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IMPACT OF SALINITY INTRUSION ON PUBLIC HEALTH ACTION:
A CASE OF PATHARGHATA UPAZILA UNDER BARGUNA
DISTRICT OF BANGLADESH
MS Thesis
MOHAMMED MAHMUD KHAN
Department of Emergency Management
Patuakhali Science and Technology University
Dumki, Patuakhali-8602
December 2015
Page 1
IMPACT OF SALINITY INTRUSION ON PUBLIC HEALTH ACTION: A
CASE OF PATHARGHATA UPAZILA UNDER BARGUNA DISTRICT OF
BANGLADESH
A Thesis
Patuakhali Science and Technology University, Dumki, Patuakhali-8602 In
Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of
Master of Science
in
Disaster Management (Major in Emergency Management)
By
Mohammed Mahmud Khan
Examination Roll No: ERMJD002/2014
Registration No: 04162
Session: 2014-2015
Department of Emergency Management Patuakhali Science and
Technology University Dumki, Patuakhali-8602
December 2015
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IMPACT OF SALINITY INTRUSION ON PUBLIC HEALTH ACTION: A
CASE OF PATHARGHATA UPAZILA UNDER BARGUNA DISTRICT OF
BANGLADESH
A Thesis
Submitted to
Patuakhali Science and Technology University, Dumki, Patuakhali-8602
In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of
Master of Science
in
Disaster Management (Major in Emergency Management) By
Mohammed Mahmud Khan
Approved as to the style and contents by
Dr. Shaibur Rahman Molla
Supervisor
Md. Shamsuzzoha
Chairman Defense Committee
&
Department of Emergency Management
December 2015
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
All praise and gratitude are due to the Almighty Allah who gives the author strength,
patience and who has enabled him to complete the research work successfully and to
submit the thesis for awarding the Master of Science (M.S.) degree in Disaster
Management (Major in Emergency Management).
The author earnestly wishes to convey his heartfelt respect and insightful thanks to his
cleric Supervisor Dr. Shaibur Rahman Molla, Chairman, Department of Environmental
Science and Technology and Dean, Faculty of Applied Science and Technology, Jessore
University of Science and Technology, Jessore-7408, Bangladesh for his continuous
supervision, valuable guidance, constructive analysis and essential corrections during
the entire period of the study. His direction and precious suggestions helped me to
overcome many errors and showed the right path during this study.
The author wishes to articulate his deep sense of thanks to his respected teacher
Professor A.K.M Mustafa Zaman, Dean, Faculty of Disaster Management, Patuakhali
Science and Technology University, Dumki, Patuakhali-8602, Bangladesh for his
scholastic guidance and initial inputs to take the study forward.
I would like to extend deep appreciation for the special efforts made by respected
teacher Md. Shamsuzzoha, Assistant Professor and Chairman, Department of
Emergency Management, Faculty of Disaster Management, Patuakhali Science and
Technology University, Dumki, Patuakhali-8602, Bangladesh for his continuous
guidance and initial inputs to take the study forward.
My special thanks go to all teachers under the Faculty specially Md Nurul Amin
Assistant Professor & Chairman and Ahmed Parvez, Assistant Professor, Department of
Environmental Science for their assistance and support in conducting the study.
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Last of all, I would like to express my gratitude and intense reverence to my beloved
parents for their blessings, great sacrifice, encouragement and moral support and I also
thankful to my wife for her cordial support and encouragement to complete this
research.
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ABSTRACT
Salinity is one of the major problems in the coastal regions of Bangladesh from the last
couple of decades. Due to see level rise, frequent natural disasters, change of climate
patterns and man-made alteration of natural settings, the situation is becoming more
vulnerable day by day. This study was an attempt to attain the salinity related problems
on different uses of water and try to get its impact on Public Health, Agricultural crops,
Fisheries and Livestock etc. The applied methodology was questionnaire survey within
the study area and authentic surface and ground water salinity data were collected
from the respective government departments. Moreover, the surface water as well as
the ground water was collected to determine the salinity level of the study area. From
the previous consecutive year’s data, it was found that from the March to May, the
degree of salinity in the Bishkhali river is considerably higher than the drinking water
standards as well as the standards for irrigation water. The salinity in ground water at
shallow depth (30-50 ft.) was comparatively low, whereas the quantity of salinity at
deep layer (850-950 ft.) was very high (7000-8000 mg/l). Most of the people of the study
area put away pond water directly for drinking purpose. As a result, a number of
health’s related diseases have been identified in the research area due to salinity such as
diarrhea, dysentery, high blood pressure, gastric, skin problems etc. It also impacts to
agricultural crops, fisheries and biodiversity. The study focuses to identify the overall
impacts of those sectors. The possible measures is selection of salt-tolerant crops,
harvesting rain water, regular support from NGOs as well as government to maintain
PSF, construction of BSF, provide RO plants, exploring suitable layers for tube-wells.
Key words: Salinity, Public health, Drinking water, Bangladesh.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS......................................................................................................... i
ABSTRACT................................................................................................................................ iii
LIST OF ACRONYMS............................................................................................................ vii
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION....................................................................................... 2
1.1 General...................................................................................................................... ........... 2
1.2 Background of the Study................................................................................................... 2
1.3 Justification of the Study................................................................................................... 3
1.4 Objectives of the Study...................................................................................................... 4
1.5 Meaning of Salinity............................................................................................................ 4
1.6 Standard Value of Salinity................................................................................................ 5
1.7 Coastal Areas...................................................................................................................... 8
1.8 Conductivity and Its importance..................................................................................... 9
CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF LITERATURE.................................................................... 12
2.1 Salinity Intrusion........................................................................................................... ... 12
2.2 Causes of Salinity Intrusion................................................................................... ......... 14
2.3 Natural Systems................................................................................................ ................ 15
2.3.1 Critical Geographical Location of the Country..................................................... 15
2.3.2 Sedimentation............................................................................................................. 16
2.3.3 Sea Level Rise............................................................................................................. 16
2.3.4 Cyclone and Storm Surge......................................................................................... 17
2.3.5 Tidal Flooding............................................................................................................ 17
2.3.6 Back Water Effect....................................................................................................... 18
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2.3.7 Changes in Ground Water Flow .............................................................................. 18
2.4 Socioeconomic Systems ................................................................................................... 18
2.4.1 Continuous Shrimp Cultivation in Agricultural Land ........................................ 19
2.4.2 Weak Structure and Poor Maintenance .................................................................. 19
2.4.3 Anthropogenic Climate Change Induced Factors ................................................ 20
2.5 Political Systems ............................................................................................................... 20
2.5.1 Weak Water Governance Systems at Local Level ................................................. 20
2.5.2 Cross Boundary River Policy ................................................................................... 20
2.5.3 Lack of Capacity of Local Government .................................................................. 21
2.5.4 Structural Intervention in Upstream Neighboring Country ............................... 21
2.6 Relation between Salinity Intrusion and Agricultural Production ........................... 22
2.7 Relation Between salinity intrusion and public health action ................................... 23
2.8 Salinity Intrusion and Biodiversity Loss ....................................................................... 24
2.9 Salinity Intrusion and Fisheries Sector .......................................................................... 25
CHAPTER THREE: MATERIALS AND METHODS ........................................................ 27
3.1 Study Area ......................................................................................................................... 27
3.2 Methods of the Study ....................................................................................................... 29
3.3 Questionnaire Survey ...................................................................................................... 30
3.4 Qualitative Study Tools ................................................................................................... 31
3.5 Water Sample Collection and Testing ........................................................................... 31
3.6 Study Limitations ............................................................................................................. 31
CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ........................................................... 34
4.1 Demographic and Socio-economic Profile of the Study Area ................................... 34
4.2 Livelihood and Vulnerability ......................................................................................... 37
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4.2.1 Main Sources of Income............................................................................................ 37
4.2.2 Gender and Inequality.............................................................................................. 37
4.3 Climate Change and Salinity.......................................................................................... 38
4.3.1 Impact of Climate Change on Temperature and Rainfall.................................... 38
4.4 Trend of Salinity Intrusion.............................................................................................. 40
4.5 Impact of salinity Intrusion on different sectors.......................................................... 46
4.5.1 Impact of salinity on Human Health...................................................................... 47
4.5.2 Impacts of Salinity on Agriculture.......................................................................... 49
4.5.3 Impact of Salinity on Fisheries................................................................................. 52
4.5.4 Impact of Salinity on Biodiversity........................................................................... 54
4.5.5 Impact of Salinity on Drinking Water.................................................................... 55
4.6 Adaptation in facing salinity intrusion......................................................................... 59
CHATER FIVE: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS................................... 64
5.1 Conclusion................................................................................................................... ...... 64
5.2 Recommendations............................................................................................................ 65
REFERENCES................................................................................................................... ......... 66
APPENDIX.................................................................................................................................... i
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LIST OF ACRONYMS
BBS
BSF
BMD
BWDB
BWE
CC
CEGIS
DFID
DMB
DPHE
DTW
EC
FAO
FGD
GIS
GHG
GoB
HH
Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics
Bank Sand Filter
Bangladesh Meteorological Department
Bangladesh Water development Board
Back Water Effect
Climate Change
The Centre for Environmental and Geographic Information Services
Department for International Development
Disaster Management Bureau
Department of Public Health and Engineering
Deep Tube Well
Electrical Conductivity
Food and Agricultural Organization
Focal Group Discussion
Geographic Information System
Green House Gases
Government of Bangladesh
Household
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IRRI
IPCC
IWM
NGO
PSF
RO
STW
SRDI
SLR
TDS
UNEP
USAID
VSST
WDB
WAPDA
WARPO
WHO
International Rice Research Institute
International Panel on Climate Change
Institute of Water Modeling
Non-Government Organization
Pond Sand Filter
Reverse Osmosis
Shallow Tube Well
Soil Research Development Institute
Sea Level Rise
Total Dissolved Solids
United Nations Environmental Program
United States Agency for International Development
Very Shrouded Shallow Tube well
Water Development Board
Water and Power development Authority
Water Resources Planning Organization
World Health Organization
Page viii
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
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CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
1.1 General
Bangladesh is one of the most vulnerable countries and is located downstream
at greet Ganges, Brahmaputra and Meghna rivers and more than 300 rivers pour into
Bay of Bengal. Most of its land altitudes are lower than 50 m, which leads to the country
strongly affected by monsoon. Bangladesh is frequently hit by disasters like flood,
cyclone, high-tide, drought, tornado, arsenic pollution, water salinity, etc. The coast of
Bangladesh consists of 19 districts, covers 32% of the country and accommodates more
than 35 million people. The total amount of salinity affected land in Bangladesh was
83.3 million hectares in 1973, which had been increased up to 102 million hectares in
2000 and the amount has risen to 106.6 hectares in 2009 and continuing to increase (Soil
Resources Development Institute, 2010). Increasing salinity is a crucial issue to the
people of coastal region of Bangladesh.
1.2 Background of the Study
Patharghata Upazila is the part of Barguna District which is under Barisal
Division. Barisal belongs to one of the sea-side division and consist of 6 (six) districts
out of 64 (Sixty Four) districts of Bangladesh and its entire are coastal districts. Salinity
mainly affects land and water in this coastal region and the adverse impact of salt water
intrusion is significant here. With the consequence of climate change, it gradually
extends towards inland water and soil.
The Patharghata Upazila under Barguna District is situated at the southern part
of Barisal Division as well as Bangladesh and mostly affects the safe water scarcity. In
particular, residents in this coastal Upazila significantly suffer the damages from these
frequent natural disasters like cyclone SIDR 2007 and cyclone AILA 2009 (Jahan, 2012).
The collapse of the river bank as a result of these cyclones and high tide subsequently
caused the influx of saline water into the drinking water sources such as wells and
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Ponds. Salinity in water and soil are hazardous in different parts of coastal area in
Bangladesh, affecting the following sectors including drinking water supply,
agricultural crop, household, fisheries and the functioning of ecosystems. In addition,
over pumping of ground water for the irrigation and shrimp breeding has also resulted
in influx of poisonous materials and saline water into the water sources which tends to
coastal population at risk. For these reason, 5 (five) out of 7 (seven) unions of
Patharghata Upazila as well as other coastal area encounters a serious shortage of safe
drinking water at present. Increased level of water salinity is impacting on the
livelihood operation in several ways. Firstly, it is making the coastal belt‟ s water
availability unsecure and pushing poor people live to more vulnerable position than
before. Secondly, water salinity also causes an increase in soil salinity which decreases
the agricultural productivity. Thirdly, taking drinking water in the long term basis is
affected on public health. In this situation, management of salinity intrusion is the vital
issue for Bangladesh. This study also helps the planners and decision makers in
sustainable social, agricultural, environmental and water resources management plan
for the coastal region of Bangladesh.
1.3 Justification of the Study
The coastal Patharghata Upazila under Barguna District is highly exposed to
different climatic factors like variations in temperature, changing rainfall patterns,
sudden flush floods and salinity intrusion. Sea level rise occurs due to climate change
and cyclonic events have already led to an increased salinity in fresh water and soil in
most of the coastal areas. A recent study indicates that salinity affected area has
increased from 8330 sq. km in 1973 to 10560 sq. km in 2009 (Soil Resource Development
Institute, 2010). Cyclone and storm surges events increased salinity intrusion that have
been a cause of huge loss and damage to rice crops and drinking water supply systems
in many villages of the coastal areas including Patharghata Upazila. I have conducted a
study to explore the interaction between salinity intrusion and rice production, fish
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Production etc. as well as drinking water supply in Patharghata Upazila under Barguna
District.
The people of the study area suffer severely due to salinity intrusion. As a result,
it impacts directly and indirectly to agricultural crops, fisheries, human health and
biodiversity. The study focuses to identify the overall impacts of those sectors. The
research has analyzed how people are currently adapting to salinity intrusion and the
extent to which they are able to loss and damage in the crop production. The research
has analyzed how people are currently adapting to salinity intrusion and the extent to
which they are able to loss and damage in the rice production.
1.4 Objectives of the Study
Considering the present situation of Patharghata Upazila, the main objectives were:
1. To obtain the impacts of salinity intrusion on drinking water and crop
production in the study area.
2. How the salinity intrusion in surface and ground water affects the public health
condition.
3. To find out the impacts of salinity intrusion on fisheries and biodiversity.
1.5 Meaning of Salinity
Salinity is the saltiness or dissolved salt content of a body of water. Salts are
compounds like Sodium Chloride, Magnesium Sulphate, Potassium Nitrate and
Sodium Bicarbonate which dissolve into ions. The concentration of dissolved chloride
ions is sometimes referred to as chlorinate. Operationally, dissolved matter is defined as
that which can pass through a very fine filter (historically a filter with a pore size of 0.45
ìm, but now-a-days usually 0.2 ìm) (Pawlociz, 2013).
Seawater typically has a salinity of around 35 g/kg, although lower values are
typical near coasts where rivers enter the ocean. Rivers and lakes can have a wide range
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of salinities, from less than 0.01 g/kg to a few g/kg, although there are many places
where higher salinities are found. The Dead Sea has a salinity of more than 200 g/kg
(Anati, 1999).
Salinity problem related to water quality occurs if the total quantity of salts in the
irrigation water is high enough that salts accumulate in the crop root zone to the extent
that yields are affected. If excessive quantities of soluble salts accumulate in the root
zone, the crop has extra difficulty in extracting enough water from the salty soil
solution. This reduced water uptake by the plant can result in slow or reduced growth
and may also be shown by symptoms similar in appearance to those of drought such as
early wilting. Some plants exhibit a bluish-green color and heavier deposits of waxon
the leaves. These effects of salinity may vary with the growth stage and in some cases
may go entirely unnoticed due to a uniform reduction in yield or growth across an
entire field. This mechanism of water uptake has been studied extensively and it now
appears the plant takes most of its water from and responds more critically to salinity in
the upper part of the root zone than to the salinity level in its lower depths when using
normal irrigation practices. Thus, managing this critical upper root zone may be as
important as providing adequate leaching to prevent salt accumulation in the total root
zone (FAO, 1976).
1.6 Standard Value of Salinity
Water Quality Standards
Electrical conductivity is a measure of the saltiness of the water and is measured
on a scale from 0 to 50,000 µs/cm. Electrical conductivity is measured in Micro Siemens
per centimeter (µs/cm). Freshwater is usually between 0 and 1,500 µs/cm and typical
sea water has a conductivity value of about 50,000 µs/cm. Low levels of salts are found
naturally in waterways and are important for plants and animals to grow. When salts
reach high levels in freshwater it can cause problems for aquatic ecosystems and
complicated to human uses.
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Table 1: Water quality standard for EC
µs/cm Use of EC
0-800 ● Good for drinking water for human
● Generally good for irrigation
● Suitable for all livestock
800-2500 ● Can be consumed by humans although most of the people would
prefer lower half of this range if available
● When used for irrigation, requires special management including
suitable soil, good drainage and consideration of salt tolerance of
plants
● Suitable for all livestock
2500-10000 ● Not recommended for human consumption
● Not suitable for irrigation, although water up to 6000 µs/cm can
be used on very salt tolerant crops with very special techniques.
Over 6000 µs/cm occasionally emergency cases may be possible
with care
● When it is used for drinking water by poultry and pigs, the
Salinity should be limited to 6000 µs/cm. Most other livestock can
use water up to 10000 µs/cm
>10000 ● Not suitable for human consumption or irrigation
● Not suitable for poultry, pigs or any lactating animals
Source: Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), 2014
Because the suitability of saline water for irrigation is so dependent upon the
conditions of use, including crop, climate, soil, irrigation method and management
practices, water quality classifications are not advised for assessing water suitability for
irrigation. However, for the purpose of identifying the levels of water salinities for
which these guidelines are intended, it is useful to give a classification scheme. Such a
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Classification is given in Table 2, in terms of total salt concentration, which is the major,
quality factor generally limiting the use of saline waters for crop production.
Table 2: Classification of saline water
Water class Electrical conductivity µs/cm Salt concentration mg/l Type of water Non-saline <700 <500 Drinking and
irrigation water
Slightly 700 – 2000 500-1500 Irrigation water
saline
Moderately 10000 1500-7000 Primary drainage
saline water and
groundwater
Highly 25000 7000-15000 Secondary drainage
saline water and
groundwater
Very highly 25000 – 45000 15000-35000 Very saline
saline groundwater
Brine >45000 >45000 Seawater
Source: Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), 2014
TDS stands for total dissolved solids and represents the total concentration of
dissolved substances in the water. TDS is made up of inorganic salts, as well as a small
amount of organic matter. Common inorganic salts that can be found in water include
Calcium, Magnesium, Potassium and Sodium, which are all Cations and Carbonates,
Nitrates, Bicarbonates, Chlorides and Sulfates, which are all anions. Cations are
positively charged ions and anions are negatively charged ions.
A high concentration of dissolved solids is usually not a health hazard. In fact,
many people buy mineral water, which has naturally elevated levels of dissolved solids.
The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), which is responsible for
drinking water regulations in the United States, includes TDS as a secondary standard,
meaning that it is a voluntary guideline in the United States. While the United States set
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Legal standards for many harmful substances, TDS, along with other contaminants that
cause aesthetic, cosmetic and technical effects, has only a guideline.
Most people think that the TDS is an aesthetic factor. In a study by the World Health
Organization, a panel of tasters came to the following conclusions about the preferable
level of TDS in water:
Table 3: The value of TDS Rating
Level of TDS (mg/l) Rating
Less than 300 Excellent
300 - 600 Good
600 - 900 Fair
900 - 1,200 Poor
>1,200 Unacceptable
Source: WHO, Total dissolved solids in drinking-water, 1996
1.7 Coastal Areas
Almost one fourth of the total population of the country live in the coastal areas
of Bangladesh, where majority of the population are somehow affected (directly or
indirectly) by coastal floods, tidal surges, river-bank erosion, salinity, tropical cyclones
etc. With the rise of sea-level up to one meter only, Bangladesh could lose up to 15% of
its land area under the sea water and around 30 million people living in the coastal
areas of Bangladesh could become refugees because of climate change impacts.
Agriculture, industry, infrastructure (school, hospitals, roads, bridges and culverts etc.),
livelihoods, and marine resources, forestry, biodiversity, human health and other utility
services will suffer severely because of the same. Salinity intrusion from the Bay of
Bengal already penetrates 100 kilometers inside the country during the dry season and
the climate change in its gradual process is likely to deteriorate the existing scenario to a
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Great extent. Since most of the country is less than 10 meters above sea level and almost
10% of the populations of the country are living below 1 meter elevation - the whole
coastal areas are highly vulnerable to high tides and storm surges. Moreover, the Bay of
Bengal is located at the tip of the North Indian Ocean, where severe cyclonic storms as
well as long tidal waves are frequently generated and hit the coast line with severe
impacts because of the shallow as well as conical shape of the Bay near Bangladesh
(Biswas, 2013).
1.8 Conductivity and Its importance
Conductivity is a measure of the ability of water to pass an electrical current.
Conductivity in water is affected by the presence of inorganic dissolved solids such as
Chloride, Nitrate, Sulfate and Phosphate anions (ions that carry a negative charge) or
Sodium, Magnesium, Calcium, Iron and Aluminum cations. Organic compounds like
oil, phenol, alcohol and sugar do not conduct electrical current very well and therefore
have a low conductivity when present in water. Conductivity is also affected by
temperature: the warmer the water, the higher the conductivity. For this reason,
conductivity is reported as conductivity at 25 Degrees Celsius (25 °C) (Lapham, 1989).
Conductivity in streams and rivers is affected primarily by the geology of the
area through which the water flows. Streams that run through areas with granite
bedrock tend to have lower conductivity because granite is composed of more inert
materials that do not ionize (dissolve into ionic components) when washed into the
water. On the other hand, streams that run through areas with clay soils tend to have
higher conductivity because of the presence of materials that ionize when washed into
the water. Ground water inflows can have the same effects depending on the bedrock
they flow through.
Discharges to streams can change the conductivity depending on their make-up.
A failing sewage system would raise the conductivity because of the presence of
Chloride, Phosphate, and Nitrate; an oil spill would lower the conductivity.
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The basic unit of measurement of conductivity is the „mho or Siemens
‟ . Conductivity is measured in microchips per centimeter (μmhos/cm) or microsiemens
per centimeter (μs/cm). Distilled water has conductivity in the range of 0.5 to 3
μmhos/cm. The conductivity of rivers in the United States generally ranges from 50 to
1500 μmhos/cm. Studies of inland fresh waters indicate that streams supporting good
mixed fisheries have a range between 150 and 500 μmhos/cm. Conductivity outside
this range could indicate that the water is not suitable for certain species of fish or
macro invertebrates. Industrial waters can range as high as 10,000 μmhos/cm.
Most streams have a fairly constant range of conductivity under normal
circumstances. Therefore, significant changes in conductivity can be an indicator that a
discharge or some other source of pollution has entered the water. The composition of
the water can be critical for aquatic organisms as well, as many critters have very
specific ranges that they can tolerate. Conductivity can be affected by many factors e.g:
1. The addition of fresh water (rain) lowers conductivity because rainwater has low
conductivity and the increase in water levels dilutes mineral concentrations.
Conversely, during low flow conditions (summer and fall) the dissolved solids
are more concentrated and therefore conductivity levels are higher.
2. Conductivity is affected by temperature: the warmer the water, the higher the
conductivity.
3. Soil and rocks release dissolved solids into the waters that flow through or over
them. Therefore, the geology of a certain area will determine the conductivity.
4. In coastal streams or estuaries, salt water often mixes with fresh water. The
addition of salt water greatly increases conductivity.
Page 10
CHAPTER TWO
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Page 11
CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF LITERATURE
In Bangladesh, very few studies were undertaken on groundwater as well as
surface water salinity and its health impact aspect. Most of the research activities to date
have been carried out mainly on irrigation, drainage, flood control and river training
works. Actually, salinity in ground water is a normal phenomenon in the south and
southern coastal region of Bangladesh.
Based on a survey conducted during 2009 reported that about 0.0354 million
hectares of new land was affected by various degree of salinity during last 9 years from
the year 2000 to 2009 only (SRDI, 2010). Salinity is the measure of concentration of
dissolved salts in water such as chloride anions. There are two widely used methods for
measuring salinity namely electrical conductivity (mmhos/cm) and chloride
concentration (mg/l or parts per million, i.e. ppm). Bangladesh government
recommended a higher value up to 1000 ppm for problematic areas especially coastal
belts (DPHE, 2006). It was revealed from study that ground water level varies from 0.0
to 2.0 m above mean sea level in the study region (Institute of Water Modeling, 2002). In
general, salinity level exists 1,000-8,000 ppm in the Charduani Union. Similar type of
temporal variation of ground water level and ground salinity has been found but no
significant spatial variations (Department of Public Health Engineering, 2015).
2.1 Salinity Intrusion
Saltwater intrusion is the movement of saline water into freshwater aquifers,
which can lead to contamination of drinking water sources and other consequences.
Saltwater intrusion occurs naturally to some degree in most coastal aquifers, owing to the
hydraulic connection between groundwater and seawater. Because saltwater has a
higher mineral content than freshwater, it is denser and has a higher water pressure. As
a result, saltwater can push inland beneath the freshwater. Certain human activities,
especially groundwater pumping from coastal freshwater wells, have increased
saltwater intrusion in many coastal areas. Water extraction drops the level of fresh
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Groundwater, reducing its water pressure and allowing saltwater to flow further
inland. Other contributors to saltwater intrusion include navigation channels or
agricultural and drainage channels, which provide conduits for saltwater to move
inland, and sea level rise. Saltwater intrusion can also be worsened by extreme events
like hurricane storm surges.
Figure 1: Salinity Intrusion Zone of Bangladesh (Source: (Banglapedia, 2012))
Page 13
2.2 Causes of Salinity Intrusion
As Bangladesh belongs to one of the seaside countries, the adverse impact of
saltwater intrusion is significant here. Salinity mainly affects land and water in the
coastal areas. With the consequence of climate change, it gradually extends towards
inland water and soil. This scenario of gradual salinity intrusion in the coastal area of
Bangladesh is very threatening to the primary production system, coastal biodiversity
and human health. The total amount of salinity affected land in Bangladesh was 83.3
million hectares in 1973, which had been increased up to 102 million hectares in 2000
and the amount has risen to 105.6 million hectares in 2009 and continuing to increase
(SRDI, 2010). In the last 35 years, salinity had been increased around 26% in this
country. Salinity intrusion is spreading into the non-coastal areas as well. Recently,
International Rice Research Institute (IRRI)‟ s Seed Study, funded by USAID has
identified 12 Districts of Bangladesh as salinity affected area through GIS mapping
(Mahmuduzzaman et al., 2014). This paper analyzes the cause of salinity intrusion in
the coastal belt of Bangladesh such as: critical geographical location of the country, low
flow condition of the river by a barrage in the upstream neighboring country, faulty
management of coastal polders, sea level rise, cyclone and storm surge, back water
effect, precipitation and shrimp culture. This paper also helps the decision makers and
planners in sustainable social, agricultural, environmental and other water resources
management plan for the coastal region of Bangladesh.
Page 14
Figure 2: Schematic representation of causes of salinity intrusion in river water of
Southern part of Bangladesh (Source: SRDI, 2010)
There are multiple reasons of salinity intrusion in the coastal area of Bangladesh. It
includes natural, socio-economic and political systems. All these systems are interlinked
to each other. This section describes how these systems play a role in increasing salinity
intrusion in the inland part of the country.
2.3 Natural Systems
The natural systems include geographical location, sedimentation, sea level rise,
cyclone, storm surge and tidal surge.
2.3.1 Critical Geographical Location of the Country
Alluvial and deltaic sediments of the Ganges, Brahmaputra and Meghna rivers
build the Bengal Basin, the eastern part, which is known as Bengal Flood Plain in the
territory of Bangladesh (Morgan and McIntyre, 1959). The country lies between the
Himalayas in the north and the Bay of Bengal in the south. The basin of three river
systems with an area of 1.6 million square kilometers passing through India, China,
Page 15
Nepal, Bhutan and Bangladesh, drains to Bay of Bengal through Meghna estuary. Water
salinity in the coastal zone highly depends on the ice melting of the Himalayas and the
discharge of these mighty rivers. The annual average discharge of these three rivers is
1.5 million cases which are generally characterized by seasonal variation. The peak flow
occurs in the monsoon which is 80% and lean flow occurs in winter/dry season which
is 20% (Coleman, 1969). Hence the salinity also varies with the onset and recession of
the monsoon. Decreasing in ice melting reduces river water discharge and consequently
enhances the salinity in the coastal zone of the country.
2.3.2 Sedimentation
The two Himalayan Rivers, the Ganges and Brahmaputra, are among the most
sediment-laden rivers in the world (Milliman and Meade, 1983). The Ganges-
Brahmaputra-Meghna (GBM) river basin system carries 2.4 billion tons of sediment to
the Bay of Bengal through the country. Part of the sediment goes to the Bay of Bengal
and part of its deposits on the river beds and builds char lands. This fluvial-
morphological activity reduces fresh water discharge to the estuary which leads to
increased salinity in the tidal rivers and canals. Sedimentation in the tidal rivers of the
southwestern area of Bangladesh is the main reason of the problem of water logging.
These troublesome sediments have blocked the rivers, canals and caused upstream
drainage congestion and flooding with saline water.
2.3.3 Sea Level Rise
Due to various human activities, carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases
(GHG) are accumulating in the earth‟ s atmosphere, resulting in climate change. Rising
temperature expand the ocean volume in two ways. Firstly, it melts mass volume of ice
of the polar region; secondly, it causes thermal expansion of water of the ocean. It is
commented that the relative contributions of thermal expansion and ice melting to this
sea level rise are uncertain and estimates vary widely, from a small expansion effect
through roughly equal roles for expansion and ice melting to a dominant expansion
Page 16
effect. These two factors increase volume of ocean water of the earth and rise in the sea
level. Sea level rise is one of the major causes for salinity intrusion in the coastal belt of
Bangladesh (Wigley and Raper, 1987). Bangladesh is highly vulnerable to saline water
inundation due to sea level rise. A recent study of World Bank study showed that 10
cm, 25 cm and 1.0 m rise in sea level by 2020, 2050 and 2100 will affect 2%, 4% and
17.5% of total land mass, respectively (World Bank, 2000). The other study reported that
1.0 cm per year sea level rise in Bangladesh (Milliman et al., 1989). The study governed
by United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) showed that 1.5 m rise of sea level in
Bangladesh coast by 2030, will affect 22,000 sq. km (16% of total land mass) area with a
population of 17 million (15% of total population) ( UNEP, 1989 ). In of a recent study,
predicted that flooding of coastal lands may increase by 21% by the year 2001 while it is
10.3% for the year 2050 with respect to the ordinary flooding condition when
approximately 50% lands go under flood (Institute of Water Modeling, 2006).
2.3.4 Cyclone and Storm Surge
According to Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) third
assessment report, frequencies of tropical cyclone in Bangladesh will be intensified. The
peak intensity and precipitation may increase to worsen the situation of the inland and
riverine flooding. Moreover, the higher mean sea level will intensify the storm surges
(Ali, 2010). Hence the highly growing population is becoming more vulnerable to
tropical Cyclones (Berz et. al., 2001). Bangladesh experienced the deadliest cyclones in
1970, 1990, and 1992 and in 2007 (Ali, 1996). The coastal zone of the country is still
carrying salinity which intruded due to SIDR and AILA. Agricultural land and fresh
water of ponds, canals and rivers are still saline contaminated and increase the
sufferings of the coastal population.
2.3.5 Tidal Flooding
Bangladesh faces semi diurnal tide i.e., two flood tide and two ebb tides in a day
in a 6 hour consecutive time interval. Coincidence of heavy rainfall and flood tide
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occurred during monsoon urban area located in the coastal part of our country faces
flooding due to water logging. During the monsoon period it makes high tide and
overflow saline water surrounding the coastal region.
2.3.6 Back Water Effect
Backwater effect is a special type of saline water movement which takes place at
the mouth of the river when fresh water is not sufficient enough for counterpart tide
water moving towards river from sea. It is identified different causes of backwater
effect, among them: i) South west monsoon wind, ii) astronomical tides, iii) storm surge
are responsible for backwater effect in the mouth of the Meghna estuary (Ali, 1996). He
further argued that sea level rise is the non-dynamic and long term cause of backwater
effect. Back water effect (BWE is commonly pronounced in Bangladesh, particularly in
the Meghna River estuary, through which about 90% of the river water in the country
discharges into the Bay of Bengal. It is particularly important during flood seasons. As a
consequence, floodwater inside the country continues to accumulate, bringing more
areas under inundation and increasing the length and depth of inundation in areas
already inundated, thus further aggravating the flood situation that already exists.
2.3.7 Changes in Ground Water Flow
When groundwater levels in aquifers are depleted faster than they can recharge
this is directly related to the position of the interface and determines the amounts of
saltwater that can impose into the freshwater aquifer system. Since saltwater intrusion
is directly related to the recharge rate of the groundwater, this allows for the other
factor that may contribute to the encroachment of seawater into the freshwater aquifers.
2.4 Socioeconomic Systems
Socioeconomic systems include anthropogenic activities such as shrimp
farming, weak infrastructure and their poor maintenance, increased GHG emission,
temperature rise and so on.
Page 18
2.4.1 Continuous Shrimp Cultivation in Agricultural Land
Shrimp aquaculture has raised serious concern about the impact of saltwater
intrusion into the surrounding agricultural lands (Flaherty et al., 2000). The spectacular
rise of the demand of brackish water shrimp (Penaeusmonodon) in the international
market has stimulated the merest of its production. Presently its culture has taken a
massive horizontal expansion and engulfed almost the entire coastal belt of the country
(Karim, 2006). Shrimp culture reduced the availability of cropping land by increasing
soil salinity. The practice of shrimp culture needs saline water as an input to the shrimp
pond as a result salinity intrusion increase with expansion of shrimp culture. The extent
of salinity in groundwater is also increasing because of continuous shrimp cultivation in
the fresh agricultural land. Use of tube-wells in coastal areas is not common, and most
people use pond water or rainwater during the monsoon season. But in the dry season,
it is difficult to procure potable water and they need to walk considerable distances to
use water from a river or canal and expand saline water.
2.4.2 Weak Structure and Poor Maintenance
Bangladesh government introduced polders to its coastal zones with the aid of
the Netherlands in 1960s (Chowhury, 1982). Bangladesh has 5,017 km embankment
protecting the polders in coastal areas of the Bay of Bengal. The primary goal of
launching polderization in Bangladesh was to protect the coastal inhabitant from
regular natural disasters and to boost the agricultural production (Shaw, 2006).
Bangladesh Water Development Board (BWDB) formerly known as Water and Power
Development Authority (WAPDA) is in charge of maintaining and conducting the
rehabilitation project of the polders (Thomas, 1974). But due to the poor maintenance,
coastal polders in many places have broken down and started salinity intrusion to the
agricultural fields. The BWDB has categorized 51 polders as "most vulnerable" and
another 55 polders as "medium vulnerable". To cope with vulnerability, it is necessary
to rehabilitate damaged infrastructure of the polders. Most of the sluice gates have been
damaged through which saline water continuously inters into the inland. In addition,
Page 19
shrimp farmers cut the embankment to get saline water in their shrimp fields which
also make the embankment weak. This weak embankment is easily damaged due to
tidal pressure, particularly during full moon and the saline water enters in the polders.
2.4.3 Anthropogenic Climate Change Induced Factors
Climate variables, such as precipitation, surface runoff, and temperature can play
a big role in affecting saltwater intrusion. With lower precipitation amount and warmer
temperature, the recharge rate will be much less due to lack of groundwater present
and increase evaporation (Ranjan, 2007).
2.5 Political Systems
The political systems include weak water governance systems at local level, cross-
boundary river policy, construction of barrages by the neighboring countries etc. are
responsible for managing the salinity into the soil.
2.5.1 Weak Water Governance Systems at Local Level
Weak water governance systems at local level are another cause of salinity
increase. Because salinity intrusion is not only natural phenomenon; it's also a human
one. Numerous human activities such as untimely water use, unplanned shrimp
culture, insufficient or poorly maintained infrastructure, and inadequate management
systems can result in salinity intrusion.
2.5.2 Cross Boundary River Policy
A total of 57 major rivers of Bangladesh have entered the country, of which 54
rivers are from India and 3 rivers are from Myanmar (Afroz and Rahman, 2013). But
among the 54 rivers coming from India more than twenty five rivers face one or more
upstream diversion basically in dry months. For this reason, water scarcity during non-
monsoon month’s cause of salinity increase in soil and water of coastal belt of
Bangladesh. During the post-Farakka period, salinity in the south-west region of
Bangladesh increased significantly. For example, at the Khulna station, the average
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monthly maximum salinity for April in the pre-Farakka period was 1626 ìmho/cm.
During 1976, when the Gorai discharge dropped to 0.5 m3/sec from its pre-Farakka
average of 190 m3/sec, maximum salinity in April increased to 13,000 ìmho/cm. Recall
that the Farakka Barrage was commissioned in April 1975. In recent years, extreme low
flow in the Gorai River in the dry months has appeared to exacerbate the intrusion of
saline water to the most inland parts of the southwest part of Bangladesh (Khan, 1993).
2.5.3 Lack of Capacity of Local Government
Local government reforms in Bangladesh evolved very distinctly according to
the needs of the ruling elites (Westergaard, 2000). With the change of government, the
policy of local government also kept changing. As a consequence, LGIs have not had
any opportunity to act as effective tiers of governments with mandates and funds to
carry out their roles and responsibilities. Independent reviews observed that
Bangladesh has not been successful in establishing a decentralized system of
governance and accountability. A World Bank review of the decentralization process in
19 countries ranks Bangladesh lowest in the decentralization scale (McLean et al., 1998).
Due to lack of capacity of LGIs, cannot take initiative to protect coastal polder,
embankment, road and any kind of infrastructure as well as unplanned shrimp culture.
2.5.4 Structural Intervention in Upstream Neighboring Country
The magnitude of salinity intrusion in coastal areas depends on a sensible balance
between upstream freshwater flow and salt water from the sea. The water withdrawal
system of human intervention in terms of the barrage and dam in the upstream
neighboring country, have already affected upstream fresh water flow. The interface
between freshwater and saline water is influenced by the geology, hydrogeology,
ground water heads and groundwater well pumping rates. But fresh water is important
issue to counterbalance salinity intrusion at the upstream water intake. Due to
geographical situation Bangladesh is most vulnerable to water withdrawal system by
Page 21
the upstream neighboring country. Farakka barrage is one of the worst factors for the
decreasing water flow condition for internal river system of Bangladesh.
Different types of anthropogenic interventions in the form of dam, barrage,
and water diversion channel were undertaken in this river basin during the last century.
This kind of intervention withdraws or diverts a substantial amount of river water from
the upstream catchments of the Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna (GMB) river basin and
creates a low flow condition in the downstream rivers during the dry season. The water
flow of the Ganges River in Bangladesh is largely influenced by the Farakka barrage.
The water flow in the Ganges River in Bangladesh has been dropped a minimum 150
m3/s at Hardinge bridge in 1995 from 20,000 m3/s, which was the average minimum
flow of the Ganges during post Farakka period. It observed a notable change in the
hydrology of the Ganges River at post Farakka period. He argued that the discharge
during monsoon (July-October) increased during the dry season, (November-May) the
discharge decreased significantly. Increased flow in the monsoon exacerbated the
flooding condition and decreased flow aggravated salinity intrusion in the interior coast
considerably (Mirza, 1998).
2.6 Relation between Salinity Intrusion and Agricultural Production
Salinity intrusion is a growing problem in the coastal areas around the globe, especially
in the low-lying developing countries. The problem becomes exacerbated particularly in
the dry season when rainfall is inadequate and incapable of lowering the concentration
of salinity on surface water and leaching out salt from soil. Coastal agriculture
experiences a yield reduction or in some cases devastation due to salinity intrusion
(Nichols et al., 2007). Salinity affected irrigation water has profound impact on crop
production. The impact of irrigation water on crop production depends upon the
presence of salient factors: salinity or concentration of total dissolved salts;
disproportion of Na+ with other cations like Ca++ and Mg++; alkalinity or presence of
excessive 3 CO− or 3 HCO− more than the desired level; pH; excessive presence of toxic
Page 22
ions like Na+ and Cl− (Baudar et al., 2007). It was argued by (Bauder et al., 2007) that
yield of a crop is directly linked to the quantity of water passed through it by water
transpiration.When EC gets higher, less water is likely available to plants. Yield
potential of plants, therefore, gets deteriorated with the increase of EC in irrigation
water that yield of a crop is directly linked to the quantity of water passed through it by
water transpiration. When EC gets higher, less water is likely available to plants. Yield
potential of plants, therefore, gets deteriorated with the increase of EC in irrigation
water.
Figure 3: Impact of salinity on agriculture crop (Baten et al., 2015)
2.7 Relation Between salinity intrusion and public health action
Bangladesh stands at the forefront of climate change, with its coastal region witnessing
dramatic sea-level rise over the last three decades. Salinity along the Bangladesh coast
has already encroached over 100 km inland into domestic ponds, groundwater supplies
and agricultural land, through the various estuaries and water inlets intertwined with
major rivers The resultant sea-water intrusion is increasing salinity in coastal drinking
water with severe health consequences to surrounding populations. As we all know,
coastal populations rely heavily on tube wells, rivers and ponds for their drinking water
Page 23
and cooking. Seawater, which is extremely harmful for humans, contains 35 grams per
kilogram of water. Approximately 20 million of the 37 million people living on these
coasts (over 57%) are adversely affected by such salinity in their drinking water. The
causal relationship between excessive dietary salt intake and high blood pressure in
adults and children is well established in public health. Over a decade ago, the World Health Organization‟ s (WHO) Public Health Initiative identified the health impacts of long-term consumption of highly saline waters as a priority for investigation. The
government of Bangladesh and Caritas Development Institute (CDI) has identified a
range of health problems with potential links to increased salinity exposure, including
hypertension and miscarriage among pregnant women, skin diseases, acute respiratory
infection and diarrheal diseases (Ministry of Environment & Forest 2006).
2.8 Salinity Intrusion and Biodiversity Loss
Bangladesh has got a wide diversity of ecosystems including mangrove forests
at the extreme south of the country. A total of 425 species have been identified there, the
most significant is the famous Royal Bengal Tiger. Therefore, salinity intrusion the
results of climate change will have negative effects on the Ecosystem of the Forest
recourses in Bangladesh. Salinity Intrusion from the Bay of Bengal already penetrates
100 kilometers inside the country during the dry season and the climate change in its
gradual process is likely to deteriorate the existing scenario to a great extent. Salinity is
posing a major threat to the freshwater river systems, as organisms thriving in such
rivers can tolerate only certain ranges of water salinity. Salinization is impacting at the
individual, population, community and ecosystem levels, thus ultimately leading to
biodiversity losses and apparently allowing alien species to thrive in these ecosystems.
Due to continuous raising of salinity many costal species becomes endangered day by
day.
Page 24
2.9 Salinity Intrusion and Fisheries Sector
Almost one fourth of the total populations of the country live in the coastal areas of
Bangladesh, where a significant number of the population are being affected (directly or
indirectly) by salinity problem. Majority of the population have managed their
livelihood through catching fish. But, the fisheries sector has also experienced an
adverse effect because of the impacts of salinity intrusion and climate change. The
fisheries sector contributes about 3.5% of the GDP in Bangladesh and people depend on
fish products in order to meet up majority of their daily protein requirements. There are
around 260 species of fish in the country and almost all the varieties are sensitive to
specific salt and freshwater conditions.
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CHAPTER THREE
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Page 26
CHAPTER THREE: MATERIALS AND METHODS
3.1 Study Area
The Upazila occupies an area of 387.36 sq. km. with 37.29 sq. km. forest area. It is
located in between 22°14' and 22°58 north latitudes and in between 89°53' and 90°05'
east longitudes. Patharghata Upazila is about 30 km road distance from Barguna
District. Total population of the Upazila is 162025; male 82687, female 79338; Muslim
143466, Hindu 18464, Buddhist 18, Christian 21 and others 56It is bounded by
Mathbaria and Bamna Upazilas on the north, Bay of Bengal on the south, Barguna
Sadar Upazila on the east, Sarankhola Upazila on the west (BBS, 2012).
The main rivers of the upazila are Bishkhali, Haringhata, and Baleshwari. The
study area is mainly bounded by the Bay of Bengal on the southern side, the Baleswar
rivers on the eastern and western sides of the Charduani Union. The main Sources of
drinking water are Tube-well 81.34%, tap 15.76%, pond 1.75% and others 1.15% (BBS,
2012). The project site lies within a cyclone zone and is predisposed to crop damage
almost every year. Most soils are coarse textured and nitrogen is the main limiting
nutrient for rice production. Rain-fed lowland rice (Transplanted Aman rice) is the
main crop for wet season followed by grass pea (Lathyrussativus) and chili in some
areas. Other main crops are Paddy, potato, khesari, mug, vegetables. However, a vast
area remains fallow during dry season due to the problem of accumulated salinity.
Page 27
Figure 4: Map of the study area
Page 28
3.2 Methods of the Study
The study followed by a mixed method attempt to get the suitable answer to
the research questions. The approach was to collect the real life experiences of the
households with the adverse effects of salinity intrusion in the study area. To achieve
this target, a combination was sought qualitative methods (Focus Group Discussions-
FGD, Community Consultation) and quantitative methods (questionnaire survey). The
literature related to natural disasters effects of salinity intrusion and its health impact
were also took from concerned local and national sources for reviewing the
methodology of the study. Different ways have been followed to review the existing
literature and try to develop the data collection tools for the study. The discussion was
done with respected supervisor over telephone calls during the process of developing
survey tools and other parts. The questionnaire survey was completed by me into four
villages among the Charduani union under the Patharghata Upazila.
Materials and Methods
Primary Secondary
BWDB, BMD DPHE
Water Quality Participatory
Measurement
Rural Appraisal
Department of Collection of
Field FGD and Community Environment Book from
Survey KII (Key Consultation SRDI, Journal
Informant Papers
Figure 5: Schematic Representation of the Materials and Methods Used in This Study
Page 29
A systematic research procedure was maintained to avoid possible bias. The study
villages were selected on a discussion with the local experts and in consultation with
local government institutes and vulnerable communities. The selected villages were
most affected in the study Upazila. The survey questionnaire was prepared in a peer-
review process so that it consistent with the subject and local issues. The focus group
discussions and community consultations helped to collect information and compare
with the survey. Appropriate participants for the focus group discussions were selected
from the questionnaire survey. Data and information given by the respondents was
gathered carefully during the survey period. In this way, quality of data was confirmed
in every step of the survey.
3.3 Questionnaire Survey
The questionnaire survey was done to the households of four villages from the
Charduani Union at Patharghata Upazila under Barguna District. The number of
respondents for sample survey in Modho Charduani and South Charduani was each
village and Ekerbunia and Gabbaria was 15 each. Thus total 100 respondents were
surveyed in four villages in the study area. The head of the household/family was
given priority to answer to the questions. Due to absence of the head, another senior
person of the family was considered to respond. Sometimes elder respondents
answered the question in presence of all members of the family. In many cases, they all
discussed before responding to some questions.
The questionnaire was prepared to collect the relevant information and data
from the study locations. Section-A of the questionnaire emphasized on the
demographic, socio economic and livelihood of the study villagers. Section-B focused
perceptions and information about climate change and salinity problems. Section-C
considered the salinity and water supply (state trend and loss) due to source of water in
different period, extreme event like cyclone SIDR and AILA affected sources of
drinking water, while using the pond or PSF, is the water of this source saline. Section-
D covered the impact of salinity on living beings with special reference to human
Page 30
beings associated changing pattern in soil and water resources in relation to salinity
intrusion over the last twenty years caused by extreme events.
3.4 Qualitative Study Tools
Two FGD was conducted into the four study villages. Each FGD included 6 to 8
respondents (male and female). The FGDs were conducted with farmers and NGO
workers. In one cases, some local knowledgeable persons were present in the group
discussion. At the end of the FGDs, a draft paper was prepared with key messages from
the discussions.
3.5 Water Sample Collection and Testing
Eight water samples were collected from the study area for laboratory testing of pH,
TDS and EC. The tests were conducted at Department of Public Health Engineering
(DPHE) office laboratory, Barguna. The pH and TDS tests were done by pH and TDS
meter. Also the Electrical Conductivity (EC) was done by EC meter. These are usually
categorized as physical tests, though they are strongly dependent on the chemical
characteristics of an aqueous solution. The tests are easy to conduct and are usually
performed shortly after obtaining the samples. Conductivity is a measure of how well a
solution conducts electricity. To measure conductivity we use a machine called a
conductivity meter. This quantity is expressed in units called mhos or µs/cm. To use
either the pH meter or the conductivity meter or TDS meter, the idea is the same. We
put the probe into a solution with a known pH or conductivity or TDS and set the meter
to the known value. Then we put the probe in the unknown solution that is trying to
measure. Meters are usually set once a day, or more often as necessary.
3.6 Study Limitations
One of the limitations of the study was the work covers only one out of seven
unions in the coastal Patharghata Upazila under Barguna District, so that the result may
not comply with all upazilas of the coast or the coast of other districts. It was difficult to
Page 31
gather data/ information from the study upazila to conduct an assessment due to
salinity intrusion caused by climate change. Long term salinity data on the soil and
water (both shallow and deep aquifer) of the study areas were not available. I have to
depend for the data/information on the perception of local peoples on the salinity
issues. The study was of limited scale because the survey results may not be fully
representative of the pictures of the whole coastal zone. Sometimes, the households
were bit reluctant to give sufficient time to respond to all the questions. In the field of
rice production, quality of water around the year, level of salinity in the source of water
for long periods and water borne disease related information for all family members
during different seasons of the year, most of the respondents had to recall from
memory.
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CHAPTER FOUR
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Page 33
CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.1 Demographic and Socio-economic Profile of the Study Area
The Patharghata Upazila is situated at the western part of Barguna District. The
North side of this Upazila is Mathbaria under Pirojpur District and Bamna under
Barguna District, East side is Barguna Sador Upazila, Southern part is the Bay of Bengal
and West side is Sarankhola under Bagerhat District and the Sunderban. The total area
of the patharghata Upazila is 3.25 Square kilometers including 80 square kilometers
River Area.
Table 4: Union Wise Area and Population of the Patharghata Upazila
Name of Union Area (Hector) Population
Raihanpur 2474 14810
Nachnapara 2246 12484
Kakchira 3404 20,720
Kathaltoli 2840 19788
Charduani 5642 24,563
Kalmegha 5527 25894
Patharghata 9457 28491
Pourashava 910 17,177
Total 32500 1,63,927
Source: Population and Housing census-2011 (BBS, 2012)
The questionnaire survey under the study area was the combination of different
aged group. Out of total respondents, 96% were men and 4% were women. Besides,
96% were married and 4% were unmarried. About 34% respondents were between 20 to
40 years old. About 34% of the respondents were over 50 years of age. Of the total
respondents, 23% were literate, 43% were completed primary education (class 1-V), 20%
had junior education (class VI-X), SSC, HSC, Graduate and post graduate were found
6%, 1%, 4% and 1%, respectably.
Page 34
4%
Female
Male
96%
Figure 6: Percentage by of the Respondents
2% 0%
8% 5% Illiterate
40%
Class 1-5
10% Class 6-8 Class 9-10
15% SSC HSC
20% Graduate
Post Gradute
Figure 7: Educational Percentage of the Respondents
Page 35
Table 5: Percentage of respondents by age
Age of the Modho South Tafalbaria Ekerbunia Total Respondents Charduani Charduani
Up to 20 4 0 6.67 0 2.5
21-30 16 8 13.33 13.33 12.5
31-40 28 32 33.33 6.67 26.25
41-50 20 28 20 40 26.25
51-60 16 20 13.33 13.33 16.25
61 and above 16 12 13.33 26.67 16.25
Total 100 100 100 100 100
The study shows that more than 90% households owner has a small piece of
land. Almost all households in the study area involved in fisheries practices. Overall,
70% of fishermen go to sea to catch the fish. Moreover, farming is great challenge for all
the study villages due to scarcity of safe surface or ground water. About the access to
drinking water, nearly 80% households collect water from the pond while 15% from the
Pond Sand Filter (PSF). This figure shows that approximately 100% households depend
on pond for drinking purpose. Among the four study villages, a few people (nearly 5%)
of South Charduani collect water from Very Shrouded shallow Tube well (VSST) which
layer only 32 ft down from the ground level. During FGDs, most of the informer told
that more than 95% people of the Charduani Union depend on the ponds for drinking
water.
The coastal area of Bangladesh is mostly vulnerable to the bad effects of climate
change and climate variability issues. Some factors including salinity intrusion caused
by extreme events (e.g. Cyclone and Storm surge) and slow onset processes (Sea Level
Rise) are aggravating the impacts on almost every sector including agriculture and
drinking water supply.
Page 36
4.2 Livelihood and Vulnerability
4.2.1 Main Sources of Income
The main sources of income are catching fish (50%), agricultural (30%),
remittances (16%) and other sources (4%). It indicates that fishing, rice cultivation and
remittances are the most common income sources of the study households. This figure
reflects that these sources of income pay relatively higher wages.
4%
16%
50%
Fish
Agricultural
30%
Remitence
Others
Figure 8: Main sources of Income
4.2.2 Gender and Inequality
The households of the study area think that the impact of salinity intrusion will
affect men and women differently. It is mainly because of the level of exposure and
different job of men and women at the family activities. It is found from the answer
given by affected men and women. A few male respondent from the study area told,
“We are losing rice and other production due to salinity intrusion in the agricultural
fields even only one rice crop in one year which is directly affecting our income” while
a women told, “I have to walk at least 2 km everyday especially during dry season to
Page 37
collect water for drinking from the pond/PSF in which the salinity tastes low. She also
said that sometimes it takes more than 2 hours which affects domestic works and taking
care of small kids. Moreover, most of the women are concerns about water borne
diseases and social security.
4.3 Climate Change and Salinity
4.3.1 Impact of Climate Change on Temperature and Rainfall
The household survey shows that the main climate change problems in the
study area were temperature rise, erratic rainfall, and change in seasonal patterns,
salinity intrusion, high tide, sea level rise, water logging, cyclone and tidal surge,
earthquake, river erosion, thunderstorm etc. Most of the respondents told that these
problems had been increased after Cyclone SIDR.
Table 6: Month wise maximum Temperature (Degree-Celsius) at the Study Upazila
Month 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996
January 24.8 26.7 26.6 25.4 29.1
February 26 28.2 30 27.9 30.3
March 31.1 30.8 31.2 34.3 33.2
April 32.2 32 32.1 34.7 33.1
May 32.4 31.7 33.7 33.3 33.1
June 32.4 30.8 30.8 31.1 31.1
July 31.7 30.1 30.5 30.5 31.3
August 29.7 29.9 30.3 31.3 29.7
September 31.1 30.2 31.6 31.6 31.7
October 31.7 31.3 31.9 32 31.3
November 29.2 30.1 20.6 28.3 29.4
December 26.4 27.1 27.1 27.2 26.8 Source: Bangladesh Meteorological Department, Dhaka, 2001
Page 38
Table 7: Monthly Rainfall (Millimeter) Recorded by Khepupara
Meteorological Centre, Patuakhali
Month
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
January 2 9 1 2 0
February 169 1 2 15 32
March 0 356 95 2 4
April 0 87 182 6 67
May 265 237 53 134 176
June 303 616 492 339 616
July 485 319 461 775 507
August 288 450 502 293 915
September 518 287 92 340 185
October 282 181 59 281 399
November 6 6 28 301 1
December 4 0 0 0 0
Source: Bangladesh Meteorological Department, Dhaka, 2015
The incidence of temperature rise and erratic rainfall seems more from last 3 years and water logging occurs after heavy rainfall. Around 30% respondents told that river water was rising (nearly 2 ft.) from a decade but 20% answered that the land was degrading gradually. Nearly 40% respondents said that every year at least 3 (medium and small scale) cyclones were hitting in this area in the month of March to Jun and as a result of these cyclone, a few fisherman died in every year in the sea. One man told that “We losed more than 10 people due to cyclone KOMEN “. Besides, Earthquake is occurring in the area. Nearly 25% respondents told that owing to Earthquake our pond water spilled over and a lot of fish left the pond. Most of the informer answered about the trend and severity of extreme events like cyclone and tidal surge were acute problem in this locality.
According to BMD, the climatic system of Barguna shows variations in the trend of a 20 years period (1991-2010). Annual average maximum temperature and rainfall shows a slightly increasing trend. But the trend of monsoon rainfall shows an increasing pattern while winter rainfall is slightly decreasing during the period of 1991-2010. Moreover, the days about without rainfall were increasing over the mentioned period.
Page 39
The disastrous events, cyclone SIDR and cyclone AILA devastatingly affected many of
the coastal districts of the country. The cyclone SIDR affected 30 out of 64 Districts
while cyclone AILA hit 11 Districts. Both of these events affected the rice crops and
drinking water facilities in the coastal Districts. But, due to cyclone AILA huge saline
water from Baleshar river entered into agricultural land in coastal area specially
Patharghata Upazila. As a result of this saline water, salts are visible on the agricultural
land. The study indicates that all standing crops and vegetables were damaged as
confirmed by the local communities in FGD consultation. Most of the ponds were also
submerged by the badly effect of cyclone AILA. Moreover, many of the PSFs were also
fully or partially damaged.
4.4 Trend of Salinity Intrusion
This study shows that salinity is increasing day by day in the southern coastal
surface water especially Bishkhali water way which affects the Patharghata Upazila in
different ways. The ground water aquifers of the study area were so much salty and
most of the areas do not have tube wells. The local DPHE (the lead agency of water
Supply and sanitation of the country) personnel told that tube well hadn‟ t installed
from the long time in this area due to higher percentage of chloride than the standard
value of the Bangladesh as well as the world. They also added that the range of chloride
in the area had found from 4000 ppm to 9000 ppm. The GoB and NGOs constructed lot
of PSF for supplying safe drinking water but almost 100% were out of order due to
proper management. The household survey found that almost all study area people had
collected drinking water directly from pond which tends to affecting water borne
diseases.
Page 40
Table 8: The Range of EC and Chloride Concentration in the Bishkhali River
of Patharghata, Barguna from 2001 to 2015
River Date EC-High EC-Low Chloride-High Chloride-Low
Tide Tide Tide Tide
(µs/cm) (µs/cm) (PPM) (PPM)
Bishkhali 08/05/2001 2193.00 2144.00 680.00 624.00
Bishkhali 12/05/2002 1185.00 1190.00 285.00 285.00
Bishkhali 02/05/2003 1190.00 1130.00 275.00 255.00
Bishkhali 08/05/2005 1200.00 1140.00 275.00 255.00
Bishkhali 18/06/2006 3240.00 3225.00 317.00 3145.00
Bishkhali 24/05/2007 956.00 988.00 321.00 483.00
Bishkhali 20/05/2008 9700.00 6140.00 4750.00 4870.00
Bishkhali 01/05/2009 11150.00 10180.00 6060.00 5680.00
Bishkhali 13/05/2010 8890.00 8690.00 4390.00 4750.00
Bishkhali 24/04/2011 6820.00 6240.00 4220.00 4340.00
Source: Processing and Flood Forecasting Circle, BWDB, 2015
The range of electrical conductivity (EC) for high tide and low tide were shown in
a bar diagram and line diagram. The diagram shows that the level of EC increasing with
time and the highest level for EC high tide was 11150.00 µs/cm and the lowest level was
956 µs/cm. The highest level for EC low tide was 10180 µs/cm and lowest level was 988
µs/cm.
Leve
l of
EC in
µs/
cm
12000
10000
8000
6000
EC High Tide
4000
EC Low Tide
2000
0
2001 2002 2003 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011
Year
Figure 9: Change of EC with time (Source: BWDB, 2015)
Page 41
25000
20000
in
15000
of
EC
Leve
l
10000
5000
0
2001 2002 2003 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011
Year
EC Low Tide EC High Tide
Figure 10: Change of EC with time (Source: BWDB, 2015)
The range of chloride are also shown in a bar diagram and a line diagram. The highest
value for chloride high tide is 6060 ppm and the lowest value is 275 ppm. The highest
value for chloride low tide is 5680 ppm and lowest value is 255 ppm.
Leve
l of
Ch
lori
de
in p
pm
7000 6000 5000 4000 3000 2000 1000
0 2001 2002 2003 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011
Year
Chloride-High Tide
Chloride-Low Tide
Figure 11: Chloride concentration changing with time from 2001 to 2011 (Source: BWDB, 2015)
Page 42
14000
12000
in P
PM
10000
Ch
lori
de
8000
6000
of
Leve
l
4000
2000
0
2001 2002 2003 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011
Year
Chloride-Low Tide Chloride-High Tide
Figure 12: Chloride concentration changing with time from 2001 to 2011
(Source: BWDB, 2015)
The study indicates that due to salinity intrusion agricultural crops and human
health are being affected. More than 90% of the respondents told that the salinity has
been changed in the locality during the last 20 years at high level. Out of the total
respondents, 74% told that rice (Aus, Aman and Boro) and vegetables have been the
most impacted agricultural sectors by salinity and 44% comment about fisheries which
has affected by salinity. They also told that sweet water fish are being affected by
different diseases due to salinity. Nearly 75% respondents informed that food and
nutrition has been affected in human health due to salinity intrusion and 10% conscious
about social security. A few respondents are thinking of ecosystems (Mangrove and
Biodiversity) about the over increasing salinity issues.
Page 43
Table 9: Electrical Conductivity in the Bishkhali River, Patharghata, Barguna in the
year of 2015
EC-High Tide EC-Low-Tide
River Date Spot name µs/cm µs/cm
Bishkhali 5/12/2015 Baraitala feryghat 240 252
Bishkhali 5/12/2015 Accrayan 232 238
Bishkhali 5/12/2015 Fhuljhuri talarghat 195 205
Bishkhali 5/12/2015 Bikalibarzar 182 193
Bishkhali 5/12/2015 Rabna lanchghat 232 242
Bishkhali 15/12/2015 Baraitala feryghat 220 222
Bishkhali 15/12/2015 Bainchatki feryghat 223 235
Bishkhali 15/12/2015 Fhuljhuri talarghat 183 192
Bishkhali 15/12/2015 Bikali bazar 195 199
Bishkhali 15/12/2015 Rabna lanchghat 202 210 Source: These data were collected from 5.12.15 to 15.12.15
The Electrical Conductivity (EC) data is collected from primary survey in the Bishkhali
river (Table 9). The highest level of EC was found in the Baraitala Feryghat and the
range was 240 for EC high tide and for EC low tide the highest level was 252 which
were also found in Baraitala Feryghat.
The EC is one of the factors that controlling the agricultural production. Table-13
shows the value of EC at different places during high tide and low tide respectively in
the Bishkhali river which is situated at the East side of the Patharghata Upazila. The
average monthly EC of the Bishkhali River was below 300 µs/cm during June to
January, 2015 which is safe for irrigation. Water salinity of this river remained harmful
to very harmful from February to May. Monthly maximum water salinity becomes
harmful throughout the year except from August to October. Therefore, efficient water
management is needed for the purpose of irrigation of Boro crop (SESIP, 2015).
Page 44
Table 10: The range of PH and Salinity
Data from the Bishkhali River
Date PH Salinity (ppt)
3/11/2010 7.5 6.4
10/2/2011 7.6 11
8/1/2012 7.3 1.2
8/5/2012 7.7 8.1
14/10/12 7.7 12.8
16/2/13 7.3 12.8
20/5/13 7.5 8.1
22/8/13 7.5 10.2
15/2/14 7.4 12.2
10/7/2014 7.4 12.2
25/10/14 7.5 12.2
24/5/15 7.6 10
25/7/15 7.6 10
16/9/15 7.4 0
15/10/15
7.2
0
15/11/15 7.2 0
The Table 10 shows that the value of pH and
Salinity from the Bishkhali River collected by
Department of Environment, Barisal
Division. It was found that from the month
of November to the month of July, 2011 the
value of salinity was increasing trend except
the month of May 2012 and 2013. The water
quality result has also shown that the salinity
range from September 2015 to November
2015 was nil. This result may be caused by
heavy rainfall in the area till the month of
November in 2015. Besides, The PH value
was slightly higher than the neutral value of 7. The range of PH and Salinity are also
represent in a bar diagram.
Source: DoE, Barisal, 2015
The pH scale ranges from 0 to 14 with a pH of 7 being neutral. A pH less than 7 is
acidic and a pH greater than 7 is alkaline.
The Table 11 shows that the current values of pH and TDS which are collected
primarily from the Bishkhali river. The PH value were found 8.1 to 8.6 that was higher
than the neutral value of 7 and as a result of the given value, the water has a bit amount
of alkalinity. On the other hand, the range of TDS to the November and December in
2015 in the Baleshar river from 125 to 190 milligram per liter which was very lower than
the standard value of TDS. One local expert told that lower value of TDS might be the
cause of heavy rainfall. The present value of PH and salinity of the Bishkhali river are
shown in a line diagram.
Page 45
Table 11: Present value of PH and Salinity from the Bishkhali River
Date PH Neutral value TDS Standard of TDS
Spot name
of PH
(mg/l)
(mg/l)
11/11/2015 Baraitala fheryghat 8.1 7 159 1000
19/11/2015 Bainchatki fheryghat 8.3 7 142 1000
28/11/2015 Nishanbaria 8.6 7 190 1000
7/12/2015 Nishanbaria 8.3 7 125 1000
17/12/2015 Baraitala fheryghat 8.2 7 145 1000
17/12/2015 Bainchatki fheryghat 8.6 7 132 1000
22/12/2015 Bainchatki fheryghat 8.1 7 153 1000
NB: the data were collected from 11.11.2015 to 22.12.2015 from different location of Bishkhali river.
The farmers as well as communities are trying to adapt to the changing patterns
with assistance from the related government organizations and NGOs. The government
of Bangladesh is providing infrastructural and technological options in both
agricultural and drinking water facilities. A number of rice tolerant varieties have been
developed due to changing pattern to adapt the adverse impacts of salinity.
4.5 Impact of salinity Intrusion on different sectors
The over increasing salinity leads to shortage of drinking and irrigation water
and cause changes in aquatic systems. Many household in the study area believed that
changes in river salinity and the availability of fresh water would affect the productivity
of many capture fisheries. Besides, it affected adversely the wild habitats of fresh water
fish and giant prawn. In addition, salinity increase may induce a shift in the sunderbans
mangrove forest from Sundari (the single most dominant and important species with
the highest market value) to Gewa and Guran. Estimates from the research indicate that
Bagerhat, Barguna, Barisal, Bhola, Khulna, Jhalokati, Pirojpur, and Satkhira districts will
be most adversely affected. The study uses hydrological models, and geographic
Page 46
overlays to assess location-specific river salinity in coastal Bangladesh for alternative
climate change scenarios and projections of subsidence of the Ganges delta by 2050
(World Bank, 2015).
4.5.1 Impact of salinity on Human Health
Many key determinants of human health, such as food availability, fresh water
availability, physical safety and the microbiological environment, are strongly
influenced by climatic conditions (Mustari and Karim, 2012). Salinity creates a huge
health problem in the coastal areas. As saline water mix with ground water and
unsustainable consumption of ground water, people are suffering from various kinds of
health problem, such as high blood pressure, diarrhea, cholera and others. Not only
through water but also through various kinds of food grain people are getting saline
more than they required. The most vulnerable groups are the pregnant woman and the
children. Higher rates of (pre) eclampsia and gestational hypertension in pregnant
women living in the southern coast of Bangladesh, compared with non-coastal pregnant
women, were hypothesized to be caused by saline contamination of drinking water
(Khan, 1993). It may causes defective new born baby which would be a very negative
signal for the future of Bangladesh. Cholera sometimes spread like an epidemic after
the disaster such as flood or cyclone due to lack of drinking water and over
consumption of saline water. As salinity decreases the crop production, so decreases of
food supply brings poverty in this area. As a result mal-nutrition, under nutrition,
water borne diseases, food borne diseases and even starvation is also an obvious effect
of salinity among the coastal people.
Majority people in the research area told that they had affected different kinds of
diseases as a result of salinity intrusion. Figure 13 shows the percentage of affected
diseases due to consuming of drinking saline water.
Page 47
Others 14%
Diarrhea 46%
Dysentery 40%
Figure 13: Diseases caused by consumption of saline water
Major respondent’s perception is that that none of the household member had
had free from different diseases as a result of drinking saline water. The study showed
that 46% people had affected by the diarrhea diseases while 40% people had affected by
Dysentery disease and only 14% people had faced skin and other kinds of diseases.
The salinity impact in relation to health cannot be ignored because incidences of
water borne diseases (e.g. diarrhea and dysentery) have been much higher from the
recent past in the study areas. The community believes that the chronic consumption of
water directly from the pond has caused severe water borne diseases in all the study
villages. It is alarming that at least one member of each of the study families suffer from
either diarrhea or dysentery in every month in the study villages. The community
people strongly believed that this impact might have been correlated with salinity
intrusion in sources of water.
Page 48
4.5.2 Impacts of Salinity on Agriculture
The economy of Bangladesh is based on agriculture mainly, with two thirds of
the population engaged (directly or indirectly) on agricultural activities; although the
country is trying move towards industrialization slowly during the last one and a half
decade almost. So, the overall impact of climate change on agricultural production in
Bangladesh would be wide spread and devastating for the country’s economy. Beside
this, other impacts of climate change such as extreme temperature, drought, and salinity
intrusion etc. are also responsible for the declining crop yields in Bangladesh. The
salinity intrusion in the coastal area is creating a serious implication for the coastal land
that was traditionally used for rice production (Denissen, 2012).
Bangladesh is an agrarian country, having 80% of its people fully dependent on
agriculture. It is estimated that, more than 30% people live in this area and their
livelihood is totally dependent on nature. However, more than 50% of coastal land
already goes under salinity. Salinity have degrades the quality of land and limited the
variety of cultivable crops. Due to sea level rise along with flood or land erosion the
quality of land and fresh water decease. Sea level rise affects coastal agriculture,
especially rice production in two ways. Salinity intrusion degrades soil quality which in
turn reduces rice production. When the rice fields are converted into shrimp ponds,
total rice production decreases accordingly (Sarwar and Khan, 2007). Not only rice but
also other kinds of food grains, vegetables, and tree plantation are not possible here
because of salinity. Poultry farm, cattle farm, also could not be established running at all
because their food also comes from the agriculture. As Bangladesh is a densely
populated country, there is no specific grazing field for cattle. Farmers get grass from
their rice field (Sarwar, 2005). As the farmer cannot provide food for their own, they
avoid going for farming though cow farm is very essential for their traditional plough
system of land. So as a result, people’s GDP goes down because Bangladesh economy
is still dependent on agriculture. So decrease of GDP means decrease in agriculture,
production and cash crop also.
Page 49
The soil salinity has been increasing gradually in the coastal belt of Bangladesh.
Charduani Union under the Patharghata Upazila is one of the coastal unions where
salinity has increased from the last twenty years (Kamrun Nahar and Hamid, 2016). The
cyclone AILA in 2009 intruded huge salt water into the plane land which had been
affected the agricultural production. As a result of the intruded sea water, salt was seen
visible on the crop field at the time of dry season. The respondents of the study area
told that they had experienced some changes in soil and water resources as a result of
salinity intrusion in this area. Most of the farmers used in the agricultural field 3 or 4
types of mixed fertilizer increasing the crop production and these fertilizers include
phosphate, calcium and TSP etc.
This study identifies soil salinity in the coastal Bangladesh as a major risk from
climate change. The households believe that within the coming decades, soil salinity
will significantly increase in the study areas. The study found that the changes in soil
salinity in coastal Bangladesh from 2001-2009, using salinity information recorded at 41
soil monitoring stations by the Soil Research Development Institute (SRDI). It projects a
median increase of 26% in salinity by 2050, with increases over 55% in the most affected
areas.
Agriculture is the predominant economic activity in the coastal Bangladesh.
Approximately 70% of employment in the coastal area is dependent on agriculture
(DFID 2007). The critical salinity level for agriculture is 2 ppt. Climate change is
expected to have a significant impact on coastal agriculture, especially on the Boro rice
crop.
Page 50
Re
spo
nd
en
ts %
30 25 20 15 10
5
0 Yeild Less scope Reduce soil Increase Create Create Hampering Delay Effect on Others
reduction for fertility crop problems problems plant cultivation rice plant
divirsified damage for boro for growth
crop cultrivation irrigation
cultivation
Consequences of Salinity on Crop Production
Figure 14: Impact of salinity of crop production
The Figure shows the different impacts of agricultural crop production owing to salinity
intrusion at the study place. 27% respondents told about reduction of their yield.
Besides, 24% respondents said that they have less scope for diversified crop cultivation
due to impact of salinity at dry season in the area. On the other hand, 13% people
believe that soil lost its fertility due to salinity intrusion. They also told that the salt is
visible on the crop field surface during dry season and this occurrence is happening
after AILA. Besides, 11% people face irrigation problem for crop cultivation during the
summer season as the saline water enters into the circumferential canals and the ground
water is mostly affected by salinity in both shallow and deep aquifer. In addition, 4%
respondents said salinity increases crop damage, and a few respondents told about
salinity create delay cultivation during the cultivation period.
Page 51
4.5.3 Impact of Salinity on Fisheries
Salinity intrusion affects the fish production in the coastal area. Different
household members said their perception about the fish production as a result of
salinity intrusion. Figure 13 shows the household members perception about the effects
of salinity intrusion for fish production.
6%
14% 24%
No effect
Less production
Growth less
23%
Virus & rotten
Fish dead
33%
Figure 15: Household member’s perception about fish production
Different people have different perception about fish production because of
salinity intrusion in coastal part of Bangladesh. About 24% household members said
they have experienced no effect in fish production as a result of salinity intrusion. 33%
said that they have found less production for salinity intrusion and 23% said growth
less in fish production for increasing salinity intrusion. 14% household members said
virus & rotten attack the fish because of salinity intrusion and 6% household members
said they have found fish die as a result of salinity intrusion.
The fisheries sector has also experienced an adverse effect because of the impacts
of salinity. The fisheries sector contributes about 3.5% of the GDP in Bangladesh and
people depend on fish products in order to meet up majority of their daily protein
Page 52
requirements. There are around 260 species of fish in the country and almost all the
varieties are sensitive to specific salt and freshwater conditions (Denissen, 2012).
Though salinity brings some convenience for shrimp cultivation but it becomes
detrimental for the survivability of other fresh water fishes which affectedly become
fully extinct. In these coastal areas but the other fishes that are available only for the
fresh water are going to be extinct forever. Moreover “the environmental and social
impacts of shrimp farming include large-scale degradation of mangroves, alteration of
wetlands, land subsidence, salinization of ground water and surface water, pollution of
agricultural lands and coastal waters by pond effluents and sludge, introduction of
exotic species or pathogens into coastal environment, loss of wild larvae and
subsequent loss of goods and services generated by natural common property resources
(Azad et al., 2009). As coastal areas are naturally vulnerable and the survival strategies
are very limited for them, so they prefer to go for shrimp cultivation which is increasing
salinity more and more. “Out of the total decreased production, 77% was due to
conversion of rice field into shrimp pond” (Sarwar, 2005).
Expected increase in river salinity is likely to change the aquatic ecosystems of
coastal Bangladesh. There are approximately 500,000 fishing households in the coastal
area of the country (DFID 2007). Saline intrusion into freshwater habitats of fish is likely
to change in the study area during the dry season. Habitats of freshwater large fish, for
example Catla (Catlacatla), Rui (Labeorohita), and Mrigal (Cirrhinamrigala), are likely to
decline in the wild (Pillay and kutti, 2005). Reductions in the wild are also expected for
small indigenous freshwater fish species, for example Bacha (Eutropiicthyysvacha), Bata
(Mugilparsia), Batashi (Pseudeutropicusatherinoides), Chela (Salmostomaargentea,
Salmostomaphulo, Salmostomabacaila), Darkina (Esomusdanricas, Rasbaradaniconius,
Rasbararasbora), Kajuli, Baspata (Ailiacoila, Ailicthys punctate), Kash Khaira (Chela
laubuca), Kholisha (Colisafasciatus), and Tengra (Mystustengra). The optimum level of
surface water salinity is less than 4 ppt for Golda/giant freshwater prawn
(Macrobrachiumrosenbergii) and 10 to 20 ppt for brackish water Bagda/Black Tiger
Page 53
shrimp (Penaeusmonodon). Golda production in the wild is expected to decrease and
Bagda production on monoculture farms is expected to increase (Belton et al., 2011).
Data from rural areas in Bangladesh suggest that low-value, wild, small
freshwater fish are the most common fish consumed in rural areas and the most
important source of dietary protein (Belton et al., 2011; Thirsted 2010, 2012). Small fish
are generally sold in rural markets and can be purchased in affordable quantities by the
rural poor and shared more equitably among household members, including women
and children (Roos et al. 2007). Hence, probable decline in the biodiversity of
freshwater, low-value, wild fish species with increased river salinity may have
significant implications for the nutrition of the rural poor. It is also likely that intrusion
of salinity into freshwater will adversely impact the livelihoods and incomes of fishing
communities that currently rely on freshwater capture fisheries. However, expansion of
brackish water aquaculture and the shrimp sector may offer numerous lower-value
livelihood opportunities for the rural poor in the future. Therefore, the impact of
increase in river salinity on the livelihoods of the poor is difficult to assess and warrants
location-specific analysis of economic impacts.
4.5.4 Impact of Salinity on Biodiversity
Expected increase in river salinity is likely to trigger changes in the ecosystems of
the study area. The most commonly found trees are Keora (Sonneratiaapetala), Kankra
(Bruguierasexan), Bamboo, Coconut tree (Cocos nucifer), Mango tree (Mangifera indica),
Jackfruit tree (Aritocarpas heterophylus), Tal (Borassus flabellifera), Khejur (Phoenix
dactylifera), Supari (Areca catechu), Gewa (Excorcaria agalloche), Gub (Diospyros discolor)
Raintree (Albizia Saman). Raintree, Bamboo, Coconut tree, Mango tree, jackfruit tree and
Kankra are fresh water-loving species with lower ecological amplitude. Gewa, and
Keora are moderately salt tolerant with wider ecological amplitude. Among these,
Raintree, Supari, and Bamboo are the single most dominant and important species of
the study area, with the highest market value. The diameter of the trunk of the Coconut
Page 54
tree, Tal, Supar, Khejur and Bamboo decrease steadily with salinity and shows a
dramatic decline when salinity is more than 25 ppt.
25%
Tree growth less
Coconut and Supari tree
35%
decreasing
Sea level is Rising 10%
Change in seasonal pattern 5%
5% 20% Deceasing fruit tree
Birds are decresing
Figure 16: People perceptions about changing biodiversity in the study area
From the respondent’s perceptions, it was found that tree growth less, sea level rising, changes in seasonal pattern, decreasing fruit trees and also birds are declining after
super cyclone SIDR. About 35% people said that the growth of the trees are lessening
specially, Coconut, Superi and Bamboo tree are diminishing day-by day. On the other
hand, about 25% respondents told that birds are decreasing recently, even if they are
not seen a few months of the year in this area. Besides, 10% people told that fruit trees
are lessening due increased soil salinity of the study area. About 5% people said that sea
level rising and the other 5% people told that seasonal pattern are changing.
4.5.5 Impact of Salinity on Drinking Water
The study shows about the access of drinking water, nearly 90% households
(overall) collect water for drinking directly from ponds while 5% drink water from
Pond Sand Filter (PSF) and other 5% collect from shallow Tube well. Usually 6 months
Page 55
Is Rain falling in the study location and households are collected rain water into their
pot and drink it during the rainy season. Among the total respondents, 80% told that
due to cyclone SIDR and cyclone AILA their drinking water sources were affected and
of them 87% informed that the affected drinking water sources was inundated during
the mentioned period. Besides, out of the total respondents, 74% told that the pond or
PSF which they use for drinking water was no salinity.
Figure 17: Collection of Rain Water at Household level
Figure 18: Collection of Drinking Water from Pond
Page 56
In the last two extreme events such as SIDR and AILA, respondents are facing
problem in drinking water because of major drinking water sources are inundated or
permanently damaged and many water resources are not usable for long time.
The number of respondents was 80 within the study area and majority of them told
that their drinking water sources were damaged for extreme event like SIDR or AILA.
Finally found 56% water sources were not usable for more than 30 days, 11% not usable
for 21-30 days, 4% not usable for 11-20 days, 5% not usable for 1-10 days and 24% water
sources were not damaged at a time of extreme event. At the time of extreme events like
SIDR or AILA respondents are needed another drinking water source. Because normal
drinking water sources were destroyed due to these extreme events. Figure 16 shows
the source of drinking water at a time of extreme event.
35
31
30
25
20
16
15
9
10
8
5
6 5
5
0
Collected Collected Collected Collected Collected Collected NGO aid
water from water from water from water from water from water from water &
far far & GoB far & NGO far, GoB far, NGO aid far & Others others
supply water aid water supply water water &
& NGO aid Others
water
Figure 19: Source of drinking water at a time of extreme event
Page 57
The Figure 16 shows that the source of drinking water at the time of extreme
event likes SIDR and AILA. According to the respondents, due to the bad effect of
Cyclone AILA, lot of Ponds were inundated and it was taken long time to be removed
of saline water. Among the 80 respondents, most of them collected water from the far
area and a few people had to depend on GoB water supply and NGO aid water. The
sources of water including ponds, tube-wells, Pond Sand Filter (PSF) were also affected.
All of the affected ponds had to adopt a cleaning process for further domestic use.
Figure 20: Women and children are collecting water from pond
Major respondents are collected water from far at a time of extreme event. Some
other types of alternative sources are found GoB supply water, NGO aid water, and
others. At a time of extreme events major respondents are use two or more sources to
collect the drinking water.
Page 58
Research area people are using pond water and PSF for drinking purpose and these people said this water is not saline water and they use the pond for their main water source. A few people said that they had found saline water in the pond and few respondents answered about very high salinity in the pond water. But 97% pond water user said they are found fresh water from the pond.
Table 12: The pH and TDS in the pond water of the study area
Village Name Pond Name pH TDS (mg/l )
South Charduani Hashem Khan Bari 8.1 125
South Charduani Sital khan bari 7.9 35
Ekarbunia Kudduce Member Bari 7.2 123
Gang para Belayet Member 7.8 39
Gang para Munsi Bari 7.4 100
Gang para BalarKhal 7.8 63
Gabbaria Khan Bari 7.9 155
ModhoCharduani Charduani Clinic 7.99 225 NB: The data were collected on 15.11.2015 in the study area
The Table 12 shows that the pH value was slightly larger than the neutral value of 7.00. This value indicated that the pond water had a bit of alkalinity. Besides, the range of TDS value were lower than standard (i.e. 1000 mg/l).
4.6 Adaptation in facing salinity intrusion
During last 20 years, salinity is increasing in our research area and respondents face different kinds of problems from the salinity intrusion. Some respondents are taking some initiative to minimize the effects of salinity intrusion but major respondents don’t know how to minimize the effect of salinity intrusion. As a result,
some respondents take some adaptation measures in their rice production sector. Figure
21 shows the research area where rice production has been modified as a result of
salinity intrusion.
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6% 18%
Yes
No 16%
Shift to other crops
60%
Figure 21: Modify rice cultivation for salinity intrusion
Respondents told that some people had migrated as a result of salinity intrusion. Figure 22 show the migration status of the research area.
19%
36%
No
Yes, I migrate
Other household members
migrate
45%
Figure 22: Migration status of the people in the study area
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Within the research area, 45% of respondents said that they had migrated from
these places because of salinity intrusion but these migrations for short time. 36%
respondents said that they were not leaving finally but 19% respondents told that they
were seeing migration to other household members for months. So, majority people of
the research area were trying to cope with salinity intrusion caused by climate change
but some respondents migrates for earning money. Maximum people of the research
area cannot do anything to deal with salinity intrusion caused by climate change.
The current coping mechanisms were not enough to adapt to increased levels of
salinity especially caused by extreme events. The poverty, low level of resilience and
lack of alternative livelihoods together with such climate induced hazards cause huge
losses for not only study communities but also the people of the whole coast.
There is the issue of increasing sea level rise as well which would be bringing the
water line further inwards, hence affecting the coastal area in terms of agricultural
productivity, drinking water facilities and also risking other livelihood options and
other social securities. The impact of a cyclone will be penetrating deeper into the land
mass, thus affecting the whole coastal region and it‟ s over 33 million people in a risky
position in the near future. One third of the population living in the coast will be
severely affected as there is lack of access due to scarcity of safe water sources and
proper sanitation facilities.
Household members of affected area do not do anything for minimizing the
impact of salinity intrusion in soil and water. A few household members take some
initiative for managing the effects of salinity intrusion. Those people who are taken to
minimizing the effects they said that these measures were not enough for minimize the
salinity intrusion. About 95% household members had not taken initiative for
minimizing the effects of salinity intrusion. Figure 20 Shown the how household
members not taken any initiative for minimizing the effects.
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21%
Don't know what to do
17%
Lack of financial resources
62%
Lack of skills and
knowledge
Figure 23: How respondents not taken initiatives
Majority percentage of household members are not know what to do to
minimize the effect of salinity intrusion and 17% household members not take initiative
because of lack of financial resources. Finally 21% household members are not take
initiative because of lack of skills and knowledge.
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CHAPTER FIVE
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Page 63
CHATER FIVE: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Conclusion
Salinity intrusion is a great threat for the population of Patharghata Upazila.
Patharghata Upazila has already crossed the threshold value of tidal fluctuation and the
threshold limit of salinity intrusion has also crossed. Through the overall observations
of this study it is reveals that the salinity levels both in soil and surface water in the
study area show an increasing trend. Through the water quality testing it is clear that
the range of salinity in the river and canal in the Patharghata Upazila was higher than
before. The range of salinity level becomes higher during dry season. Due to this
continuous rising of salinity peoples of Patharghata Upazila facing so many problems.
The study traces out that the agriculture sectors seriously hampered by this salinity
intrusion. Present salinity concentration has already put a threat to the crop production
and a significant yield loss has already been observed in the dry season. In the
increasing scenario of the salinity, it has been predicted that increasing concentration of
salinity will create more pressure to the farmer by reducing yield which will ultimately
affect livelihood, income generation and food security. Sweet water fish production has
also hampered due to this salinity intrusion. People cannot access to safe drinking
during dry season and they face many health disorders. Water borne diseases has been
increasing day by day due to drinking of saline water. The range of salinity in the river
and canal in the study area was higher than before. The GoB and NGOs gave little
attention about the salinity problems. Besides, symptoms of land degradation with
salinity were becoming more in recent years to be ignored. Growing population
pressure is increasing the demand of more food. It has become imperative to improve
the saline affected lands for increasing production of food crops.
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5.2 Recommendations
Socio-economic conditions of coastal communities are different from mainland of
Bangladesh. The extreme event due to climate change is increasing day by day. Holistic
initiatives should be taken rather than scattered courses of action. Major
recommendations are:
1) Special budget allocation should be kept and fund for coastal communities
especially for food security, public Health and Agriculture.
2) Bangladesh Climate Change Strategy and Action Plan (2009-2018) should be
implemented through proper consultation with coastal people and respective
stakeholders.
3) Awareness program should be taken due to over increasing salinity intrusion.
4) Research innovation like BR-47 (saline tolerant) and other saline resilient crops
should be introduced for the coastal population.
5) There must have integrated and long-term development plan for coastal areas of
Bangladesh in the light of its prospects and problems. It should be mainstreamed
in the national planning documents.
6) Washing and irrigating the rice fields to reduce salinity.
7) Preservation of rainwater in above mentioned ponds and canals for the use of
irrigation in lean period.
8) Some farmers put gypsum and sugar solution (or solid form of sugar) to reduce
salinity in the rice seedbed.
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APPENDIX
IMPACT OF SALINITY INTRUSION ON PUBLIC HEALTH ACTION: A CASE OF
PATHARGHATA UPAZILA UNDER BARGUNA DISTRICT OF BANGLADESH
Questionnaire
Student: Mohammed Mahmud Khan
Patuakhali Science and Technology University
Supervisor: Dr. Shaibur Rahman Molla
Jessore Science and Technology university
Household ID No.
District Upazila Union Village Household (GPS Co-
Barguna Patharghata Charduani ordination)
Section A: Demographic, Socio-economic and Livelihood of the Respondent
1. Name………………………………………………………………………………………… 2. Age: 1.aged15-20/ 2. Aged20-25/3.aged25-30/4.aged30-35/5.aged35-40/6.aged40-
45/7.aged45-50/8.aged50-55/9.aged55-60/10.aged60-65/11.aged65-70/12.aged70-75 3. Gender: a. Male b. Female
4. Mobile Number: …………………………………………………………………..
5. Marital status: a) Single b) Married c) Widowed d) Separated e) Divorced f) Other (Specify) …………………….
6. How long have you been here: a) This village b) Elsewhere in the district c) Elsewhere in the country (specify) ……………… d) Abroad (specify
country)………………………
7. Education Level: a) Illiterate b) literate c) 1 - 5 d) 6 - 8
e) 9 - 10 f) SSC g) HSC h) Graduate i) Post graduate j) Engineer/Doctor
k) Technician/Vocational l) other (specify)
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Section B: Perceptions and Information about Climate Change (CC) and Salinity
1. What is the main Climate Change (variability and extremes) problems in the locality
(Please rank the problems in terms of severity and impacts on your lives and
livelihoods)
a) Temperature rise b) Erratic rainfall c) Change in seasonal patterns d) Salinity e)
High tide and SLR (Sea level Rise) f) Water logging g) Cyclone and tidal surge
2. Which of the above problems have aggravated in the last 10 to 15 years? 3. How has the salinity been changed in the locality in the last 20 years?
a) High Level b) Moderate c) Low d) No change
4. Trend and severity of extreme events like cyclone and tidal surge
a) Acute Problem b) Moderate c) Low level 5. What are the most impacted sectors by salinity and climate extremes?
Agricultural Crops
a) Rice (Aus, Aman and Boro) b) Wheat and Maize c) Vegetable
e) Pulses f) Fisheries g) Poultry h) Homestead garden
i) Agro Forestry
Drinking water (sources availability, quality and access)
Human Health
a) Food and Nutrition b) Social Security c) Disaster Preparedness
d) Ecosystems (Mangrove and Biodiversity)
Section C: Salinity and Water Supply (state trend and loss)
1. What are the sources of water for different purposes in different period for your
household?
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Purpose Normal period Disaster Period
DTW Pond PSF RWH Others Aid DTW Pond PSF Others
/STW S Water /STW
Drinking
Cooking
Washing/cle
aning
Sanitation
Irrigation
2. Did any extreme events (Cyclone SIDR, Cyclone AILA) affect sources of drinking
water? a) Yes b) No
3. If yes, how the sources of drinking water was affected by extreme event ?
a) Inundated b) Permanently damaged/broken c) Partially damaged
e) Salinity Intruded f) Other
4. How long the source was not usable because of damaged caused by extreme event?
a) 1 - 10 days b) 11 - 20 days c) 21 - 30 days e) More than 30 days
F) Don’t know
5. What was the source of drinking water during the mentioned period?
a) Collected water from far b) GoB supply water c) NGO aid water
d) Purchased Water e) others (specify) …………………………
6. If you use the pond or PSF for drinking water, do you think that the water of this
source is saline? a) Yes b) No c) Don’t know
7. If yes, what is your opinion about the current state of salinity of water of the
pond? a) High b) Medium c) Low d) Fresh water
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Section D: Impact of Salinity on living beings with Special Reference to Human
Beings.
1. What changes have you experienced in soil and water resources in relation to salinity
intrusion in your village over the last twenty years? 2. Does the salinity intrusion in water resources and soil affect your crop production?
If yes, explain how--
3. Does the salinity intrusion in surface and ground water resources affect in drinking
water
Supply in your household? If yes, explain how
4. Has your household done anything to deal with impacts of salinity intrusion in soil
and water? a) Yes b) No (if no skip next two question) 5. If yes, what did you do? 6. If yes, do you feel that despite these measures your household still experiences
negative effects from salinity intrusion (multiple option)? a) Yes b) No measure not
enough c) Yes. Measures have cost/ negative effects d) yes other reason (specify) ……………
Please Explain
7. If no why not (multiple options)? a) Don‟ t know what to do b) Lack of financial resources (to do what) c) Lack of skills /Knowledge (to do what) d) Lack of other
resources
(to do what) e) It‟ s not a priority/not very important to us f) Not my task/ responsibility
g) Other (specify) Please explain
8. Does the salinity intrusion in surface and ground water resources affect in Fish
Production? If yes (explain how)--- 9. In your opinion, what are the diseases that affect your health due to drinking of saline
water from the pond or PSF?
a) Diarrhea b) Dysentery c) Fever d) Pneumonia
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e. Others (specify)……………………………………………… 10. What is the most common disease that affected you or your family members in the
mentioned seasons in last 5 years? a) Diarrhea b) Dysentery c) Skin diseases
d) Fever e) Other (specify) …………………. 11. What changes have you experienced in Biodiversity due to salinity intrusion in your
village over the last twenty years? Section E: Adaptation in facing salinity intrusion (in soil and water resources) caused
by climate change
1. Did you modify rice production to deal with salinity intrusion caused by climate
change? a) Yes b) No c) Yes, shift to other crops/livestock/fish (specify) ……………………….. d) Modify production techniques/inputs, specify……………….. f)
Other (specify)…………………… 2. Did you engage (more) in non-farming activities to deal with salinity effects caused
by climate change? a) Yes b) No witch to new economic activities, specify…………….. 3. Did you or household members migrate (more) to deal with salinity effects caused by
climate change? a) No b) Yes, I migrate c) Yes , other household member(s) migrated d0
Yes , whole household migrated
a) if yes , for what periods ? Short-term (< months)/longer-term (>6 months)
b. If yes, where to? a) Within region b) other region (specify) ………… c) Abroad (specify) ………
c. Was migration destination rural or urban? a) Rural b) Urban
4. Did you do anything else to deal with salinity effects caused by climate change?
a) No b) Yes
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