base and Crown points are determined to close the surface at both bottom and top sections respectively. Following [9], two additional heights z0 and zn+1, called null heights are introduced. The reason of calling these heights ’null’, is that no data is specified to these heights. Let denotes the xy-location of the points then the xy-location of crown point is defined to be

where

with

The xy-location of base point can be calculated similarly. To determine the height of crown

point, consider the circular arcs passing through the points , and , where addition modulo . Taking to the maximum z-

coordinate of each circular arc, the height H of crown point is defined as

Thus is the required crown point, while the base point is determined similarly. However,

the user may like to give one’s own choice of data point for closing the surface. After having Base and Crown points, the diametrically opposite points at the first and the last contours are used to close the surface. 5. Blending of Contours The blending of contours using non linear subdivision curve scheme introduced by Apsert [1] is

discussed. The choice of getting a point between and j is as follows

Let and be the points at four consecutive heights and

respectively as shown in the figure 1. Firstly a tangent vector in thedirection from to

is defined at . Also, let be the measure of anglefrom the vector to the tangent

vector . Let be the point obtained after rotating the mid point about

through the angle .Secondly the tangent vector in the direction from to is defined at

point . Also, let be the measure of angle from the vector to the


Figure 1:

tangent vector . Let be the point obtained after rotating the mid point

about through the angle . Finally, between the points and the required new point is

obtained by taking the average points and . This process is successively repeated with an index shift and continued in this manner at all

heights. The Base and Crown points are blended with contours at heights z1 and zn respectively, using the Aspert scheme which generates the closed curve interpolating the crown and base point alongwith the pairs of diametrically opposite points at each height. This process is repeated until the required surface is obtained in the form of wire frame structure. 6. Examples The usefulness of the method is illustrated, with the help of the following examples, three subdivisions are applied during each subdivision scheme. The number of subdivisions may be increased according to the required degree of smoothness in the surface. Example 1

Three horizontal sections are considered each section containing four ordered data points. Following are the three cases considered in this example Case-I No one-one correspondence has been established either before generating contours or after generating the contours. The twistness in the surface generated is shown in figure 2. Case-II one-one correspondence between the data points of consecutive sections, has been established before generating the contours. The twistness in the surface has been removed to some extent as shown in figure 3. Case-III one-one correspondence has been established between the corresponding


Figure 2: one-one Correspondence between the original point

Figure 3: one-one correspondence between the points of the sections

points of the consecutive contours. The twistness in the surface is still removed but in this case the surface is more pleasing as shown in figure 4.

Figure 4: one-one correspondence between the points of the contours


Example 2

Figure 5 nine horizontal sections of vas are considered. Each section contains fourordered data points. Since the data points at each section are chosen to be quite symmetric, so the surface generated without establishing any one-one corresponding is still pleasing as shown in figure 6.

Figure 5: Initial topology of Vas with Nine sections

Figure 6: Vas after four subdivision steps

Example 3

Figure 7 seven horizontal sections of banana are considered. Each section contains four ordered data points. The data points at each section are again chosen quite symmetric in this case. Since the surface is required to be closed at top and bottom, so the crown and base points are introduced in this case. The surface, hence, generated is shown in figure 8.


Figure 7: Initial topology of Banana with seven sections

Figure 8: Banana after four subdivision steps


References [1] Nicolas Aspert, Non-linear subdivision of univariate signals and discrete surfaces, Ph.D. thesis,

Institut de traitement des signaux, Lausanne, EPFL, 2003. [2] G. M. Chaikin, An algorithm for high speed curve generation, Computer Graphics and Image

Processing 3(4) (1974), 346–349. [3] S. Dubuc, J.L. Merrien, and P. Sablonni`ere, The length of the derham curve, Journal of

Mathematical Analysis and Application 223(1) (1998), 182–195. [4] Nira Dyn, Michael S. Floater, and Kai Hormann, A C2 four-points subdivision scheme with

fourth order accuracy and its extensions, Mathematical Methods for Curves and Surfaces: Tromsø2004 Nashboro Press, Brentwood (2005), 145–156.

[5] Nira Dyn, J. A. Gregory, and D. Levin, A 4-points interpolatory subdivision scheme for curve design, Computer Aided Geometric Design 4 (1987), 257–268.

[6] Catmull E. and Clark J., Recursively generated B-spline surfaces on arbitrary topological meshes, Computer Aided Design 10(6) (1978), 350–355.

[7] M F Hassan, I P Ivrissimitzis, N A Dodgson, and M A Sabin, An interpolating 4-points C2 ternary stationary subdivision scheme, Computer Aided Geometric Design 19 (2002), 1–18.

[8] L. Kobbelt, subdivision, in Proceedings of the Conference on Computer Graphics (SIGGRAPH 2000) 1 (July 2000), 103–115.

[9] B. H. Ong, T.N.T Goodman, and K. Unsworth, A new algorithm for the reconstruction of 3D objects from cross sections, Proceedings 5th ASEE International Conference ECGDG (1992), 546–551.

[10] Jörg Peters and Ulrich Reif, The simplest subdivision schemes for smoothing polyhedra, ACM Transactions on Graphics 16 (1997), 420–431.

[11] Larry L. Schumaker, Reconstructing 3D objects from cross-sections, W.Dahmen etal (eds.), Computation of Curves and Surfaces (1990), 275–309.

[12] Limei Zhang, Zhongxuan Luo, andWeizhong Liu, An approximating C3 stationary subdivision scheme, Journal of Information and Computational Science 1:1 (2004), 157–161.

Documents

MRET Activated Water and Its Succesful Application for Prevention Treatment and Enhanced Tumor Resistance - Smirnov 2007