Unit 8

MoraleMorale is the term usually applied to armed forces during wartime and to sports and athletic teams. It refers to team spirit and co-operation of people for a common purpose. Its importance has been realised by the management only in recent years. It is felt by the management that if the morale of the employees is high, production would be higher and vice-versa.

Meaning: Morale represents the attitudes of individuals and groups in an organisation towards their work environment. Morale is an indicator of the attitude of employees towards their jobs, superiors and their organisational environment. It is a collection of the employees’ attitude, feelings and sentiments.

Definition:

According to William Spriegel, “morale is the co-operative attitude or mental health of a number of people who are related to each other on some basis”.

According to Leighton, “morale is the capacity of a group of people to pull together persistently and consistently in pursuit of a common purpose”.

Characteristics of Morale:

1. Morale is basically a psychological concept

2. Morale is intangible therefore it is very difficult to measure the degree of morale accurately

3. Morale is contagious in the sense that people learn from each other

4. Morale in dynamic in nature. It cannot be developed overnight. Managers have to make continuous efforts to build and maintain high morale. It is a long-term concept.

5. Morale is a group phenomenon consisting of a pattern of attitudes. It is the sum total of employees’ attitudes, feelings and sentiments.

Significance of Morale:

Morale is the vital ingredient of organisational success because attitudes and sentiments of employees greatly influence productivity and satisfaction of employees.

Morale may be high or low; when the morale of the employees is high, they co-operate fully with the management towards the achievement of organisational objectives.

High morale leads to good discipline, high degree of interest in the job , loyalty to the organisation and high performance.

Consequences of low Morale:

Low morale indicates the presence of mental unrest. This mental tension or unrest not only hampers production and productivity but also leads to ill-health of the working people. The other consequences of low morale are the following:

1. High rate of labour turnover

2. High rate of absenteeism

3. Excessive complaints and grievances

4. Resistance to change

5. Lack of discipline

6. Antagonism towards the organisation and its management

7. Low quantity and quality of output

Low morale can be fatal to the organisation. In order to avoid the evil consequences of low morale, every manager should attempt to build high morale amongst his subordinates.

Steps to build High Morale:

Every manager should attempt to build high morale of his subordinates. Both individual and collective efforts are required to develop and maintain high morale. The following measures are taken to improve the morale of employees in the organisation:-

a. A fair system of wage and salary payments should be evolved

b. A sense of security of job should be ensured

c. The promotion policy should be sound and should be followed promptly

d. Competent supervisors should be appointed

e. The channel of communication should be effective.

f. The employees should be made to feel proud of being employed in the organisation

g. Employees’ welfare schemes like housing, medical benefits, education facilities for children, canteen, credit facilities, and safety measures should be provided as they are very helpful in developing positive attitude among the employees.

h. Workers should be given proper training so that they may perform their jobs without frustration and get job satisfaction.

Factors determining morale:

The degree of morale in any organisation is determined by several factors. Some of them are merely psychological and difficult to identify, however researchers have succeeding in figuring out the following factors:

1) Confidence in leadership: If the leader of the organisation is able to win the confidence of the employees, morale will be high. For employees, the leader being mentioned is the immediate supervisor/superior. If the leader is systematic, fair, honest, helpful and friendly, he may win over the confidence of his subordinates and boost their morale.

2) Job Satisfaction: The morale of the employee would be high if he is satisfied with his job. Hence right men should be placed in the right job to boost up their morale in their jobs.

3) Confidence in co-workers: Mani is a social being and he finds himself more enthusiastic in the company of others. If he finds that his companions or fellow workers are co-operating with him, his morale would be high.

4) Sound and efficient organisation: Sound and effective organisation is an important factor affecting the employee’s morale. At the same time, the chance of communication should be effective and the personal problems of the employee should be heard and redressed as quickly as possible.

5) Fair remuneration: Fair and reasonable remuneration is essential to secure enthusiasm and willingness of the workers to do the job. The wages should be comparable with those paid in similar concerns. Besides, monetary incentives should be provided to them as and when necessary and possible.

6) Security of job: If the employee feels secured, they will be willing and co-operative to do the job allotted to them.

7) Opportunity to rise: The employees should also be made to realise that if they work properly, they will be promoted and adequately rewarded. This feeling of recognition will definitely boost their morale.

8) Working conditions: The conditions of work at which the employees are required to work also affect their morale. Providing safety measures, hygienic facilities, clean workplace etc. give them satisfaction and boost their morale.

9) Physical & mental health: An employee with weak health cannot be co-operative and willing to work. Similarly his mental strain shall also reduce his motivation of morale. Both physical and mental illness are detrimental to an individual’s work and thereby the organisational output.

End of unit -8 part-I

Motivation

The term motivation is derived from the word motive which means an idea, need, emotion or organic state which prompts a man to act. Motivation involves the creation of a positive will and desire among the persons to do their work in the best manner. It is the process of stimulating people to adopt the desired course of action by satisfying their needs. Hence, motivation is nothing but an act of inducement; it is necessary for better performance. It helps to attain the individual and organisational objectives in the most effective, efficient and economical manner.

Definitions:

According to Michael J. Jucius, motivation is the act of stimulating someone or oneself to get a desired course of action, to push the right button to get the desired action.

According to Scott, motivation means a process of stimulating people to action to accomplish desired goals.

Therefore motivation is a psychological concept. It develops the mental power of an individual and motivates them to do more and in a better manner.

Objectives of motivation in Management-context:

To motivate the employees to work more

To boost the morale of the employees

To increase the efficiency of the employees

To establish amicable relations between labour and management

To achieve objectives of the Enterprise

To raise the job satisfaction among the employees

Importance of Motivation:

Effective use of resources: When the teams of employees are highly motivated employees greatly help in making optimum use of available resources for achieving objectives.

Higher efficiency: When employees are highly motivated employees will make full use of their energy and participatory levels to raise existing level of efficiency.

Accomplishment of organisational goals.

Reduction in labour turnover and absenteeism.

Healthy industrial relations.

Types of Motivation:

1. Negative motivation: Negative motivation is based on force or fear. If the workers fail to complete the work within the time schedule they may be threatened with demotion, dismissal, layoff or pay cut etc. The negative motivation gives maximum benefits in short run. In the long run, however this kind of motivation doesn’t help the organization in any way as negative motivation results in disloyalty and dissonance among the group of employees.

2. Positive motivation: Positive motivation is based on rewards. Praise, participation in decision-making process, delegation of authority and responsibility are some methods adopted for motivation.

Theories of Motivation

Maslow’s Need-Hierarchy theory of Motivation

Needs or motives are the primary cause of human behaviour. The behaviour of an individual at a particular moment is usually determined by his strongest needs. As the more basic needs are satisfied, an individual seeks to satisfy higher needs. If his basic needs are not met, efforts to satisfy higher needs would be postponed. Abraham H. Maslow, a famous behavioural scientist had given a framework that helps to explain the strength of certain needs. The theory is known as “Need Hierarchy Theory”. In this theory he had pointed out and explained how needs influence human behaviour.

The following are important propositions advanced by A.H. Maslow about human behaviour:

The urge to fulfill needs is a prime factor in motivation of people at work. Human beings strive to fulfill a wide range of needs.

Man is a wanting animal. A man works to satisfy his wants or needs. As one need is satisfied, another appears in its place.

A satisfied need is a motivator and once satisfied, it ceases to influence human behaviour. Only unsatisfied or fresh needs, whether lower order or higher order, can motivate persons to work.

Maslow’s Needs-based Hierarchy

1) Physiological needs: These are biological needs required to preserve human life. Therefore, these needs are also known as survival needs. They include needs like food, clothing, drinking, shelter, sleep etc. These needs must be satisfied first of all and therefore they are a powerful motivation when thwarted.

2) Safety / Security needs: Once physiological needs are reasonably satisfied, safety needs emerge and become dominant. Safety needs are concerned with protection from danger, deprivation and threats. People want bodily safety, job security, provision for old age, insurance against accidents etc. They may serve as motivators in case of arbitrary and unpredictable management actions. Organizations can influence these needs through pension schemes, insurance plans, medical schemes, fear of dismissal etc.

3) Social needs: After the first two types of needs are satisfied, social needs become important in the need-hierarchy. Since man is a social animal, he has a need to belong and to be accepted by the society of various groups. Social needs refer to need for belonging, need for acceptance, need for love and affection. Organisations can influence these needs through supervision, effective communications system, work groups, encouraging employee get-togethers, etc.

4) Esteem needs: Esteem needs are of 2 types, namely self-esteem and others’ esteem. Self-esteem needs include self-respect, self-confidence, competence, achievement and independence. Esteem of others includes reputation, status and recognition.

5) Self-actualisation needs: Also known as self-realisation needs, these are the needs for realizing one’s full potential, for continued self-development and for remaining creative throughout life. Maslow says “this need might be phrased as the desire to become more and more what one is, to become everything that one is capable of becoming in life”.

Therefore Maslow’s theory helps to explain why a person behaves differently in two similar situations. This theory is an understanding of human behaviour and motivation.

Drawbacks of Maslow’s Need-Hierarchy Theory:

Needs are not the only determinants of behaviour. There are other motivating factors like perception, expectations, experiences, etc.

Needs-based classification looks somewhat artificial as every human’s needs are not really evident and they keep changing from person to person.

Maslow’s theory is based on a relatively small sample of people.

Despite limitations Maslow’s theory provides a convenient framework for study of motivation. It helps to explain inter-personal and intra-personal variations in human behaviour.

Herzberg’s 2-Factor Theory of Motivation

The motivational-hygiene theory was proposed by Frederick Herzberg, a well-known American psychologist and behavioural scientist in 1959. A research study was conducted to find what variables are perceived to be desirable to achieve goals and conversely, what undesirable variables to avoid. In this connection, a research study was conducted by Frederick Herzberg and his associates of Case Western Reserve University, USA. This study consisted of an intensive analysis of the experiences and feelings of 200 engineers and accountants in 9 different companies in Pittsburg area, USA. During a structured interview, they were asked to describe a few previous experiences in which they felt exceptionally good or exceptionally bad in their jobs. They were also asked to rate the degree to which their feelings were influenced – for better or for worse.

On analysing the information from the interviews, Herzberg concluded that there were 2 categories of needs essentially independent of each other affecting behaviour in different ways. They are:

1. Hygiene factors: The job conditions which operate primarily to dissatisfy the employees in their absence, however it is worth noting that the mere presence of these factors doesn’t motivate the employees in a string way. These set of jobs have been referred to as maintenance or hygiene factor. According to Herzberg, there are ten hygiene factors:

a) Company policy and administration

b) Working conditions

c) Status

d) Salary

e) Job security

f) Personal life

g) Technical supervision

h) Interpersonal relationship with supervisors

i) Interpersonal relationship with peers

j) Interpersonal relationship with subordinates

These factors provide no growth in a worker’s output; they only prevent losses in worker’s performance due to work restrictions leading to job dissatisfaction. These maintenance factors are necessary to maintain a reasonable level of satisfaction among the employees. Any increase beyond this level will not provide any satisfaction to the employee; however any cut below this level will dissatisfy them.

2. Motivational factors: A set of job conditions which operates primarily to build strong motivation and high job satisfaction and their absence is very much visible in the strong lack of motivation in the workforce. Such factors are known as motivational factors. These factors are capable of having a positive affect on job satisfaction often resulting in an increase in one’s total output. According to Herzberg six factors that motivate employees are:

a) Achievement

b) Recognition

c) Advancement

d) Work itself

e) Possibility of growth

f) Responsibility

An increase in these factors will satisfy the employees, however any decrease will not affect their levels of satisfaction. These factors are necessary for self-motivation of employees. From this point of view, individuals are classified into two groups:

Motivational seekers Maintenance seekers

Are generally individuals who are primarily motivated by the satisfiers such as advancement, achievement and other factors associated with work itself.

Tend to be more concerned with factors surrounding the jobs such as supervision, working conditions, pay etc.

Comparison of Herzberg and Maslow’s models

When Herzberg’s and Maslow’s models are compared, it can be seen that both the models focus their attention on the same relationship i.e. what motivates an individual. Maslow has given it in terms of need-hierarchy and Herzberg has suggested how people try for comparatively higher level needs. Thus any unsatisfied need becomes a motivational force for the individual and governs his behaviour in that direction.

In comparatively socially and economically advanced countries, most of the lower order needs are fulfilled and for many people, only higher level needs remain motivating factors, which is what exactly Herzberg had suggested. Most of his maintenance factors come under comparatively lower-order needs.

There is a particular difference between the 2 models; Maslow emphasized that any unsatisfied need, whether a lower order or higher order will motivate individuals. This can be applied to lower level workers as well as higher level managers, but according to Herzberg these are hygiene factors and fail to motivate workers.

Equity Theory

Equity theory of work motivation is based on the social exchange process. J. Stacy Adams has crystallized this theory. Basically the theory points out that people are motivated to maintain fair relationship between their performance and reward in comparison to others. There are two assumptions on which the theory works:

Individuals make contributions (inputs) for which they expect certain rewards (outcomes).

Individuals decide whether or not a particular exchange is satisfactory by comparing their inputs and outcomes with those of others and try to rectify any inequality.

McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y

The management action of motivating human beings in the organisation, according to McGregor, involves certain assumptions, generalizations and hypotheses relating to human behaviour and human nature. McGregor has characterized these assumptions in two extreme criteria – Theory X & Theory Y.

Theory X: This is a traditional theory of human behaviour. In this theory, McGregor has certain assumptions about human behaviour which are as follows:

Management is responsible for organizing the elements of productive enterprise - money, material, equipment and people, in the interest of economic ends.

Without the active intervention of the management, people would remain passive, even resistant to organisational needs. They must be persuaded, rewarded, punished, controlled and their activities must be directed.

The employee lacks ambition, dislikes responsibility and prefers to be lead.

He is, by nature resistant to change.

The average employee is indolent by nature – he works as little as possible.

Various types of inputs and outcomes of an individual are:

Efforts

Time

Education

Training

Ideas

Ability

Experience

Pay

Promotion

Recognition

Security

Personal Development

Benefits

Friendship opportunities

Of these the last three deal with human nature and the first two with the managerial actions. So the managers subscribing to these views about human nature attempt to structure control and closely supervise their employees. They feel that external control is most appropriate for dealing with irresponsible and immature employees. He argues that these changes are not because of changes in human behaviour or nature, but because of nature of industrial organisations, management philosophy, policies and practices.

Theory Y: The assumptions of this theory are as follows:

External control and threat of punishment are not the only means for motivating or bringing about efforts towards organisational objectives. Man will exercise self-direction and self-control in the service of objectives to which he is committed

Commitment to objectives is a function of reward associated with their achievement.

The average human being learns under proper conditions not only to accept, but also to seek responsibility.

Under the conditions of modern industrial life, the intellectual potentials of the average human being are only partially utilized.

The assumptions of Theory Y suggest a new approach in management. The attempt is to get maximum output with minimum amount of control and direction. Generally no conflict is visible between organisational goals and individual goals.

Comparison of Theory X & Theory Y

Both these theories have certain assumptions about human nature. In fact, they are reverse sides of a coin, one representing head and the other tail.

Theory X Theory Y

1. Assumes that human beings are distasteful towards work

2. Emphasizes that people do not have ambitions and try to avoid responsibilities in the job.

3. Most people have little or no capacity for creativity.

1. Assumes that for human beings, work is as natural as play.

2. People are ambitious and are keen to take up responsibilities at the workplace and love challenges.

3. People are creative and love to embrace new techniques and methodology.

4. Both lower level and higher level needs

4. Motivating factors are lower level needs.

5. People lack self-motivation and require to be externally controlled, closely supervised to get maximum output out of them.

6. Emphasizes on scalar chain system and centralization of authority in decision-making.

7. Autocratic leadership is the way to lead.

8. Employees always resist change.

are important.

5. People are self-directed and motivated and prefer self-control. The same job can be done with the least of supervision.

6. Emphasizes on decentralization and greater participation in decision-making process

7. Democratic and supportive leadership

8. Employees always welcome change

Therefore the assumptions of Theory Y suggest a new approach in management. This theory represents a modern and dynamic nature of human beings. The organisation designed on Theory Y is characterized by decentralization of authority, participative leadership and two-way communication system. Where Theory X focuses on external control, Theory Y focuses on self-regulation.

Theory Z

The management scholar William Ouchi developed Theory Z in the 1980’s. Theory Z focuses on 3 features which motivate an employee. They are:

1) Trust: Trust between employees, supervisors, workgroups, unions, management and government

2) Strong bond between organisation and employees

3) Employee involvement

End of unit -8 part-II

Job Satisfaction

Job satisfaction describes how content an individual is with his or her job. The happier people are with their jobs the more satisfied they are said to be. Job satisfaction is one’s own feeling or state of mind regarding the nature of their work. Job satisfaction can be influenced by a number of factors, e.g. the quality of one’s relationship with their supervisor, the quality of the physical environment in which they work, degree of fulfillment in their works etc.

Definition: Job Satisfaction is “The sense of fulfillment and pride felt by people who enjoy their work and do it well”

Job satisfaction is a positive emotional state that occurs when a person’s job seems to fulfill his needs.

Reasons why people lose job satisfaction:

Bickering co-workers

Conflict with a supervisor

Not being paid appropriately for the work done

Lack of opportunities for promotion

Fear of losing job / job insecurity

Boring or overly monotonous routine

Work that doesn’t tap into the employee’s education, skills or personal interests

The workplace not having the necessary equipment or resources to succeed

No compensation / fair wage/salary administration policy

No recognition and respect (People who excel at what they do and are knowledgeable about a subject expect to be taken seriously and consulted with during decision-making. A management that degrades the opinions of its employees or doesn’t consult them results in dissatisfied employees.)

Lack of team spirit

Stress, extreme situations and burnout

If the employee is not working to his full capacity, it means that the job is exhausting him

Unsafe or hazardous working conditions

Personal reasons like being separated from one’s family or spouse

Effects of low-job satisfaction:

Low job performance

High employee turnover / attrition rate

High absenteeism

Effect on health of employees

Low profits

Low economic development: If an employee is not satisfied with his job then he will not show any interest in his work, which results in low productivity, low profits and low income. So income earned per head and taxes collected by the government will also be reduced.

Factors influencing Job Satisfaction:

I. Organisational factors:

1. Rewards: Includes all incentives like raise in pay, perks, facilities, promotion. The promotion factor is a major factor in job satisfaction. An employee can achieve job satisfaction and work better only when he knows that he will get his dues and raise in due time.

2. Physical working conditions: Working conditions like availability of necessary furniture, lighting facilities, work hazard also plays a major role in job satisfaction.

3. Cooperation: Cooperation and attitude of the staff members with the person is also an important factor in feeling satisfied with one’s job.

II. Personal factors:

1. Interests: The personal interests of the employee play a major role in determining how happy an employee is with his job. If there is a clash between his personal interests and the direction in which his job / designation is headed, he’ll be at a mutual conflict internally and he won’t be able to give his job his best performance, at the same time his mental state will be weak and prone to irritability.

2. Personal traits: Some jobs are suitable to only certain types of personality types. If they are shy in nature or cannot talk much they will not be able to succeed in that setting where they are expected to do both. While choosing a job, one has to see that, they have those personality traits that the job demands.

3. Status & Seniority: It has been reported that the higher a person’s position in the organisation, the higher is his job satisfaction.

4. Life satisfaction: Every person wants to establish or reach his goal in life and it can be accomplished only through the work he does. If a person can’t love his job, chances are

very slim that he can see any growth in his career in the future and there’s no reason why he should continue in the same job.

End of unit -8