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S e p t e m b e r 1 5
Strategies and Techniques for Designers, Developers, and Managers of eLearning
A publication of
THIS WEEK — DESIGN TECHNIQUES
2003
More Than Just Eye Candy:Graphics for e-Learning
BY CHOPETA C. LYONS
We have all heard the cliché: “A picture is worth a
thousand words.” There’s just one important
caveat: It has to be the right picture. And some-
times, getting the right picture still isn’t enough.
Even the most relevant graphic, if executed poorly or laid out
haphazardly, will not enhance learning, but quite possibly will
depress it. Robert Rankin reported in 1989 that 92% of
learners’ comprehension mistakes aboutgraphics were caused by four reasons: 1) layout-related difficulties; 2) lack ofcaption/picture correspondence; 3) unfa-miliarity of the graphical convention; and4) misinterpretation of the graphical lay-out. As just one such example, try todecipher the graphic in Figure 1 on page2. This graphic, indicating the three criti-cal steps in finding data (1-Search, 2-Filter and 3-Select), is plagued by seriousgraphical choice and layout difficulties.The steps move from right to left; thegraphical convention of the ribbons toindicate steps is confusing; and finally,probably no user will “get” that the data
search is through the roadways of themotherboard; worse, it adds significant(and unnecessary) cognitive load to thelearner’s attempt to interpret it and torelate it to the content being taught.
A colorful picture, perhaps, but asWilliam Winn and William Holliday mightsuggest, based on their work in 1982,Western audiences are frustrated withillustrations that move from right to left.For all audiences, the relationships ofobjects should, if possible, reflect theirreal life arrangement.
In the first part of this two-part series(The eLearning Developers’ Journal,
Continued on next page
W W W. E L E A R N I N G G U I L D . C O M
This concludes anexpert review ofresearch on bestpractices in usingvisuals in e-Learning.Choosing the bestgraphic for learningpurposes depends on your instructionalgoals, the learninglandscape, and thelearners who will participate. The systematic visualdesign model sum-marized in this out-standing article willenable you to derivethe best graphictreatment everytime!
Part 2 of 2 parts
August 11, 2003), Dr. Ruth Clark relateda common request that we often hear inour design and consulting work: “Howcan a non-graphics person learn to envi-sion art to support instructional con-tent?” Additionally, she summarized ourthree views of graphics as categorized bytheir surface features, their communica-tion functions and how they support thelearner’s cognitive processing of the con-tent. In this second part, we present adesign model that incorporates the find-ings of research and focuses on a sys-tematic process of developing graphics.This approach can get your creativejuices flowing and also help you avoidthe mistakes evident in Figure 1.
Basis for the modelAs we developed the model, we looked
to the experiences of art-intensive indus-tries such as advertising, print and evenweb/software development. The designprocesses in each of these disciplinescontain many of the same phases, butwith differing emphasis, depending onthe visibility and importance of the graph-ics themselves.
From advertising, we looked at theimportance of dynamic sessions involv-ing team members as they devise anoverall treatment. We looked at the itera-tive and collaborative nature of the cre-ative process and how copywriters, artdirectors, and graphic designers commu-
nicate to each other to support the over-arching goal. As advertising legend DavidOgilvy said in 1983, “Creativity strikesme as a high-falutin word for the work Ihave to do between now and Tuesday.”
From print, we saw the necessity ofpackage requirements, branding guide-lines (though that is certainly also anaspect of advertising), and formattingstandards.
From web/software development, wetook the importance of the graphicaluser interface (GUI) itself and how itaffects and is affected by the individualgraphics displayed within its shell. Insome situations, of course, the GUI ispre-determined, either because of corpo-rate-wide standards or the requirementsof a Learning Management System (LMS)that has its own GUI.
Finally, from our instructional designbackgrounds, we know that planninggraphics is a principle-based task,depending on the judgment of the practi-tioner. Of course, as with all principle-based tasks, although these are guide-lines that can help direct and shape thepractitioner’s choices, the creativeprocess cannot be reduced completely to a lock-step procedural recipe.
A visual design model overviewThe design model in Figure 2 on page
3 includes five main phases. Note thatthis model focuses on planning graphics,
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The eLearning Developers’ Journal™ is design-ed to serve the industry as a catalyst for inno-vation and as a vehicle for the dissemination ofnew and practical strategies and techniques fore-Learning designers, developers and man-agers. The Journal is not intended to be thedefinitive authority. Rather, it is intended to be a medium through which e-Learning practi-tioners can share their knowledge, expertiseand experience with others for the general betterment of the industry.
As in any profession, there are many differ-ent perspectives about the best strategies,techniques and tools one can employ to accom-plish a specific objective. This Journal will sharethese different perspectives and does not posi-tion any one as “the right way,” but rather weposition each article as “one of the right ways”for accomplishing a goal. We assume thatreaders will evaluate the merits of each articleand use the ideas they contain in a mannerappropriate for their specific situation. Weencourage discussion and debate about articlesand provide an Online Discussion board foreach article.
The articles contained in the Journal are allwritten by people who are actively engaged inthis profession at one level or another — not by paid journalists or writers. Submissions arealways welcome at any time, as are sugges-tions for articles and future topics. To learnmore about how to submit articles and/orideas, please refer to the directions in the boxon page 8 or visit www.eLearningGuild.com.
Publisher David Holcombe
Editorial Director Heidi FiskEditor Bill Brandon
Copy Editor Charles Holcombe
Design Director Nancy Marland
The eLearning Guild™ Advisory BoardRuth Clark, Conrad Gottfredson, John Hartnett,
Bill Horton, Kevin Moore, Eric Parks, Brenda PfausMarc Rosenberg, Allison Rossett
Copyright 2003. The eLearning Developers’ Journal™.Compilation copyright by The eLearning Guild 2003. Allrights reserved. Please contact The eLearning Guild forreprint permission.
The eLearning Developers’ Journal is published weeklyby The eLearning Guild, 525 College Avenue, Suite215, Santa Rosa, CA 95404. Phone: 707.566.8990.The eLearning Guild is an operating unit of FocuszoneMedia, Inc., 1030 Beatrice Street, Eagan, MN 55121.
The Journal is included as part of Guild membership.To join the Guild go to www.eLearningGuild.com.
FIGURE 1 A weak design to teach a search and filter procedure.
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not on the production issues of actualdesign and development. The first twophases are analytic and definitional. Thethird phase is both analytic and creativeas it concentrates on the look and feeland the needs it must meet. The lasttwo are design intensive and iterative. Inour book, we also discuss the productionend of how to get from graphic idea tofinished product. However, this modelfocuses on first establishing that graphicidea.
The first two phases in Figure 2 illus-trate how front-end analysis nails downthe parameters and requirements for allcourse graphics. In Phase I, the trainingprofessional or design teamdefines the goals of theinstructional materials. Whatis their purpose and role in theorganization? In Phase II, theteam defines the context inwhich the instructional materi-als will be used.
Once these requirementsand definitions are identified,the next phase concentrateson creating the GUI, if notalready established, and deter-mining the overall graphiclook.
The last two phases zero inon planning individual graph-ics. Phase IV concentrates onidentifying the type of commu-nication functionality that yourcontent requires. Finally,Phase V focuses on how psy-chological events of learningshape the design of visual ele-ments of the instruction. Thefollowing provides a moredetailed look at what isinvolved in each phase of themodel.
Phase I: Define the goal Visual design for instruction
starts with the anticipated out-comes. We create mostinstruction to meet one ormore of the following goals:• To inform or motivate (often
described as building aware-ness)
• To build procedural skills and teach the associatedknowledge required
• To build problem-solving skills
and teach the associated knowledgerequiredAs obvious as it may seem, defining
the goal of your instruction determinesthe direction of your graphic design.Information or motivation campaigns areoften high-profile. When organizationslaunch new initiatives, they often intro-duce them with awareness training.Customer satisfaction, quality control, orcorporate strategy initiatives are com-mon examples. New product knowledgeprograms to create awareness and moti-vation for the sales force are others.Because these programs are central tothe company’s vision, they often have
big budgets, high visibility, and requireslick graphic treatment. Indeed, thedesign approach may resemble an adver-tising agency’s campaign more than thedevelopment of an instructional text.
Figure 3 on page 4 is one example ofthis high profile approach. This e-Learningmodule used sophisticated 3-D modelingto engage the audience. The messagelight on the phone flashes, the phonemail “plays” an announcement of thenew campaign, and the photographs inthe newsletter come “alive.”
On the other hand, when the goal ofthe training is skill building, especially forinternal processes such as claims adju-
FIGURE 2 A visual design model
dication or automotive engine diagnos-tics, the emphasis is on accuracy andcurrency of the instructional content aswell as effectiveness of the instructionalstrategies used. Generally, these typesof courses are the bread and butterofferings that have lower budgets andless visibility. But even if these projectsare well-funded, the emphasis is on thedetails and skills the learners need in
order to perform the tasks.Skill building courses may primarily
focus on building procedural knowledge(near-transfer skills). Much softwaretraining falls into this category. The goalis to help learners perform step-by-steptasks in a consistent manner. Othercourses may concentrate on buildingprinciple-based knowledge (far-transferskills). Far-transfer tasks are those that
involve problem-solving and judgmentsuch as deciding whether to fund a bankloan applicant.
It seems basic, but simply articulatingthe goals of the course is a crucial firststep, especially in making sure there is aconsensus about what the outcome ofthe e-Learning program is to be.Sometimes the sponsoring organizationmay see the goal as building awarenessand motivation, thus requiring highlyornate graphics and animation to buildinterest. On the other hand, the instruc-tional designers may realize the true goalis to build skill, thus requiring represen-tational or interpretive graphics thatdelineate the details, concepts, condi-tions, and principles required to performspecific tasks. So make sure you defineand agree on the true goal of the trainingearly in the process. Otherwise, your“client” or the sponsoring organizationmay be looking for glitter, sizzle, anddancing pop bottles when what is reallyneeded is a clean animation of a proce-dure or process such as that shown inFigure 4, left. When the learner plays theanimation, a voice over explains the dis-tribution and reimbursement processinvolved for the pharmacy when it fills aprescription.
Phase II: Define the visual context If a graphic can’t be seen, it has no
impact. If it can’t be viewed because oflow bandwidth, poor lighting, or becausethe learner is color-blind, the message islost. Defining the visual context requiresdetermining the audience, the physicalsurroundings in which the e-Learning willbe used, and the delivery platform con-siderations. Let’s look briefly at each ofthese factors.
Who are the learners?Consider the target audience’s prior
knowledge of the course content.Research shows that graphics benefitlearners who have no prior knowledge ofthe content but are less critical for learn-ers who do have prior knowledge. In fact,graphics may slow experts from gettingthe information they need quickly.
Analyzing the audience as to culture,age group, or education also helps youidentify any potential problems learnersmay have perceiving or understandingthe graphics selected. The classic exam-ple is a target audience primarily com-
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FIGURE 3 Fujitsu awareness campaign for an online newsletter. Credit: Learning Edge, Inc.
FIGURE 4 Flash animation of the process of filling a prescription once the physician haswritten it in. Credit: Copyright 2002, Total Learning Concepts
posed of older, adult males, who statisti-cally have a higher percentage of colorblindness than any other segment of thepopulation. Consider a course that cuescorrect answers with green text andincorrect answers with red. If no othercueing technique is used (such aslabels, shapes, or color intensity), thecolorblind male may have difficulty dis-cerning which is which since these colorsoften appear to them as muddy varia-tions of grey. Still, year after year, design-ers create interfaces that rely solely onprecisely this color-coding without provid-ing any backup cueing system such ascheckmarks or other graphic shapes.
What is the learning environment?We traditionally think of the e-Learning
environment as the desktop. But inthese days of just-in-time training and on-the-job performance support, the learn-ing environment can be the learner’sbreak room in a manufacturing plant,their station on the assembly line, oreven a conference room. Investigatewhere the e-Learning will be used andidentify lighting conditions, distance frommonitor or display, seating and any otherfactor that can impact learners’ percep-
tion of the training — for example, dothey wear goggles, gloves, or otherpotentially restrictive clothing?
What is the delivery platform?Those of us in e-Learning know the
litany: Commercial internet? Companyintranet? Need to support remote dial-upconnectivity? Standardized desktop set-tings? Browser versions? Plug-in sup-port? No other factor is more key to thesuccess of your program.
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FIGURE 5 Graphical user interface related to content Credit: Mark A. Palmer for ComputerManagement & Integrators, Inc.
The Essential Conference for e-LearningDesigners, Developers, and Managers
San Francisco, California • November 12 — 14, 2003 Pre-Conference Workshops November 11, 2003
The annual conference of...
The program is divided into three core practice areas thatmirror the three main roles that e-Learning producers areengaged in — Designer | Developer | Manager. The ProgramCommittee, comprised of volunteer Guild Members, has iden-tified the most critical topics that address these areas andthose topics will be the focus of all our General Sessions,Think Tank Sessions, Concurrent Sessions and optional Pre-Conference Workshops.
Every session is designed to allow time to hear from theexperts, debate and discuss with your peers and explore topics to their fullest. In addition to the structured time you will spend learning in the sessions, you will also have ampleopportunity to network with the other participants in morningdiscussion groups, over lunch, and during social activities.The size and format of the conference will help you developimportant professional connections during the conferencethat you can continue in the months and years to follow.
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DESIGN / t e c h n i q u e s
Perhaps you have taken an e-Learningmodule and experienced a long down-load time for a highly-ornate graphic (andmay have even abandoned the trainingafter becoming frustrated by the wait).Maybe you have viewed a course on alaptop LCD screen and missed importantcolor coding distinctions that were easilyvisible on a CRT monitor. Or possibly,you have been a member of a team view-ing an e-Learning course projected in aconference room where the furthermostmembers were too far way to read thecallouts on a graphic or even to distin-
guish one graphic from another. Identifyall delivery platform issues; work withthe systems people to create a quickfunctionality sample; and test it to seethat it runs on the platforms identified.
What are your constraints?Finally, the greatest visual designs in
the world are always shaped by the prac-tical realities — budgets, time tables,accessibility requirements, and even cor-porate style guides that must beadhered to. Some e-Learning applica-tions, such as those that support period-
ic software releases, are essentially dis-posable once that need has been met.They often have small budgets, immov-able deadlines, and usually must con-form to a set of standards already inplace. All these pragmatic considerationscan severely restrict your graphic design.
Phase III: Design the visualapproach
Graphics for most e-Learning projectsfall into one of three broad categories:the Graphical User Interface (GUI)designed to support the training packageas a whole; the individual graphicsdesigned to support individual contentpoints within lessons; and the layout ofeach screen to best support the instruc-tion.
Even a mishmash of random choicesis a style, deliberate or not. In this thirdphase, the team previews the graphicrequirements of the entire course toassess specific real-estate or interfaceelements needed to accommodate indi-vidual graphics. These are incorporatedinto the GUI as well as into any specifica-tions that will dictate the style of theindividual graphics.
In Figure 5 on page 5, the interface fora banking course uses elements fromUS Treasury paper money (scroll work,seals, etc.) and money colors (green andgold) to relate to the content. In Figure6, left, it was appropriate to find or cre-ate some of the graphics before the spe-cific screen was laid out. You can see inFigure 7, left, how the interface that wasstarted in Figure 6 still leaves plenty ofroom for individual graphics. Figure 7 isa sequenced build of the new accountprocedure.
Ideally, the look and feel is the culmi-nation of careful consideration of the ele-ments below.
Make a preliminary assessment ofcontent graphic requirements
It’s important to assess the generalrequirements of the individual graphicsbefore settling on a treatment or GUIthat ultimately must accommodate them.Seasoned training professionals typicallyassess what they deem the “worst-case”graphic — in terms of real estate, pageorientation, colors, and functionalityneeds. This need is especially great inbig projects, with multiple instructionaldesigners, writers and artists. For exam-6
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FIGURE 6 An individual graphic to illustrate a process
FIGURE 7 Graphics within the interface
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ple, one team recently created a GUI fora 12-module course that restrictedgraphics to the upper right quadrant. Buttwo entire modules needed graphics witha horizontal (or landscape) span. TheGUI couldn’t support them and had to beadjusted. New templates needed to becreated at a late stage in the develop-ment process.
Also assess the individual graphics interms of the general communicationfunctions and psychological learningevents required by the content (dis-cussed in more detail in Phases IV and Vbelow). Finally, if you are responsible fordesigning the GUI, your design dependson many of the factors you assessed inthe first two phases of this Model.
Determine the image the packageshould project
The image (variously called the “lookand feel,” the GUI, or even the style)communicates in a way that influencesthe e-Learning’s acceptance and credibil-ity. Also, the sponsoring organizationsoften have strong opinions about thisimage. Companies often want their train-ing to be a reflection of the corporateculture. For example, some organizationsmay believe a comic book treatmentundermines the seriousness of the sub-ject matter or projects a less-than-profes-sional image. On the other hand, otherorganizations may feel that same comicbook treatment makes the materialaccessible and less overwhelming to thelearner. After assessment of the learner,content, environment and goals of thetraining, eBG Training department suc-cessfully employed a colorful treatmentsimilar to the palette used in Figure 8,right, in its ad campaigns.
The bottom line is to determine theimage appropriate to learner, content,environment and acknowledgment of thesponsoring organization’s desires.
Phase IV: Match communicationfunction to content types
In this phase of our design model, youevaluate your content to determine indi-vidual graphics that will illustrate keyinstructional points. You plan graphicsbest suited to help learners acquire fivecontent types: procedures, concepts,facts, processes and principles.
For example, if your course goal is toteach procedures, you will want to use
representational and transformationalgraphics to illustrate how to apply stepsto the objects or equipment involved inthe procedure. The representation graph-ic communicates to the learner what theobject the step involves looks like — adrop-down list in a software application,a piece of equipment, or a tool to beused to complete the task. Use repre-sentation graphics also to communicatewhat the object looks like when the taskis completed incorrectly. The transforma-tional graphic, which shows changesover space or time, can illustrate theobject before, during, and after the taskis completed. You may want to use ani-mations of the step-action-consequencecycle for each step or stage.
In Figure 9, below, for example, an HIV
lesson uses a series of animations toillustrate how HIV infects and replicatesitself using the DNA of human cells.
Phase V: Apply principles of psy-chological instructional events tovisual design decisions
Assess your graphic to make sure itsupports the six key instructional eventsof learning. These include ways to usegraphics and graphic treatments to helplearners: focus attention, activate priorknowledge in memory, minimize cognitiveload, build new mental models, maximizetransfer of learning and support motiva-tion in ways that do not disrupt learning.
For example, suppose you decided onan animation to illustrate a procedure fora western audience. During the anima-
FIGURE 8 A cartoon treatment Credit: Copyright 2002 Intel Corporation
FIGURE 9 A transformational graphic drug interaction Credit: Image reproduced by permis-sion of Roche, Basel, Switzerland
DESIGN / t e c h n i q u e s
tion, focus attention by using sequenceand visual cues to draw the learner’s eyeto the parts of the illustration being dis-cussed. Animations can easily result incognitive overload. Activate prior knowl-edge by using objects (screens or equip-ment) with which the learners have somefamiliarity, perhaps even that which youhave built in previous topics. To helpmanage cognitive load, limit the numberof steps demonstrated according to the7±2 rule (“Human working memory hasa capacity of seven ‘chunks’ of informa-tion, plus or minus two”). Provide expla-nations via audio narration, rather thanhaving lengthy text explanations appear-ing onscreen, causing the learner to tryto read and watch the animation at thesame time. To support learner control,which sometimes helps manage cogni-tive load, insert a pause and replay but-ton. To minimize the extra load, followthe reading conventions of the audience.For western audiences, build your anima-tion as we noted previously, from left toright, top to bottom, or in a clockwisearrangement. The closer that arrange-ment mirrors the objects in “real-life,”the better the transfer of learning.
Again, when you lay out your screens,also apply these guidelines to make sureexplanatory content is kept with relatedgraphics, that appropriate techniques areused to reduce distracting elements, andthat cues are used to direct attention.
SummaryIf the instructional designer who creat-
ed the screen in Figure 1 had followed asystematic approach to planning hergraphics, her design might have lookedlike the one in Figure 10, above. Thisgraphic design puts the focus on thetasks to be learned. The topic heading— Search, Filter and Select — is nowgrounded by being displayed in conjunc-tion with software screens through whichthe tasks are performed.
As Ruth said in the first article in thisseries, to choose the best graphic forlearning purposes requires considerationof your instructional goals, the learninglandscape, and the learners who will par-ticipate. We believe that these factorsare best considered through the lens ofa systematic visual design model, suchas the one I have presented here.
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FIGURE 10 A redesign of Figure 1, using graphics to support learning
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AUTHOR CONTACTChopeta Lyons providesaward-winning design anddevelopment services foronline, instructor-led andblended training solutions.Over the past 18 years,she has worked with such
clients as the IRS, AMS, Total LearningConcepts, ACNielsen, IBM, the TravelersInsurance Companies, Bank of Boston,Motorola, and the March of Dimes, amongothers. She is the author of several articles,a college textbook on writing published byPrentice-Hall, and, with Dr. Ruth Clark, authorof the forthcoming Graphics for Learning fromJossey-Bass/Pfieffer.
Contact Chopeta at 860-429-9594 or byemail to [email protected].
REFERENCESOgilvy, David (1983) Ogilvy on Advertising.
New York: VintageBooks, Division of RandomHouse.
Rankin. R.O. (1989). The Development ofan Illustration Design Model. EducationalTechnology Research and Development, 37 (2),25-46.
Winn, W. and Holliday, W. (1982) DesignPrinciples for Diagrams and Charts. TheTechnology of Text (Jonassen, D. H., Ed.)Volume 1.
NOTE: Chopeta Lyons and Ruth Clark will beteaching a one-day workshop, “Graphics fore-Learning: Processes and Principles toVisualize your Instructional Message” onNovember 11, 2003 at the upcomingeLearning Producer Conference & Expo. Formore information on this workshop which isbased on the principles outlined in this two-part article, visit http://www.elearningguild.com/pbuild/linkbuilder.cfm?selection=doc.401
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