MorphologyMorphologyMorphological analysisMorphological analysis

Linguistics 200Linguistics 200

Spring 2006Spring 2006

Announcements and remindersAnnouncements and reminders

Quiz about morphology now open, closes Quiz about morphology now open, closes Fri noonFri noon

Phonology homework due Thursday at Phonology homework due Thursday at beginning of section. Work from .pdf only beginning of section. Work from .pdf only from now on.from now on.

Overview of morphology unitOverview of morphology unit

General concepts, morphological analysis General concepts, morphological analysis (today)(today)

Part of speech (a.k.a. grammatical category, Part of speech (a.k.a. grammatical category, lexical category) (Fri)lexical category) (Fri)

Different types of morphology (Mon)Different types of morphology (Mon)

Morphological competenceMorphological competence

• What native speakers know about well-formed wordsWhat native speakers know about well-formed words• Understand meaning of words, including novel onesUnderstand meaning of words, including novel ones

• ““Prevent Los Angelization Now” (PLAN)Prevent Los Angelization Now” (PLAN)

San Diego Earth Times Apr 2000

The drive to Los Angelization The drive to Los Angelization by Carolyn Chaseby Carolyn Chase

OOver the years, we've heard a lot about "Los ver the years, we've heard a lot about "Los Angelization." The last round of managed growth Angelization." The last round of managed growth sentiment in San Diego was epitomized in the 80s sentiment in San Diego was epitomized in the 80s by PLAN (Prevent Los Angelization Now). While by PLAN (Prevent Los Angelization Now). While PLAN fizzled, the use of "Los Angelization" still PLAN fizzled, the use of "Los Angelization" still resonates with San Diegans as an epithet…resonates with San Diegans as an epithet…

Morphological competenceMorphological competence

• Includes:Includes:• Understanding properties of wordsUnderstanding properties of words

• appropriate context for use (part of speech)appropriate context for use (part of speech)• ‘‘we’ve heard about Los Angelization’we’ve heard about Los Angelization’• The PLAN group wants to stop Los The PLAN group wants to stop Los

Angelization of this area.Angelization of this area.• *Developers want to Los Angelization this area.*Developers want to Los Angelization this area.

(Developers want to Los Angelize this area.)(Developers want to Los Angelize this area.)

Another new wordAnother new word

• Sequim [skwSequim [skwm]m]• Sign as you drive out Sign as you drive out

of townof town• ““Thanks for Thanks for

Sequimming”Sequimming”

New usage of a wordNew usage of a word

• ““Kinko’s, the new way to office”Kinko’s, the new way to office”• advertising slogan used around 1996advertising slogan used around 1996

• "An integral part of Kinko's marketing strategy, The "An integral part of Kinko's marketing strategy, The new way to officenew way to officeTMTM, calls for more aggressive use , calls for more aggressive use of computer and digital technologies to link of computer and digital technologies to link customers whenever and wherever they are customers whenever and wherever they are conducting business," said Dan Frederickson, conducting business," said Dan Frederickson, Kinko's President…Kinko's President…

Reaction to “to office”Reaction to “to office”

Re: "The new way to 'office'"???Re: "The new way to 'office'"??? -------------------- ORIGINAL MESSAGE TEXT ---------------------------------------- ORIGINAL MESSAGE TEXT --------------------

Have any of you noticed the new Kinko's ad slogan -- "The new way to Have any of you noticed the new Kinko's ad slogan -- "The new way to office"?office"?

"Office" as a verb? I guess it's just an advertising thing, and it did"Office" as a verb? I guess it's just an advertising thing, and it didcatch my attention. I'm generally in favor of verbizing nouns where acatch my attention. I'm generally in favor of verbizing nouns where auseful purpose is served, and I am part of their "small office, homeuseful purpose is served, and I am part of their "small office, homeoffice" target market.office" target market.

But, this new verb they are proposing sounds so odd. I suppose you couldBut, this new verb they are proposing sounds so odd. I suppose you couldargue that it is specific to white-collar work, while the verb "work" isargue that it is specific to white-collar work, while the verb "work" isnon-specific.non-specific.

-------------------- END OF ORIGINAL MESSAGE –-------------------- END OF ORIGINAL MESSAGE – But what does "office" as a verb mean? Does it mean "to photocopy But what does "office" as a verb mean? Does it mean "to photocopy

stuff?"stuff?"Maybe "send memos and letters?" If using a noun as a verb is just anMaybe "send memos and letters?" If using a noun as a verb is just aninventive way to get a point across, I might not squirm too much. Butinventive way to get a point across, I might not squirm too much. Butthat! "The new way to office" doesn't mean a darn thing to methat! "The new way to office" doesn't mean a darn thing to me

To be honest, I really didn't have a problem understanding what this To be honest, I really didn't have a problem understanding what this means...ormeans...orat least what I think it means.at least what I think it means.

I take it that "to office" is to do the things that I'd do at my company office.I take it that "to office" is to do the things that I'd do at my company office.

To use Kinko's for the things that I know they do is to use them forTo use Kinko's for the things that I know they do is to use them forphotocopying, faxing, scanning, DTP, word processing, sending and receivingphotocopying, faxing, scanning, DTP, word processing, sending and receivingmail and packages, direct mail programs, mailing list maintenance, etc.mail and packages, direct mail programs, mailing list maintenance, etc.

It's kind of a takeoff on the verb to work. However, "to office" would meanIt's kind of a takeoff on the verb to work. However, "to office" would meanonly the type of work that you would perform in an office environment asonly the type of work that you would perform in an office environment asopposed to a factory or manufacturing setting.opposed to a factory or manufacturing setting.

I MAY have a little more understanding of the concept than some since exceptI MAY have a little more understanding of the concept than some since exceptfor my current situation, I worked in home offices for more than 10 years...andfor my current situation, I worked in home offices for more than 10 years...andthat's the target audience. If you've (and I'm not refering to you as "you",that's the target audience. If you've (and I'm not refering to you as "you",but to the collective you) never used a home office, then you aren't going tobut to the collective you) never used a home office, then you aren't going touse them as much as home office users would, so they don't care if you knowuse them as much as home office users would, so they don't care if you knowwhat they are talking about or agree with their terminology.what they are talking about or agree with their terminology.

Besides..it's advertising. The goal is not to use correct terminology. TheBesides..it's advertising. The goal is not to use correct terminology. Thegoal is to use terminology that gets the point across. The goal is to have yougoal is to use terminology that gets the point across. The goal is to have youremember the name and discuss it with others.remember the name and discuss it with others.

They've succeded...no?They've succeded...no?

Morphology is about words…Morphology is about words…• But what’s a word?But what’s a word?• Problems with white space definitionProblems with white space definition

• Inconsistency in languages with writing systemsInconsistency in languages with writing systems• Variable spelling of compounds in (e.g.) EnglishVariable spelling of compounds in (e.g.) English

• feedbackfeedback• road rageroad rage• time-depthtime-depth

• Not a possible test in languages without writing systemsNot a possible test in languages without writing systems

• Fortunately, there are other tests for what is a wordFortunately, there are other tests for what is a word• A syntactic test. (Some) words can be an answer to question: A syntactic test. (Some) words can be an answer to question:

• what did we just witness? what did we just witness? road rage road rage• what do I need most right now?what do I need most right now? feedback feedback• what is the term in historical linguistics for estimated time from what is the term in historical linguistics for estimated time from

modern languages to ancestor language?modern languages to ancestor language? time-depth time-depth

Words vs. morphemesWords vs. morphemes

• Morpheme: largest form (sound, gesture) Morpheme: largest form (sound, gesture) associated with a particular associated with a particular meaning [fl[flwrwr] ]

Examples of morphemes (English)Examples of morphemes (English)

pausepause 1 morpheme: 1 morpheme: pausepause

pawspaws 2 morphemes: 2 morphemes: paw, -spaw, -spaw – pawspaw – pawstroop – troopstroop – troopsjudge – judgesjudge – judges etc.etc.

Caveat: morphemes vs. syllablesCaveat: morphemes vs. syllables

Morphemes can be identified from comparison of Morphemes can be identified from comparison of sets of words, not from inherent phonological shape sets of words, not from inherent phonological shape or lengthor length

Ch. 7: “Words are composed of one or more Ch. 7: “Words are composed of one or more syllables.”syllables.”

What’s a syllable anyway?What’s a syllable anyway? An abstract phonological unit consisting of a vowel (or An abstract phonological unit consisting of a vowel (or

segment functioning as a vowel) and perhaps one or segment functioning as a vowel) and perhaps one or more consonantsmore consonants

Count number of syllables in a word by counting vowels Count number of syllables in a word by counting vowels (or segments functioning as vowels)(or segments functioning as vowels)

Morpheme Morpheme syllable syllable

transcribed # morphemes # syllables

pawpaw [p[p]] 11 11

parpar [p[pr]r] 11 11

pausepause [p[pz]z] 11 11

pawspaws [p[pz]z] 2 (paw, -s)2 (paw, -s) 11

pawerpawer [p[prr]] 2 (paw, -er)2 (paw, -er) 22

cf. write, writercf. write, writer

think, thinkerthink, thinker

pause, pauserpause, pauser

How many morphemes are there in How many morphemes are there in ‘to Sequim’?‘to Sequim’?

one

two

thre

e fo

ur

32%

0%

8%

59%1.1. oneone

2.2. twotwo

3.3. threethree

4.4. fourfour

Free vs. bound morphemesFree vs. bound morphemes

free:free: can stand alone as word can stand alone as word certain, able, carton, finch, pinch, sycamorecertain, able, carton, finch, pinch, sycamore

bound:bound: must be attached to some other must be attached to some other morpheme to form a wordmorpheme to form a word representation includes hyphenrepresentation includes hyphen some bound morphemes in Englishsome bound morphemes in English

-s, -es-s, -es (-/z/) plural (-/z/) plural -ize-ize (-/ (-/jz/) ‘to cause to become’jz/) ‘to cause to become’ un-un- (/ (/n/-) negativen/-) negative

In In Los AngelizationLos Angelization

-atio

n is a

free

morp

...

-atio

n is a

bound

mo...

Los

Angele

s is

a b

ou..

2% 0%

98%1.1. -ation is a free -ation is a free morpheme.morpheme.

2.2. -ation is a bound -ation is a bound morpheme.morpheme.

3.3. Los Angeles is a Los Angeles is a bound morpheme.bound morpheme.

Root vs. affix morphemesRoot vs. affix morphemes RootsRoots

meaning: contains major (referring, lexical) component meaning: contains major (referring, lexical) component of word meaningof word meaning

phonological shape: phonological shape: typicallytypically have longer, more have longer, more complex shapes than affixes (but not always)complex shapes than affixes (but not always)

can be bound or free morphemescan be bound or free morphemes one (or more) root morphemes per word (basically)one (or more) root morphemes per word (basically)

e.g. e.g. flower flower is a word which consists of one morpheme, which is a word which consists of one morpheme, which is a root morphemeis a root morpheme

AffixesAffixes

Affix types PrefixesPrefixes--added before another morpheme --added before another morpheme

//n/- negative n/- negative  SuffixesSuffixes---added after another morpheme---added after another morpheme

-/-/jz/ ‘to cause to become’jz/ ‘to cause to become’ -/z/ plural -/z/ plural

InfixesInfixes---added within a root---added within a root an ex. from English pp. 79-80an ex. from English pp. 79-80

In the word In the word flowersflowers

Ther

e is

one

root m

o...

Ther

e ar

e tw

o ro

ot m...

Ther

e ar

e tw

o af

fix m

...

90%

0%10%

1.1. There is one root There is one root morpheme and one morpheme and one affix morpheme.affix morpheme.

2.2. There are two root There are two root morphemes.morphemes.

3.3. There are two affix There are two affix morphemes.morphemes.

How to tell what is a morpheme?How to tell what is a morpheme? An example of morphological analysis: SahaptinAn example of morphological analysis: Sahaptin Examples of two word formation strategies in Examples of two word formation strategies in

SahaptinSahaptin AffixationAffixation CompoundingCompounding

(First, some background information on Sahaptin)(First, some background information on Sahaptin)

Sahaptin language areaSahaptin language area

Virginia BeavertVirginia Beavert

digging [pjaí] ‘bitterroot’ above [wiins] (Wenas), Apr 03

Vowel systemVowel system

frontfront centralcentral backback

highhigh i iii ii u uuu uu

lowlow

[] = high central unrounded vowel

[ii] = [i:] = long high front unrounded vowel etc.

Sahaptin short vowelsSahaptin short vowels

frontfront centralcentral backback

highhigh [t[tíít]- ‘fart’t]- ‘fart’ ttt] t] ‘tooth’‘tooth’

[[ttúút] t] ‘your dad’‘your dad’

lowlow [t[tkki]i] ‘turkey’‘turkey’

[], more narrowly transcribed, would be []

[ ] is transcriptional symbol for stress

Sahaptin short vs. long vowelsSahaptin short vs. long vowels

shortshort longlong

[pi[pišíš]šíš] ‘paternal aunt’ ‘paternal aunt’ [c[cííiiš]š] ‘water’ ‘water’

[pj[pjúšúš] ‘snake’] ‘snake’ [p[púúuušš]]‘juniper’‘juniper’

[sts’[sts’t] ‘night’t] ‘night’ [sts’[sts’t] ‘dark’ t] ‘dark’

Note quality difference between [], []

Sahaptin consonantsSahaptin consonantslabiallabial alveolaralveolar palatalpalatal velarvelar labio-velarlabio-velar uvularuvular labio-uvularlabio-uvular glottalglottal

stopsstops p p’p p’ t t’t t’ k k’k k’ kkww k kww’’ q q’q q’ qqww q qww’’

affricatesaffricates ts ts’ts ts’ čč čč’’

laterallateral tt t t’’

fricativesfricatives ss šš xx xxww ww hh

laterallateral

nasalsnasals mm nn

approximapproximantsants

jj ww

laterallateral ll

Sahaptin ejectivesSahaptin ejectives

[q’] = uvular ejective[q’] = uvular ejective [q’] in Sahaptin[q’] in Sahaptin

[q’[q’nu] ‘sharp-tailed grouse’nu] ‘sharp-tailed grouse’ [q’[q’ni] ‘torn’ni] ‘torn’

cf. Witsuwit’en [q’]cf. Witsuwit’en [q’] [q’[q’] ‘backwards’] ‘backwards’

Morphological analysisMorphological analysis

How?How? Compare two or more words which differ Compare two or more words which differ

minimally in form and meaningminimally in form and meaning Pairwise comparison bestPairwise comparison best

Identify largest form associated with a Identify largest form associated with a particular meaningparticular meaning

morphememorpheme

Some Sahaptin verbsSome Sahaptin verbs

ssnwinwišššš ‘‘I’m talking’I’m talking’

nnwiwišššš ‘‘I’m hungry’I’m hungry’

kkmšmššš ‘‘I miss’ (something)I miss’ (something)

Pairwise comparisonPairwise comparisonssnwinwišššš ‘‘I’m talking’I’m talking’

nnwiwišššš ‘‘I’m hungry’I’m hungry’

Difference must be ‘talk’ vs. ‘be hungry’

ssn ‘talk’ wišn ‘talk’ wišš ‘I (am)’ (present)š ‘I (am)’ (present)

nn ‘be hungry’ ‘be hungry’

kkmšmššš ‘‘I miss’I miss’

Revised analysis:

ssnwi ‘talk’ šnwi ‘talk’ šš ‘I (am)’ (present)š ‘I (am)’ (present)

nni ‘be hungry’i ‘be hungry’

kkm ‘miss’m ‘miss’

More Sahaptin verbsMore Sahaptin verbs

ssnwinwišššš ‘‘I’m talking’I’m talking’

ssnwinwiššmm ‘‘you’re talking’you’re talking’

iissnwinwišš ‘‘he/she is talking’he/she is talking’

ssnwinwišššš ‘‘we’re talking’we’re talking’

ssnwinwiššmm ‘‘you (pl.) are talking’you (pl.) are talking’

ppssnwinwišš ‘‘they’re talking’they’re talking’

A verb paradigm

Person/number affixesPerson/number affixes

--šš ‘‘I’I’

--mm ‘‘you’you’

i-i- ‘‘he/she’he/she’

--ttšš ‘‘we’we’

-p-pmm ‘‘you (pl.)’you (pl.)’

pp-- ‘‘they’they’

number number

sg.sg. pl.pl.

person person 11 --ss --ttšš

22 --mm -p-pmm

33 i-i- pp--

Person/number affixesPerson/number affixes

More Sahaptin verbsMore Sahaptin verbs

nnwiwišššš ‘I’m hungry’‘I’m hungry’

nnwiwiššnnšš ‘I was hungry’‘I was hungry’nnwiwišš ‘I’m usually hungry’‘I’m usually hungry’

nnwiwišš ‘I used to be hungry’‘I used to be hungry’

ssnwinwišššš ‘I’m talking’‘I’m talking’

ssnwinwišš ‘I usually talk’‘I usually talk’

ssnwinwiššnnšš ‘I was talking’‘I was talking’

ssnwinwinnšš ‘I used to talk’‘I used to talk’

ssnwinwišššš ‘‘I’m talking’I’m talking’

isisnwinwišš ‘‘he’s talking’he’s talking’

ssnwinwišš ‘‘I usually talk’I usually talk’

• ssnwinwiššš vs. š vs. isisnwinwišš--šš ‘I’, ‘I’, i- ‘he’i- ‘he’

• ssnwinwiš vs. š vs. ssnwinwišššš

-- ‘usually’, -š ‘usually’, -š present present

ssnwinwiš vs. š vs. ssnwinwinnšš

----š ‘usually’-‘I’š ‘usually’-‘I’

----nn--š ‘usually’-past-‘I’š ‘usually’-past-‘I’

ssnwinwišš ‘‘I usually talk’I usually talk’

ssnwinwišš ‘‘I used to talk’I used to talk’

ssnwinwiššnnšš ‘‘I was talking’I was talking’

What is Sahaptin -What is Sahaptin -šš?? ‘‘present’ usage (without -npresent’ usage (without -n) actually incomplete, ) actually incomplete,

ongoing activity or stateongoing activity or state imperfective aspectimperfective aspect šš-n-n (imperfective-past) (incomplete activity/state in (imperfective-past) (incomplete activity/state in

the past)the past)

Tense: time of an event/state (relative to some Tense: time of an event/state (relative to some other time); typically present, past, futureother time); typically present, past, future

Aspect: other characteristic of event/stateAspect: other characteristic of event/state complete: complete: perfective perfective incomplete: incomplete: imperfectiveimperfective relevance to later time: relevance to later time: perfectperfect

Summary of morphological analysisSummary of morphological analysis

Roots (content morphemes)Roots (content morphemes) ssnwi ‘talk’nwi ‘talk’ nnwi ‘be hungry’wi ‘be hungry’ kkm ‘miss’m ‘miss’

Suffixes (functional (grammatical) morphemes)Suffixes (functional (grammatical) morphemes) --šš imperfective imperfective -- ‘usually’ (habitual) ‘usually’ (habitual) -n-n past past --šš ‘I’ (first person singular) ‘I’ (first person singular)

More Sahaptin verbs

nnwišwišmm ‘‘you’re hungry’you’re hungry’

iinnwišwiš ‘‘he/she is hungry’he/she is hungry’

nnwišwišttšš ‘‘we’re hungry’we’re hungry’

nnwišwišppmm ‘‘you (pl.) are hungry’you (pl.) are hungry’

ppnnwišwiš ‘‘they’re hungry’they’re hungry’

ppjúwišjúwišmm ‘‘you’re sick, hurt’you’re sick, hurt’

ppjúwišjúwiššš ‘‘I’m sick, hurt’I’m sick, hurt’

ppppjúwišjúwiš ‘‘they’re sick, hurt’they’re sick, hurt’

pppnpnúšúšaa ‘‘they’re sleeping’they’re sleeping’

More morphemesMore morphemes

ppjúwi-júwi- ‘‘be sick, hurt’be sick, hurt’

ú-ú- ‘‘sleep’sleep’

More Sahaptin wordsMore Sahaptin words

ipnúšipnúš ‘‘he/she/it is sleeping’he/she/it is sleeping’

ipnútipnút ‘‘he/she/it will sleep’he/she/it will sleep’

ipnúnipnún ‘‘he/she/it slept’he/she/it slept’

pnúnpnúnmm ‘‘you slept’you slept’

pnut’pnut’wwss ‘‘bed’bed’

pnupnu ‘‘sleeper, one who sleeps’sleeper, one who sleeps’

pnunpnun ‘‘insomniac’insomniac’

wwššnn ‘‘wild horse’wild horse’

ppwwšššš ‘‘they’re riding’they’re riding’

wwššt’t’wwss ‘‘saddle’saddle’

[t’t’] = alveolar ejective, [] = voiceless lateral fricative

New morphemesNew morphemes

wwšš ‘ride’ ‘ride’ -ta ‘will’ (future)-ta ‘will’ (future) -t’-t’wws (instrument by which)s (instrument by which) -- ‘one who’ (agent) ‘one who’ (agent) -n-n ‘that which does not (verb), that which ‘that which does not (verb), that which

is not (verbed)’: ‘that which (one) does not’ is not (verbed)’: ‘that which (one) does not’ (negative agent)(negative agent)

More words with -t’More words with -t’wwssssp’inp’inwiwi ‘‘measure’measure’ ssp’inp’inwit’wit’wwss ‘‘ruler, measuring ruler, measuring

tape, etc.’tape, etc.’

twtwluuluu ‘‘fish w/ fish w/ dipnet’dipnet’

twtwluut’luut’wwss ‘‘dipnet pole’dipnet pole’

q’q’ííwi wi ‘‘play’play’ q’iwit’q’iwit’wwss ‘‘toy’toy’

ppnntiti ‘‘ascend, go ascend, go up’up’

ppnntit’tit’wwss ‘‘ladder’ladder’

llqqjjii ‘‘shine’shine’ llqqjjit’it’wwss ‘‘light, lamp, etc.’light, lamp, etc.’

ssllíí ‘‘cut with cut with scissors’scissors’

sslit’lit’wwss ‘‘scissors’scissors’

CompoundingCompounding

• [root][root] [root][root]• English exx.:English exx.:  

nounnoun verbverb adjectiveadjective

nounnoun tray tabletray table gift wrapgift wrap skin-deepskin-deep

verbverb thinktankthinktank ?? ??

adjectiveadjective high schoolhigh school dry-cleandry-clean red-hotred-hot

Some compounds in SahaptinSome compounds in Sahaptin

compoundcompound meaningmeaning rootroot11 rootroot22

k’tk’tt pt pššww ‘‘shale’shale’ k’tk’tt ‘solid, hard’t ‘solid, hard’ ppššww ‘rock’ ‘rock’

ppp tp tmnmn ‘‘palm of palm of hand’hand’

ppp ‘hand, arm’p ‘hand, arm’ ttmnmn ‘heart’ ‘heart’

čilwitčilwitúú ‘‘devil’devil’ ččilwilwíít ‘bad’t ‘bad’ wwpspsúú ‘scholarly’‘scholarly’

nč’i nč’i stístí ‘‘awl, ice awl, ice pick’pick’

nnč’íč’í ‘big’ ‘big’ ststíí ‘metal’ ‘metal’

Allomorphs of a morpheme Allomorphs of a morpheme A morpheme may have more than one phonological shape.A morpheme may have more than one phonological shape.The different shapes are often predictable from context.The different shapes are often predictable from context.

Examples from English: plural suffix and past tense suffix, discussed in Ch. 7.Examples from English: plural suffix and past tense suffix, discussed in Ch. 7.

-[-[z]z] -[s]-[s] -[z]-[z]

[f[fncnczz]] [k[kæættss]] [d[dggzz]]

[pr[prsszz]] [s[skkss]] [[ššuuzz]]

[[zz]] [d[dffndndntntss]] [lojr[lojrzz]]

AllomorphsAllomorphs

sibilant___sibilant___ voiceless___voiceless___ voiced___voiced___

-[-[z]z] -[s]-[s] -[z]-[z]

English sibilants = [s z š ž c ]

Distribution of allomorphs of English plural suffix:

Underlying representationUnderlying representation

The forms of the English plural suffix are The forms of the English plural suffix are predictable from context.predictable from context.

The plural suffix has a basic representation: The plural suffix has a basic representation: -/z/-/z/

Phonology

• /z/ [s] / voiceless___

• Ø [] / sibilant ___ sibilant

AllomorphsAllomorphs

• Phonological rules can convert one phoneme into another

• e.g. /z/ [s] / voiceless___

• with such rules, different morphemes almost always involved: morphophonemic rules

• Morphology (plural suffix) /kææt-z/

Phonology (voicing assimilation) s

Phonetic representation [kææts]

Sahaptin allomorphsSahaptin allomorphs Allomorphs of the dual suffixAllomorphs of the dual suffix

šš ‘‘child’child’ šš ‘‘two children’two children’

p’úusp’úus ‘‘cat’cat’ p’úusinp’úusin ‘‘two cats’two cats’

‘‘roommate’roommate’ ‘‘two roommates’two roommates’

’’wiwi ‘‘rival’rival’ ’’wijinwijin ‘‘two rivals’two rivals’

íí ‘‘rat’rat’ íí ‘‘two rats’two rats’

íí ‘‘paternal paternal grandfather’grandfather’

íí ‘‘two paternal two paternal grandfathers’grandfathers’

‘‘beaver’beaver’ ‘‘two beavers’two beavers’

What about other vowels? ([What about other vowels? ([], [u])], [u]) No morpheme ends in [No morpheme ends in []] only [u] examples slightly irregularonly [u] examples slightly irregular

mmmm ‘‘old woman’old woman’ mmmmttúúwinwin ‘‘two old two old women’women’

mmmmttúúmm ‘‘old women’old women’

wwsstt ‘‘old man’old man’ ww(()s)sttúúwinwin ‘‘two old men’two old men’ ww(()s)sttúúmm ‘‘old men’old men’

mmmm ‘old woman’

mmmmtú-ú- ‘old women’ (du./pl.)

Distribution of dual suffix allomorphsDistribution of dual suffix allomorphs

inin / C ___/ C ___

jinjin / / , i ___, i ___

winwin / u ___/ u ___

Two plausible analyses

1. -/in/ is basic form of suffix

Glide Epenthesis rules

0 w / u __

0 j / other vowels ___

2. -/jin/ is basic form of suffix

j w / u ___

j 0 / C ___

Deciding between the analysesDeciding between the analyses

-[ji] adjectival-[ji] adjectival [t[ttptpsji] ‘wearing a shirt, dress’sji] ‘wearing a shirt, dress’

[t[ttptps] ‘shirt, dress’s] ‘shirt, dress’ [q[qjj ččššji] ‘sharp-sighted’ji] ‘sharp-sighted’

[[ččšš] ‘eyes’] ‘eyes’

-[ji] is invariant, maintains [j] after -[ji] is invariant, maintains [j] after consonantconsonant

suggests that dual suffix is -/in/ (analysis 1)suggests that dual suffix is -/in/ (analysis 1)(otherwise (otherwise j 0 / C ___ should apply to –ji

adjectival)

SummarySummary

MorphemesMorphemes Some morphological processes: affixation, Some morphological processes: affixation,

compoundingcompounding Morphological analysisMorphological analysis Allomorphs of morphemesAllomorphs of morphemes