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Monday
JOHN COLLIER – RE-CAP
Instrumental in passing Indian Reorganization Act of 1934 – one of the most influential and lasting
pieces of legislation relating to federal Indian policy.
Also known as Wheeler-Howard Act Reversed years of assimilation
policies– Emphasized Indian self-determination– Return of communal Indian land
Johnson-O'Malley Act – Allowed the Secretary of the Interior to
sign contracts with state governments – to share responsibility for the social and
economic well-being of American Indians.
While Collier emphasized and vocally expressed support for Indian self-determination
Policies were often seen by American Indians as
another paternalistic program forced upon them by the federal government
Criticism aside, Collier did more to protect Native American land and culture than any other Indian Affairs Commissioner
resigned as Commissioner of Indian Affairs in 1945.
During Collier’s tenure other development were taking place
1943 US Senate offered Survey of the Conditions of the
Indians of the United States BOI riddled with problems House of Representatives countered
with their own investigation
End result was the suggestion of an Indian Claims Commission
– first suggested in 1935 under Collier From 1778
– First treaty to be made To 1872
– End of treaty Nearly 400 treaties Many conditions not implemented
Native nations who wanted to appeal this had a difficult
if not impossible job to challenge these problems in
court Indian Claims Commission (ICC) set
up to solve this issue Driven not by altruistic motivations
Congressman Karl Mundt
North Dakota Pushed the ICC
because he wanted to Abolish BOI End special status of
Native Americans Force them to
assimilate and acculturate
Pendulum swinging
Nevertheless many Indians turned to the ICC Under commission nations had 5 years to file
grievances Had to prove aboriginal title to the land Then bring suit for settlement Suit were to be brought for claims “in law or equity arising under the
Constitution, laws, treaties . . . , and Executive orders” that dealt with “fraud, duress, unconscionable consideration , mutual or unilateral mistake, whether of law or fact, or any other grounds cognizable by a court of equity”
By 1978 commission had Adjudicated 285 of 850 cases filed Awarded over $800 million Not always accepted by native nations Taos Indians Rejected $10 million for Blue Lake in
northwestern New Mexico
“we cannot sell what is sacred”
Pit River Indians in Northern California
Lost huge acreage to white settlers over the years
Rejected 47 cents per acre
The Sioux and the Black Hills
1923 filed claim with supreme court
With U.S. Court of Claims
Dragged feet until 1942– Dismissed
Tried again with ICC denied in 1946– Already been denied
1956 fired lawyer Claim re-instated “inadequate council” Justice Department fought hard
against renewed claim ICC decided that government had
taken land in violation of fifth amendment– Protects abuse of government authority in
al legal procedure
1974 ICC awarded $17.5 million plus interest
Government appealed Court of Claims reversed decision
but… stated “a more ripe and rank case of
dishonorable dealings will never, in all probability, be found in our history”
1978 Congress passed Act allowing Court of Claims to rehear case– Awarded $17.5 + 5% interest
Justice department appealed 1980 went to Supreme Court “taking of tribal property which had been
set aside by the treaty of Fort Laramie for the Sioux’s exclusive use”
Upheld the award
Like the Taos Indians the Sioux refused the money
Demanded the Black hills be returned
Award still uncollected Stands at over $500 million
How to distribute the money Per capita or investment by
tribal officials for community Tribal members off
reservation Disputes of qualification
Many tribes have opted for a middle ground
Some per capita some investment in community
e.g. Crow Received $10 million 50% per capita Rest on health, housing, education,
scholarships, land purchases, and social services
Native America & WWII Supported by Collier The BIA hired both native men and
women to work at new facilities in Colorado River Indian Reservation
– Poston, Arizona Gila River Indian Reservation
– South of Phoenix, Arizona These facilities were Japanese Internment camps
While Japanese-Americans were confined
Native Americans went to war 1940 4,000 in armed forces By end of war 25,000 serving Not only men but women also Over 200 native women served as
WAC WAVEs
The majority of Native Americans served in Army
Of 25,000 approx 21,000 As with all other Americans served in
all theatres of war from Africa to the islands of the Pacific
Unlike African-Americans Native Americans served in integrated
units– Continuation of assimilation?
One book that details the achievements of Native Americans in WWII
Boarding School Warrior Tradition Clarence Tinker
Edward P. Dozier– Born Santa Clara
Pueblo 1916 Served in U.S.
Army Air Corps After war gained
Ph.D. from UCLA Wrote numerous
books on Native society
Barney Old Coyote– Crow
1st president of American Indian National Bank
Professor and Director of Native American Studies at Montana State
Ira Hayes Grew up on Pima
reservation Joined the Marines All was quiet until February 23, 1945 Part of attack on Iwo
Jima Part of group of six to
raise the flag
If Ira Hayes was the most well known individual
The most well known group are
Navajo Code Talkers
A Wollachee Ant B Shush Bear C Mbsi Cat D Be Deer E Dzeh Elk F Ma-e Fox G Klizzie Goat H Klee Horse I Tin Ice J Tkelechogi Jackass K Klizzie-Yazzie Kid L Debe-Yazzie Lamb M Naastsosi Mouse
N Neshchee Nut
0 Neahshah Owl P Bisodih
Pig Q Cayeilth
Quiver R Gah Rabbit S Dibeh Sheep T Thanzie
Turkey U Nodaih Ute V Akehdiglini Victor W Gloeih Weasel X Alanasdzoh Cross Y Tashaszih Yucca Z Beshdogliz Zinc
Alongside termination a second governmental policy would appear
Relocation In many ways a reaction to activities
already occurring Both positive and negative outcome What led government to think of relocation Native Americans have always been in
white cities From colonial times onward Often seasonal work as part of reservation
life
For over 120 years Mohawk ironworkers,
helped shape New York City's skyline
Came to Manhattan from reservation in Canada
Framed the city's skyscrapers and bridges.
The Empire State Building
Chrysler Building George Washington
Bridge World Trade Center
Events beyond native choice also affected movement
Allotment act– Reduced land base and ever shrinking
allotments due to inheritance Great depression
– Had caused many more to move looking for work
WWII– Many moved to cities to work in war
related industries
Examples of urban migration post WWII
Minneapolis– Less the 1000 in 1920s– After WWII 6000
Los Angles– Less than 1000 before WWII– By 1980 50,000
According to the U.S. Census 1950 13.4 % lived in urban areas 1970 44% 1980 50%
Government seized on this trend Seeing that many natives had
successfully moved and prospered into cities
They assumed that this was a natural process of assimilation
Decided to enhance the process and organize a mass relocation plan– Ignored those who hadn’t succeeded in
the movement
“Indian will be the first to be affected by the shrinkage of employment subsequent to the war”
“a means of livelihood for each of the returning soldiers and workers will prove a staggering task”– John Collier 1941
“A profound change in fortunes sent home by service men and women”
A downward trend in family income”– William Brophy 1946
All which the BIA had to address
Government created G.I. Bill Included commercial loans for Native
Americans to purchase– Farms – Ranches– Livestock– Farm equipment– Dairies– Construction equipment– Small businesses
Yet the BIA new that this would not be enough
1948 BIA first experimented with Relocation
Plan to relocate Navajos to Salt Lake City Los Angles Denver 1952 – 1960 BIA provided incentives to move
30,000 Indians By 1973 100,000
1900 Native American population– 250,000
As chart shows growth was limited until the 60s on
Expanded program in 1950 to help Indians “who wished to seek permanent employment
opportunities away from the reservation”
Thousands of Native Americans were given one-way bus tickets to cities
Expected to live and work like other Americans
relocation centers established The first in Chicago in 1953 Created by the local urban native
population Offered help to new arrivals
1951 congress passed Bill to fund job placement and relocation program in– California– Colorado– Arizona– Oklahoma– New Mexico – Utah
The BIA responded by setting up field relocation offices in– Los Angeles– Salt Lake City– Denver – Chicago
Later expanded greatly
Program received yet another congressional boost when funds where enacted for
Vocational and industrial training
Program did not force natives away from reservation
But used well designed posters and brochures
Persuasive agents
Short Video Clip taken from PBS’s Indian Country Diaries
Upon arrival Help came in many forms Help with the move and finding
accommodation Job training Free medical care for one year One month subsistence Greeted them and attempted to
prepare them for the adjustment in life to come
But like many other immigrants to Americas growing cities
Many faced adjustment problems Close knit families and small
communities Gave way to Individual capitalist competition “They never told us it would be like
this” Depending on tribe between 30 and
75% returned
Sometimes the move back was permanent
Signaled failure of relocation Sometimes temporary –
attending family gatherings and ceremonies
Sometimes natives remained and prospered
An unlikely supporter of the benefits relocation brought is Earl Dean Sisto – Yavapai/ Apache – born on Apache Indian Reservation
in San Carlos, Arizona Attended federal government
school on the reservation – received perfect attendance awards
for six years. During his 7th year, as his peers
watched in horror, a mean Caucasian teacher literally tried to choke him to death in class for uttering a few words in the Apache language.
1964 moved to Los Angeles via relocation program worked for Southern California General Telephone Company
1974, graduated from UCLA
worked in several native education and recruitment programs
1991UC Riverside directs the Native American Student Programs.
Earl Sisto with Joshua Gonzales