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Motor LearningMotor Learning
Schmidt’sSchmidt’sTheoryTheory
Motor LearningMotor LearningOccursOccurs
In StagesIn Stages
Define Learning andMotor Learning
FeedbackFeedback
Transfer ofTransfer ofLearningLearning
PracticePracticeConditionsConditions
ProceduralProceduralLearningLearning
Declarative and Declarative and Associative LearningAssociative Learning
Adam’sAdam’sTheoryTheory
Map of EssentialMap of EssentialConceptsConcepts DM McKeough
© 2009
Motor Learning VariablesMotor Learning Variables
Motor LearningMotor Learning
Define learning and motor learning Declarative and associative learning Procedural learning Adam’s theory of motor learning Schmidt’s theory of motor learning Motor learning occurs in stages Transfer of learning Feedback Practice conditions Motor Learning variables
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Motor Learning 1/4Motor Learning 1/4
The aspect of Motor Control concerned with the acquisition The aspect of Motor Control concerned with the acquisition of novel action or movementof novel action or movement
As applied to patients, Motor Learning is the re-acquisition As applied to patients, Motor Learning is the re-acquisition of previously learned actions in the presence of altered of previously learned actions in the presence of altered morphology (sensory, motor, or cognitive impairment) morphology (sensory, motor, or cognitive impairment)
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Motor Learning Questions for PT Motor Learning Questions for PT 2/4 2/4
How can I best structure practice (therapy) to insure How can I best structure practice (therapy) to insure learning?learning?
How can I ensure that skills learned in one context (PT) will How can I ensure that skills learned in one context (PT) will transfer to another (home)?transfer to another (home)?
Will simplifying a task result in more efficient learning?Will simplifying a task result in more efficient learning?
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What is Learning? 3/4What is Learning? 3/4
Definition: a relatively permanent change in Definition: a relatively permanent change in behavior due to practice.behavior due to practice.
Motor learning: a set of processes associated with Motor learning: a set of processes associated with practice leading to a permanent change in the practice leading to a permanent change in the capacity for skilled actioncapacity for skilled action Learning is a process of acquiring the capacity for skilled Learning is a process of acquiring the capacity for skilled
actionaction Learning results from practiceLearning results from practice Learning cannot be observed directly but must be Learning cannot be observed directly but must be
inferred from behavior (performance)inferred from behavior (performance) Learning produces a permanent change in behaviorLearning produces a permanent change in behavior
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Performance Performance Learning Learning 4/4 4/4
Motor Performance is the temporary change in Motor Performance is the temporary change in movement behavior seen during a practice movement behavior seen during a practice sessionsession May be due to performance conditionsMay be due to performance conditions
Facilitation Facilitation FatigueFatigue
Motor Learning is a permanent change in Motor Learning is a permanent change in movement behavior measured after a retention movement behavior measured after a retention periodperiod Motor Learning is only due to practiceMotor Learning is only due to practice
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Types of LearningTypes of Learning
Declarative LearningDeclarative Learning Facts or Knowledge that can be expressed in declarative Facts or Knowledge that can be expressed in declarative
sentencessentences 1100 lock the brakes, 2 lock the brakes, 200 remove foot rest, 3 remove foot rest, 300 scoot forward, scoot forward,
etc etc Controlled by the cortexControlled by the cortex Practice can transform declarative learning to Practice can transform declarative learning to
procedural learningprocedural learning Associative learning: discover the Associative learning: discover the causecause and and
effecteffect relationship between variables relationship between variables ““During my sit-to-stand transfer, I fell backward because During my sit-to-stand transfer, I fell backward because
I began standing before I had my nose over my toes.”I began standing before I had my nose over my toes.”
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Types of Learning Types of Learning 1/21/2
Procedural LearningProcedural Learning Occurs without attention or conscious thoughtOccurs without attention or conscious thought
Walking, swimming, riding a bikeWalking, swimming, riding a bike Develops slowly through very high repetitionDevelops slowly through very high repetition Expressed through improved performance on a Expressed through improved performance on a
tasktask Controlled by the cerebellumControlled by the cerebellum
Therefore Therefore performance is still possible in the performance is still possible in the absence of cortex (brain injury, dementia)absence of cortex (brain injury, dementia)
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Types of Learning Types of Learning 2/22/2
Procedural LearningProcedural Learning Involves learning the “rules for moving” or Involves learning the “rules for moving” or
“movement schema”“movement schema” Some of the rules for performing a transfer include: Some of the rules for performing a transfer include:
Anterior displacement of line of gravity into a new base Anterior displacement of line of gravity into a new base Produce extensor force > gravity (hip and knee Produce extensor force > gravity (hip and knee
components should proceed and end simultaneously)components should proceed and end simultaneously) Learning the “rules” of performance enables Learning the “rules” of performance enables
successful performance of action in variable successful performance of action in variable performance environments (transfer of the performance environments (transfer of the strategy)strategy)
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Theories of Motor Learning Theories of Motor Learning 1/21/2
Adams Closed-loop Adams Closed-loop Theory (1971)Theory (1971) Sensory FB is used for the Sensory FB is used for the
ongoing production of ongoing production of skilled movementskilled movement
Movement errors are Movement errors are detected by comparing detected by comparing movement produced FB movement produced FB with a memory of the with a memory of the intended movementintended movement
Memory trace Memory trace used in the used in the selection and initiation of a selection and initiation of a movementmovement
Perceptual tracePerceptual trace, built-up , built-up over practice, becomes the over practice, becomes the reference of correctnessreference of correctness
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Theories of Motor Learning Theories of Motor Learning 2/22/2
Adams Closed-loop Theory Adams Closed-loop Theory Clinical ImplicationsClinical Implications
Accuracy of a movement is proportional to the Accuracy of a movement is proportional to the strength of the perceptual tracestrength of the perceptual trace
Patient must practice the movement repeatedly to Patient must practice the movement repeatedly to develop and strengthen the perceptual tracedevelop and strengthen the perceptual trace
LimitationsLimitations Accurate movement can occur in the absence of FBAccurate movement can occur in the absence of FB Would require a separate perceptual trace for every Would require a separate perceptual trace for every
possible movementpossible movement
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Theories of Motor Learning Theories of Motor Learning 1/41/4
Schmidt Schema Theory Schmidt Schema Theory Schema is an abstract representation stored in memory Schema is an abstract representation stored in memory
following multiple presentations of a class of objects following multiple presentations of a class of objects (tasks)(tasks)
Emphasizes open-loop control processes and Emphasizes open-loop control processes and generalized motor program conceptgeneralized motor program concept
Motor programs do not contain the specifics of a Motor programs do not contain the specifics of a movement but rather contain general rules for a specific movement but rather contain general rules for a specific class of movementsclass of movements
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Theories of Motor Learning Theories of Motor Learning 2/42/4
Schmidt Schema Theory Schmidt Schema Theory Recall schema used to select a specific response Recall schema used to select a specific response
(Adams’ memory trace )(Adams’ memory trace ) Recognition schema used to evaluate response Recognition schema used to evaluate response
correctness (Adams’ perceptual trace)correctness (Adams’ perceptual trace) Movement is regulated by a negative FB systemMovement is regulated by a negative FB system
What is fed back to the controller is an error signal What is fed back to the controller is an error signal (e.g. thermostat, toilet, muscle spindle)(e.g. thermostat, toilet, muscle spindle)
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Theories of Motor Learning Theories of Motor Learning 3/43/4
Schmidt Schema Theory Schmidt Schema Theory Decision process involves formulating an error signal Decision process involves formulating an error signal
and feeding it back to the recognition schema which and feeding it back to the recognition schema which becomes more refined with practicebecomes more refined with practice
With increased variability of practice, the recognition With increased variability of practice, the recognition schema becomes more generalized and strongerschema becomes more generalized and stronger
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Theories of Motor Learning Theories of Motor Learning 4/44/4
Schmidt Schema Theory Schmidt Schema Theory Clinical ImplicationsClinical Implications
Optimal learning occurs with variable practice Optimal learning occurs with variable practice conditionsconditions
LimitationsLimitations Too vague to testToo vague to test Inconsistent experimental supportInconsistent experimental support
Strong support with childrenStrong support with children Inconsistent findings with adultsInconsistent findings with adults
Cannot account for one-trial learning (In the absence Cannot account for one-trial learning (In the absence of a schema)of a schema)
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Motor Learning Occurs in Motor Learning Occurs in StagesStages
Cognitive stage Associative stage Autonomous stage
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Motor Learning Occurs in StagesMotor Learning Occurs in Stages
Three-Stage Model Three-Stage Model (Fitts and Poser 1967)(Fitts and Poser 1967) Cognitive: Learning what to doCognitive: Learning what to do Associative: Refining the movement patternAssociative: Refining the movement pattern Autonomous: Developing skillAutonomous: Developing skill
Two-Stage Model Two-Stage Model (Gentile 1987)(Gentile 1987) Early stage: Getting the idea of the movementEarly stage: Getting the idea of the movement
(Equivalent to Fitts & Posner Stage 1)(Equivalent to Fitts & Posner Stage 1) Late stage: Fixation/ diversificationLate stage: Fixation/ diversification
(Equivalent to Fitts & Posner Stage 2 & 3)(Equivalent to Fitts & Posner Stage 2 & 3)
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Motor Learning Occurs in StagesMotor Learning Occurs in Stages
What is the take home message here?What is the take home message here? Motor learning probably occurs in stagesMotor learning probably occurs in stages Activity of the learner is different in the different stagesActivity of the learner is different in the different stages Activities of the instructor should be different in the Activities of the instructor should be different in the
different stagesdifferent stages
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Cognitive Stage 1/4Cognitive Stage 1/4
Performer’s activityPerformer’s activity Learner is “Learner is “getting the idea of the taskgetting the idea of the task”, ”,
developing a cognitive mapdeveloping a cognitive map Assesses own abilitiesAssesses own abilities Develops strategiesDevelops strategies Learns regulatory constraintsLearns regulatory constraints Selectively attends to regulatory constraintsSelectively attends to regulatory constraints Formulates a motor programFormulates a motor program Changes performance to successively approximate Changes performance to successively approximate
tasktask Visual FB (KR) most important Visual FB (KR) most important
Performer’s learning focus Performer’s learning focus Learning what to doLearning what to do
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Cognitive Stage Cognitive Stage 2/42/4
Intervention Strategies Intervention Strategies Instruction Instruction
Highlight purpose of task in functionally relevant Highlight purpose of task in functionally relevant contextcontext
Demonstrate task accurately, at ideal speed Demonstrate task accurately, at ideal speed (best model is another learner at same stage)(best model is another learner at same stage)
Draw attention to regulatory constraintsDraw attention to regulatory constraints Have performer verbalize strategy and regulatory Have performer verbalize strategy and regulatory
constraintsconstraints May require manual guidance or assistanceMay require manual guidance or assistance Break complex tasks into component parts Break complex tasks into component parts
(progressive-part technique) (progressive-part technique)
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Cognitive Stage Cognitive Stage 3/43/4
Intervention Strategies Intervention Strategies Transfer Transfer
Transfer information in from other known motor Transfer information in from other known motor skillsskills
Highlight similarities to other learned tasks Highlight similarities to other learned tasks Practice schedule/ conditions Practice schedule/ conditions
Distributed practice to avoid fatigue (safety)Distributed practice to avoid fatigue (safety) Limit distracters or interferenceLimit distracters or interference Stress slow, controlled movementStress slow, controlled movement Randomize practice among 2 or more variables Randomize practice among 2 or more variables
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Cognitive Stage Cognitive Stage 4/44/4
Feedback Feedback Positively reinforce correct performance Positively reinforce correct performance Provide FB along appropriate sensory channelsProvide FB along appropriate sensory channels Augment visual FB (mirror, video)Augment visual FB (mirror, video) Balance FB for correct performance with errors since Balance FB for correct performance with errors since
errors are variableerrors are variable AVOID VERBAL BOMBARDMENT AVOID VERBAL BOMBARDMENT
Practice environmentPractice environment Closed Closed
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Associative Stage Associative Stage 1/41/4
Performer Activities Performer Activities Performer practices movementPerformer practices movement Spatial and temporal aspects of movement are Spatial and temporal aspects of movement are
becoming better organizedbecoming better organized Extraneous movement errors decreaseExtraneous movement errors decrease Dependence on visual FB decreases, on proprioceptive Dependence on visual FB decreases, on proprioceptive
FB increases (KR FB increases (KR KP) KP) Cognitive monitoring decreases Cognitive monitoring decreases
Performer’s learning focus Performer’s learning focus Refining the movement patternRefining the movement pattern (The goal of this phase is to improve the organization (The goal of this phase is to improve the organization
of the motor program)of the motor program)
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Associative Stage Associative Stage 2/42/4
During stage 2, closed skills become more consistent and During stage 2, closed skills become more consistent and open skills become more diversifiedopen skills become more diversified
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Associative Stage Associative Stage 3/43/4
Intervention StrategiesIntervention Strategies Instruction Instruction
Help performer develop own decision-making abilitiesHelp performer develop own decision-making abilities Facilitation or guidance may be counterproductive Facilitation or guidance may be counterproductive
Practice schedule/ conditions Practice schedule/ conditions Random practice of 2 or more tasks in larger blocks of Random practice of 2 or more tasks in larger blocks of
trialstrials Repeat practice conditions at least twice to permit Repeat practice conditions at least twice to permit
performer to correct errorsperformer to correct errors Introduce elements of real world performance Introduce elements of real world performance
scenarios including distracters and interference as scenarios including distracters and interference as appropriate appropriate
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Associative Stage Associative Stage 4/44/4
Intervention StrategiesIntervention Strategies Feedback Feedback
Identify movement errors, intervene when errors Identify movement errors, intervene when errors become consistentbecome consistent
Augment KP (reference of correctness)Augment KP (reference of correctness) Increase detail or specificity, decrease total amountIncrease detail or specificity, decrease total amount Allow brief period of introspection between Allow brief period of introspection between
performance and FB performance and FB Practice environment Practice environment
Closed environment with ITV or open environmentClosed environment with ITV or open environment
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Autonomous Stage Autonomous Stage 1/31/3
Performer Activities Performer Activities Most patients are discharged prior to this stageMost patients are discharged prior to this stage Practice task in different performance environmentsPractice task in different performance environments Spatial and temporal components become highly Spatial and temporal components become highly
organizedorganized Movement becomes increasingly autonomous requiring Movement becomes increasingly autonomous requiring
little cognitive control little cognitive control Performer’s learning focus Performer’s learning focus
Developing skill Developing skill (Consistent goal attainment)(Consistent goal attainment)
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Autonomous Stage Autonomous Stage 2/32/3
Intervention Strategies Intervention Strategies Practice environment Practice environment
Use performance conditions with all appropriate Use performance conditions with all appropriate distracters and interference (open, actual speed and distracters and interference (open, actual speed and accuracy)accuracy)
Repeat practice conditions at least twice to permit Repeat practice conditions at least twice to permit performer to correct errors performer to correct errors
Feedback Feedback Confirm/ augment the performer’s analysis of the Confirm/ augment the performer’s analysis of the
performanceperformance Increase detail or specificityIncrease detail or specificity Decrease total amount Decrease total amount
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Autonomous Stage Autonomous Stage 3/33/3
Intervention StrategiesIntervention Strategies Practice schedule/ conditions Practice schedule/ conditions
Task sequence remains random with even larger Task sequence remains random with even larger blocks of trials blocks of trials
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Transfer of LearningTransfer of Learning
The role of transfer in rehabilitation.The role of transfer in rehabilitation.
Transfer of learning (training): it is not known what is being Transfer of learning (training): it is not known what is being transferred (task specificity). transferred (task specificity).
If it is the If it is the processprocess for solving a “type or class” of motor for solving a “type or class” of motor problem, then experience solving similar problems problem, then experience solving similar problems shouldshould assist in transferring the learning.assist in transferring the learning.
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Feedback 1/3Feedback 1/3
Types of FBTypes of FB Intrinsic FBIntrinsic FB
Proprioception about the movement Proprioception about the movement process (KP)process (KP) Extrinsic FBExtrinsic FB
Information about the Information about the resultresult of the movement of the movement (KR)(KR)
Role of FB in motor learningRole of FB in motor learning Some argue that it is the most powerful determinant of Some argue that it is the most powerful determinant of
learninglearning
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Feedback 2/3Feedback 2/3
DefinitionDefinition Information about the consequences of action (movement)Information about the consequences of action (movement)
FrequencyFrequency Continuous FBContinuous FB Intermittent FBIntermittent FB Faded FBFaded FB Bandwidth FBBandwidth FB
TypeType KRKR KPKP Positive FBPositive FB Negative (error) FBNegative (error) FB
SpecificitySpecificity General FBGeneral FB Specific FBSpecific FB
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Characteristics of Good FB Characteristics of Good FB 3/33/3
TimelyTimely Allow brief period of introspection between performance and FB Allow brief period of introspection between performance and FB
AccurateAccurate Positively reinforce correct performancePositively reinforce correct performance Balance FB for correct performance with errors since errors are Balance FB for correct performance with errors since errors are
variable variable Appropriate level of detail/ SpecificAppropriate level of detail/ Specific
Provide FB along appropriate sensory channelsProvide FB along appropriate sensory channels Increase detail or specificityIncrease detail or specificity Confirm/ augment the performer’s analysis of the performance Confirm/ augment the performer’s analysis of the performance
Augmented KRAugmented KR Augment visual FB (mirror, video)Augment visual FB (mirror, video)
Augmented KPAugmented KP Reinforce/ refine reference of correctnessReinforce/ refine reference of correctness
Total amountTotal amount Decrease across stagesDecrease across stages AVOID VERBAL BOMBARDMENT AVOID VERBAL BOMBARDMENT
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Practice 1/4Practice 1/4
ScheduleSchedule Massed vs Distributed PracticeMassed vs Distributed Practice
Distributed in early stage, massed in later stageDistributed in early stage, massed in later stage Conditions Conditions
Constant vs Variable PracticeConstant vs Variable Practice Constant practice improves performanceConstant practice improves performance Variable practice improves learning and transferVariable practice improves learning and transfer
Role of practice in motor learningRole of practice in motor learning Winstein argues that practice is the most powerful Winstein argues that practice is the most powerful
determinant of learningdeterminant of learning
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Practice Conditions Practice Conditions 2/42/4
Random vs Blocked PracticeRandom vs Blocked Practice Randomizing practice conditions promote best learning Randomizing practice conditions promote best learning
and transferand transfer
Whole vs Part PracticeWhole vs Part Practice Task specificity says the best practice is the test itselfTask specificity says the best practice is the test itself If utilizing a part technique, the part must be a naturally If utilizing a part technique, the part must be a naturally
occurring component of the wholeoccurring component of the whole
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Practice Conditions Practice Conditions 3/43/4
TransferTransfer Amount of transfer is determined by the similarity Amount of transfer is determined by the similarity
between the two tasks or the two environmentsbetween the two tasks or the two environments The more closely the demands of the practice The more closely the demands of the practice
environment resemble those in the performance environment resemble those in the performance environment, the better the transferenvironment, the better the transfer
Guided vs Discovery PracticeGuided vs Discovery Practice Experimental results are equivocal about whether Experimental results are equivocal about whether
guidance produces better learningguidance produces better learning
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Practice Conditions Practice Conditions 4/44/4
Mental PracticeMental Practice Can produce large positive effects on performance of Can produce large positive effects on performance of
the task (Rawlings 1972)the task (Rawlings 1972) During mental practice the same brain areas (primary During mental practice the same brain areas (primary
and supplementary motor areas) are active that are and supplementary motor areas) are active that are active during the physical performance of the taskactive during the physical performance of the task
Research results indicate combination of physical Research results indicate combination of physical and mental practice produces best results of alland mental practice produces best results of all
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Motor Learning VariablesMotor Learning Variables
Stages of motor learning: Fitts & Posner/ GentileStages of motor learning: Fitts & Posner/ Gentile Types of movement goals: movement pattern/ Types of movement goals: movement pattern/
environmental resultenvironmental result Environment: closed/ openEnvironment: closed/ open Task specificity: Gentile’s taxonomyTask specificity: Gentile’s taxonomy Feedback: frequency, type (KR/ KP, +/-), specificityFeedback: frequency, type (KR/ KP, +/-), specificity Practice schedule: distributed/ massedPractice schedule: distributed/ massed Transfer of learning: transfer-in/ transfer-outTransfer of learning: transfer-in/ transfer-out Practice conditions: constant/ variable, blocked/ random, Practice conditions: constant/ variable, blocked/ random,
whole/ part, guided/ discoverywhole/ part, guided/ discovery Mental practiceMental practice
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The EndThe End
© DM McKeough 2009© DM McKeough 2009
Concept Map