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Module 1Discovering Psychology
DEFINITION OF PSYCHOLOGYWhat do psychologists study?
Psychology - the systematic, scientific study of behaviors and mental processesBehaviors - refers to observable actions or responses in both humans and animals
Mental processes - not directly observable, refer to a wide range of complex mentalprocesses, such as thinking, imagining, studying, and dreaming
GOALS OF PSYCHOLOGYDescribe - first goal of psychology is to describe the different ways that organisms
behaveExplain - second goal of psychology is to explain the cause of behaviorPredict - third goal of psychology is to predict how organisms will behave in certain
situationsControl - the fourth goal of psychology is to control an organisms behavior
MORE APPROACHES, MORE ANSWERSHow do psychologists answer questions?
Approaches (6) to understanding behavior include:
BiologicalCognitiveBehavioralPsychoanalyticHumanisticCross cultural
MORE APPROACHES, MORE ANSWERS (CONT.)Biological approach
focuses on how our genes, hormones, and nervous system interact with ourenvironments to influence learning, personality, memory, motivation, emotions, andcoping techniques
Cognitive approach
examines how we process, store, and use information and how this informationinfluences, what we attend to, perceive, learn, remember, believe, and feel
MORE APPROACHES, MORE ANSWERS (CONT.)Behavioral approach
studies how organisms learn new behaviors or modify existing ones, depending onwhether events in their environments reward or punish these behaviors
Psychoanalyticapproachstresses the influence of unconscious fears, desires, and motivations on thoughts,
behaviors, and the development of personality traits and psychological problems laterin life
MORE APPROACHES, MORE ANSWERS (CONT.)Humanistic approach
emphasizes that each individual has great freedom in directing his or her future, a largecapacity for personal growth, a considerable amount of intrinsic worth, and enormouspotential for self-fulfillment
Cross-cultural approachexamines the influence of cultural and ethnic similarities and differences on psychological
and social functioning of a cultures membersHISTORICAL APPROACHES
How did psychology begin?Structuralism: Elements of the Mind
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Functionalism: Functions of the MindGestalt Approach: Sensations versus PerceptionsBehaviorism: Observable Behaviors
HISTORICAL APPROACHESStructuralism
was the study of the most basic elements, primarily sensations and perceptions, thatmake up our conscious mental experiences
Wilhelm WundtHISTORICAL APPROACHES
Functionalismwhich was the study of the function rather than the structure of consciousness, was
interested in how our minds adapt to our changing environmentHISTORICAL APPROACHES
Gestalt Approachemphasized that perception is more than the sum of its parts and studied how sensations
are assembled into meaningful perceptual experiencesHISTORICAL APPROACHES
Behaviorismemphasized the objective, scientific analysis of observable behaviors
CAREERS IN PSYCHOLOGYPsychologist versus Psychiatrist
Psychologists have completed four to five years of postgraduate education and haveobtained a Ph.D., PsyD., or Ed.D in psychology
Clinical Psychologists have a Ph.D., PsyD., or Ed.D., have specialized in a clinicalsubarea, and have spent an additional year in a supervised therapy setting to gainexperience in diagnosing and treating a wide range of abnormal behaviors
CAREERS IN PSYCHOLOGYPsychologist versus Psychiatrist
Counseling Psychologists provide many of the same services as Clinical Psychologists,
but usually work with different problems such as those involving marriage, family, orcareer counseling
Psychiatrists are medical doctors (M.D.s) who have spent several years in clinicaltraining, which includes diagnosing possible physical and neurological causes ofabnormal behaviors and treating these behaviors, often with prescription drugs
CAREERS IN PSYCHOLOGYMany Career Settings
49% of psychologists work as clinical or counseling psychologists in either privatepractice or therapy settings
28% of psychologists work in academic settings of universities and colleges13% of psychologists work in a variety of other kinds of jobs and career settings6% of psychologists work in industrial settings
4% of psychologists work in secondary schools and other settingsRESEARCH AREAS
Areas of SpecializationSocial and PersonalityDevelopmentalExperimentalBiologicalCognitivePsychometrics
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RESEARCH AREAS (CONT.)Areas of Specialization
Social psychologyinvolves the study of social interactions, stereotypes, prejudices, attitudes,conformity,
group behaviors, and aggressionPersonality psychology
involves the study of personality development, personality change, assessment, andabnormal behaviors
RESEARCH AREAS (CONT.)Areas of Specialization
Developmental psychologyexamines moral, social, emotional, and cognitive development throughout a persons
entire lifeExperimental psychology
includes areas of sensation, perception, learning, human performance, motivation,and emotion
RESEARCH AREAS (CONT.)Areas of Specialization
Biological psychologyor psychobiology involves research on the physical and chemical changes that occur
during stress, learning, and emotions, as well as how our genetic makeup, brain,and nervous system interact with our environments and influence our behaviors
RESEARCH AREAS (CONT.)Areas of Specialization
Cognitive psychologyinvolves how we process, store, and retrieve information and how cognitive
processes influence our behaviorsPsychometrics
focuses on the measurement of peoples abilities, skills, intelligence, personality, andabnormal behaviors
Module 2Psychology & Science
ANSWERING QUESTIONSResearch methods
SurveyCase studyExperiment
Researchers use all three methods
Each method provides a different kind of information
SURVEYSSurvey
way to obtain information by asking many individualsanswer a fixed set of questions about particular subjects
Disadvantagesinformation can contain errors
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results can be biasedAdvantage
efficient way to obtain much information from a large number of people
CASE STUDYCase study
an in-depth analysis of the thoughts, feelings, beliefs, experiences, behaviors, orproblems of a single individual
Disadvantagedetailed information about a particular person may not apply to others
Advantagedetailed information allows greater understanding of a particular persons life
EXPERIMENTExperiment
a method for identifying cause-and-effect relationships by following a set of rules andguidelines that minimize the possibility of error, bias, and chance occurrences.
Disadvantageinformation obtained in one experimental situation or laboratory setting may not apply to
other situationsAdvantage
has the greatest potential for identifying cause-and-effect relationships with less error andbias than either surveys or case studies
CULTURAL DIVERSITY: USE OF PLACEBOSPlacebo
intervention, such as taking a pill, receiving and injection, or undergoing an operation,that resembles medical therapy but has no medical effects
Placebo effectchange in the patients illness that is attributable to an imagined treatment rather than to
a medical treatmentResearchers believe that placebos work by reducing tension and distress and by creating
powerful self-fulfilling propheciesIndividuals think and behave as if the drug, actually a placebo, is effective
CULTURAL DIVERSITY: USE OF PLACEBOS (CONT.)Placebo examples
Rhino HornBear GallbladdersTiger BonesMagnets
CORRELATIONCorrelation
an association or relationship between the occurrence of two or more events
a correlation does NOT prove causation, just a relationship is present, which is usuallyattributable to a third variable
Correlation coefficienta number that indicates the strength of a relationship between two or more events: the
closer the number is to 1.00 or +1.00, the greater is the strength of the relationshipCORRELATION (CONT.)
Perfect positive correlation coefficient+1.00 means that an increase in one event is always matched by an equal increase in a
second event
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Positive correlation coefficientindicates that as one event tends to increase, the second event tends to, but does not
always, increaseincreases from +0.01 to +0.99 indicate a strengthening of the relationship between the
occurrence of two eventsCORRELATION (CONT.)
Zero correlationindicates that there is no relationship between the occurrence of one event and the
occurrence of a second eventNegative correlation coefficient
indicates that as one event tends to increase, the second event tends to, but does notalways, decrease
-0.01 to -0.99 indicates a strengthening in the relationship of one event increasing andthe other decreasing
CORRELATION (CONT.)Perfect negative correlation coefficient
-1.00 means that an increase in one event is always matched by an equal decrease in asecond event
correlations such as +1.00 or -1.00 are virtually never found in applied psychologicalresearch
CORRELATION (CONT.)DECISIONS ABOUT DOING RESEARCH
What is the best technique for answering a question?Questionnaires and interviewsLaboratory experimentsStandardized testsAnimal models
DECISIONS ABOUT DOING RESEARCH (CONT.)Questionnaire
technique for obtaining information by asking subjects to read a list of written questions
and check off specific answersInterview
technique for obtaining information by asking questions, ranging from open-ended tohighly structured, about a subjects behaviors and attitudes, usually in a one-on-onesituation
DECISIONS ABOUT DOING RESEARCH (CONT.)Laboratory experiments
techniques to gather information about the brain, genes, or behavior with the lease errorand bias by using a controlled environment that allows careful observation andmeasurement
Standardized teststechnique to obtain information by administering a psychological test that has been given
to hundreds of people and shown to reliably measure thought patterns, personalitytraits, emotions, or behaviors
DECISIONS ABOUT DOING RESEARCH (CONT.)Animal Models
involves examining or manipulating some behavioral, genetic, or physiological factor thatclosely approximates some human problem, disease, or condition
DECISIONS ABOUT DOING RESEARCH (CONT.)Choosing research settings
Naturalistic setting
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relatively normal environment in which researchers gather information by observingindividuals behaviors without attempting to change or control the situation
Laboratory settinginvolves studying individuals under systematic and controlled conditions, with many of
the real-world influences eliminatedSCIENTIFIC METHOD: EXPERIMENT
Advantages of scientific methodApproach of gathering information and answering questions so that errors and biases are
minimizedIdentifying cause-and-effect relationships
Conducting and Experiment: seven rulesRule 1: AskRule 2: IdentifyRule 3: ChooseRule 4: AssignRule 5: ManipulateRule 6: MeasureRule 7: Analyze
SCIENTIFIC METHOD: EXPERIMENT (CONT.)Rule 1: Ask
hypothesis - educated guess about some phenomenon stated in precise, concretelanguage to rule out any confusion or error in the meaning of its terms
Rule 2: Identify & defineindependent variable
a treatment or something that the researcher controls or manipulatesdependent variable
one or more of the subjects behaviors that are used to measure the potential effectsof the treatment or independent variable
Operational definitionprecise description of how the variables will be measured
SCIENTIFIC METHOD: EXPERIMENT (CONT.)Rule 3: Choose
random selection - each participant in a sample population has an equal chance of beingselected for the experiment
Rule 4: Assignexperimental group - those who receive the treatmentcontrol group - participants who undergo all the same procedures as the experimental
participants except that the control participants do not receive the treatmentSCIENTIFIC METHOD: EXPERIMENT (CONT.)
Rule 5: Manipulatedouble blind procedure - neither participants nor researchers know which group is
receiving which treatment
Rule 6: Measureby manipulating the treatment so that the experimental group receives a different
treatment than the control group, researchers are able to measure how theindependent variable (treatment) affects those behaviors that have been selected asthe dependent variables
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Rule 7: Analyzestatistical procedures
used to determine whether differences observed in dependent variables (behaviors)are due to independent variables (treatment) or to error or chance occurrence
APPLICATION: RESEARCH CONCERNSConcerns about being a subject
human and animalCode of ethics
the American Psychological Association publishes a code of ethics and conduct forpsychologists to follow when doing research, counseling, teaching, and relatedactivities
Role of deceptionone way that researchers control for participants expectations is to use bogus
procedures or instructions that prevent participants from learning the experiments truepurpose
APPLICATION: RESEARCH CONCERNS (CONT.)
Ethics of animal researchHow many animals are used in research?
18 to 22 million animals are used each year in biomedical researchAre research animals mistreated?
Of the millions of animals used in research, only a few cases of animal mistreatmenthave been confirmed.
APPLICATION: RESEARCH CONCERNS (CONT.)Ethics of animal research
Is the use of animals justified?researchers are currently using animals to study epilepsy, Alzheimers disease, fetal
alcohol syndrome, schizophrenia, AIDS, and transplantation of brain tissuenone of which is possible with human subjects
Who checks on the use of animals in research?U. S. Department of Agricultureuniversities hire veterinariansuniversities have animal subject committees
APPLICATION: RESEARCH CONCERNS (CONT.)Ethics of animal research
How do we strike a balance?many experts in the scientific, medical, and mental health communities believe that
the conscientious and responsible use of animals in research is justified and shouldcontinue
Module 3Brains Building BlocksStructure of the Brain
Geneschains of chemicals that are arranged like rungs on a twisting ladderthere are about 100,000 genes that contain chemical instructions that equal about
1,000,000 pages of written instructionsgenes program the development of individual parts into a complex brain & body
STRUCTURE OF THE BRAIN (CONT.)
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3 Functions of glial cellsguide the growth of developing neuronswrap around neurons and form an insulation to prevent interference from other electrical
signalsrelease chemicals that influence a neurons growth and function
STRUCTURE OF THE BRAIN (CONT.)
Neurona brain cell with 2 specialized extensionsone extension is for receiving electrical signalsthe other extension is for transmitting electrical signals
3 PARTS OF THE NEURONCell Body
large egg-shaped structure that provides fuel, manufactures chemicals, and maintainsthe entire neuron in working order
Dendritebranchlike extensions that arise from the cell bodyreceive signals from other neurons, muscles, or sense organspass these signals onto the cell body
Axona single threadlike structure that extends from and carries signals away from the cell
body to neighboring neurons, organs, or muscles
ALZHEIMERS DISEASEAlzheimers Disease
results from excessive buildup of toxic substances which destroy neuronsAlzheimers Boom
PERIPHERAL & CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEMPeripheral Nervous System
made up of nerves that are located throughout the body, except in the brain & spinal cordCentral Nervous System
made up of neurons located in the brain & spinal cordPERIPHERAL & CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
Nervesstringlike bundles of axons and dendrites that come from the spinal cord and are held
together by connective tissuecarry information from the senses, skin, muscles, and the bodys organs to and from the
spinal cordnerves in the peripheral nervous system have the ability to grow or reattach if severed or
damagedSENDING INFORMATION: ACTION POTENTIAL SEQUENCE
axon membrane has chemical gates that can open to allow electrically charged particlesto enter or can close to keep out these particles
ions are chemical particles that have electrical chargesopposite charges attract and like charges repel
SENDING INFORMATION: NERVE IMPULSESending Information
the nerve impulse refers to the series of separate action potentials that take placesegment by segment as they move down the length of the axon
All-or-None law
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if an action potential starts at the beginning of the axon, the action potential will continueat the same speed segment to segment to the very end of the axon
SENDING INFORMATION: NERVE IMPULSE (CONT.)Nerve impulse
nerve impulse is made up of 6 action potentials, with the first occurring at the beginningof the axon
SENDING INFORMATION: NERVE IMPULSE (CONT.)Resting state
the axon has a chargethe charge results from the axon membrane separating positive ions on the outside from
negative ions on the insideSENDING INFORMATION: NERVE IMPULSE (CONT.)
Sending informationaction potential is a tiny electrical current that is generated when the positive sodium ions
rush inside the axonthe enormous increase of Na ions inside the axon causes the inside to reverse its chargethe inside becomes positive & the outside becomes negative
NEUROTRANSMITTERNeurotransmitters
dozens of different chemicals that are made by neurons and then used forcommunication between neurons during the performance of mental or physicalactivities
Excitatory transmittersopen receptor locks and turn on neurons
Inhibitory transmittersclose locks and turn off neurons
NEUROTRANSMITTER (CONT.)Axons branch out and end near dendrites of neighboring cellsAxon terminals are the tips of the axons branches
A gap separates the axon terminals from dendrites - called the synapse or synaptic gapPresynaptic neuron message-sending neuronPostsynaptic neuron message-receiving neuron
WHAT DOES ALCOHOL DO?GABA Neurons
GABA neurons have chemical locks that can be opened by chemical keys in the form ofthe neurotransmitter GABA
GABA Keysalcohol molecules so closely resemble those of the GABA neurotransmitter that alcohol
can function like GABA keys and open GABA receptorswhen GABA neurons are excited, they decrease neural activity
REFLEXReflex
unlearned, involuntary reaction to some stimulusneural connections underlying a reflex are prewired by genetic instructions
Reflex sequencesensors
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sensors trigger neurons that start the withdrawal effectafferent neurons
carry information from the senses to the spinal cordREFLEX (CONT.)
Interneuronrelatively short neuron whose primary task is making connections between other neurons
Efferent neuroncarry information away from the spinal cord to produce responses in various muscles and
organs throughout the bodyPARKINSONS DISEASE
Parkinsons Diseaseincludes symptoms of tremors and shakes in the limbs, a slowing of voluntary
movements, and feelings of depressionas the disease progresses, patients develop a shuffling walk and may suddenly freeze in
space for minute or hours at a timePARKINSONS DISEASE (Cont.)
Parkinsons Disease
It is caused by destruction of neurons that produce dopamineL-dopa is a medication that boosts the levels of dopamine in the braineventually the drug causes involuntary jerky movementsafter prolonged use, L-dopas beneficial effect may be replaced by unwanted jerky
movementsFETAL TISSUE TRANSPLANTS
Sterotaxic procedurefixing a patients head in a holder and drilling a small hole through the skullthe holder has a syringe that can be precisely guided into a predetermined location in the
brainTo date, about 150 Parkinsons patients have been treated with fetal tissue transplants
about 30 to 60% showed substantial improvement, but none have been completely cured
patients under 60 showed most improvement, while those over 60 reported little or noimprovement in symptoms
Module 4Incredible Nervous System
GENES & EVOLUTIONGenetic information
brain and body developed according to complex chemical instructions that were written ina human cell no larger than a grain of sand
FertilizationZygoteChromosomes
Chemical alphabetGenes and proteinsGenomeGenetic factors
GENES & EVOLUTION (CONT.)Fertilization
occurs when a sperm, which contains 23 chromosomes, penetrates an egg, whichcontains 23 chromosomes
GENES & EVOLUTION (CONT.)
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Zygotethe largest human cell, about the size of a grain of sanda zygote is a cell that results when an egg is fertilizeda zygote contains 46 chromosomes arranged in 23 pairs
GENES & EVOLUTION (CONT.)Chromosomes
a short, rodlike, microscopic structure that contains a tightly coiled strand of the chemicalDNA, which is an abbreviation for deoxyribonucleic acid
GENES & EVOLUTION (CONT.)Chemical alphabet
each chromosome contains a long, coiled strand of DNA, which resembles a ladder thathas been twisted over an over upon itself
each rung of the DNA ladder is made up of four chemicalsthe order in which the four different chemicals combine to form rungs creates a
microscopic alphabetGENES & EVOLUTION (CONT.)
Genes and proteinsGene - a specific segment on the long strand of DNA that contains instructions for
making proteinsProteins - chemical building blocks from which all the parts of the brain and body are
constructedGENES & EVOLUTION (CONT.)
GenomeThe Human Genome Projectbegan in 1995 and cost over $2.7 billionreached its first goal in 2003 of mapping all the human genesresearchers found only about 30,000 human genes instead of the estimated 100,000
GENES & EVOLUTION (CONT.)Genetic factors
researchers are discovering how genetic factors interact with the environment to result in
the development of mental retardation, emotional and personality traits, mentaldisorders, and various cognitive abilities
Fragile X syndromean inherited developmental disability, is due to a defect in the X chromosome
GENES & EVOLUTION (CONT.)Evolution of the human brain
1859 Charles Darwin published the Origin of SpeciesTheory of Evolution
says that different species arose from a common ancestor and that those species thatsurvived were best adapted to meet the demands of their environment
STUDYING THE LIVING BRAINBrain scans
techniques that can look through the thick skull and picture the brain with astonishinglyclarity yet cause no damage to the extremely delicate brain cells
MRI - magnetic resonance imageryinvolves passing nonharmful radio frequencies through the brain
fMRI - functional magnetic resonance imagingmeasures the activity of specific neurons that are functioning during cognitive tasks,
such as thinking, listening
STUDYING THE LIVING BRAIN (CONT.)
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Brain scans and Cognitive NeurosciencePET scan - positron emission tomography
involves injecting a slightly radioactive solution into the blood and then measuring theamount of radiation absorbed by brain cells called neurons
STUDYING THE LIVING BRAIN (CONT.)
Tools versus Animalsnaming animalsnaming tools
ORGANIZATION OF THE BRAINDivisions of the Nervous SystemMajor divisions of the nervous system
central nervous system - CNSperipheral nervous system - PNS
ORGANIZATION OF THE BRAIN (CONT.)Central nervous system - CNS
made up of the brain and spinal cordORGANIZATION OF THE BRAIN (CONT.)
Peripheral nervous system - PNSincludes all the nerves that extend from the spinal cord and carry messages to and from
various muscles, glands, and sense organs located throughout the bodySubdivisions of the PNS
Somatic nervous system - SNSAutonomic nervous system - ANS
sympathetic divisionparasympathetic division
ORGANIZATION OF THE BRAIN (CONT.)Somatic nervous system
network of nerves that connect either to sensory receptors or to muscles that you canmove voluntarily, such as muscles in your limbs, back, neck, and chest
nerves contain two kinds of fibersAfferent
sensory fibers; carry information to the brainEfferent
motor fibers; carry information from brain or spinal cord to the musclesORGANIZATION OF THE BRAIN (CONT.)
Autonomic nervous system - ANSregulates heart rate, breathing, blood pressure, digestion, hormone secretion, and other
functionsSympathetic division
triggered by threatening or challenging physical or psychological stimuli, increasesphysiological arousal and prepares the body for action
Parasympathetic divisionreturns the body to a calmer, relaxed state and is involved in digestion
ORGANIZATION OF THE BRAIN (CONT.)ORGANIZATION OF THE BRAIN (CONT.)
Major Parts of the BrainForebrainMidbrainHindbrain
pons
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medullacerebellum
ORGANIZATION OF THE BRAIN (CONT.)Hindbrain - Has three distinct structures:
Ponsfunctions as a bridge to interconnect messages between the spinal cord and brain
coordinates left and rights side of the bodyMedulla
located on top of the spinal cordincludes a group of cells that control vital reflexes, such as respiration, heart rate, and
blood pressureCerebellum
located in the very back and underneath the braininvolved in coordinating but not in initiating voluntary movements
ORGANIZATION OF THE BRAIN (CONT.)Midbrain
has a reward or pleasure center, which stimulated by food, sex, money, music, looking atattractive faces, and some drugs (cocaine)
has areas for visual and auditory reflexescontains the reticular formation, which arouses the forebrain so that it is ready to process
information from the sensesORGANIZATION OF THE BRAIN (CONT.)
Forebrainlargest part of the brainhas right and left sides called hemisphereshemispheres are responsible for a number of functions, including learning and memory,
speaking and language, emotional responses, experiencing sensations, initiatingvoluntary movements, planning, and making decisions
CONTROL CENTERS: FOUR LOBESWrinkled cortex
a thin layer of cells that essentially covers the entire surface of the forebrainFour lobes
Frontal lobeParietal lobeOccipital lobeTemporal lobe
CONTROL CENTERS: FOUR LOBES (CONT.)Frontal lobe
involved with personality, emotions, and motor behaviorsParietal lobe
involved with perception and sensory experiencesOccipital lobe
involved with visual processingTemporal lobe
involved with hearing and speakingCONTROL CENTERS: FOUR LOBES (CONT.)
Frontal lobe: functionsmotor cortexnarrow strip of cortex that is located on the back edge of the frontal lobe and extends
down its sideinvolved in the initiation of all voluntary movements
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right side controls leftleft side controls rightorganization and function of motor cortex
Other functions of frontal lobemuch knowledge of other frontal lobe functions comes from individuals who had damage
to that area
Phineas Gage
CONTROL CENTERS: FOUR LOBES (CONT.)
Parietal lobe: functionlocation of somatosensory cortexnarrow strip of cortex that is located on the front edge of the parietal lobe and extends
down its sideOther functions of parietal lobe
involved in several cognitive functions, including recognizing objects, remembering items,and perceiving and analyzing objects in space
CONTROL CENTERS: FOUR LOBES (CONT.)Temporal lobe: functions
primary auditory cortexlocated on top edge of each temporal lobe, receives electrical signals from receptors
in the ears and transforms these signals into meaningful sound sensations, such asvowels and consonants
CONTROL CENTERS: FOUR LOBES (CONT.)Temporal lobe: functions
auditory association arealocated directly below the primary auditory cortextransforms basic sensory information, such as noises or sounds, into recognizable
auditory information, such as words or music
CONTROL CENTERS: FOUR LOBES (CONT.)Temporal lobe: functions
Brocas area - frontal lobelocated in left frontal lobenecessary for combining sounds into words and arranging words into meaningful
sentencesWernickes area
located in the left temporal lobenecessary for speaking in coherent sentences and for understanding speech
CONTROL CENTERS: FOUR LOBES (CONT.)Occipital lobe: functions
visionprimary visual cortex
located at the very back of the occipital lobereceives electrical signals from receptors in the eyes and transforms these signals
into meaningless basic visual sensations, such as lights, lines, shadows, colors,and textures
CONTROL CENTERS: FOUR LOBES (CONT.)Occipital lobe: functions
visual association area
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transforms basic sensations, such as lights, lines, colors, and textures, into complete,meaningful visual perceptions, such as persons, objects, or animals
LIMBIC SYSTEM: OLD BRAINStructures and functions
HypothalamusAmygdala
ThalamusHippocampus
LIMBIC SYSTEM: OLD BRAIN (CONT.)Hypothalamus
regulates many:motivational behaviors, including eating, drinking, and sexual responsesemotional behaviors such as arousing the body when fighting or fleeingsecretion of hormones, such as occurs at pubertyhomeostasis water/salt, temperature, insulin levels, etc.
Amygdalalocated in the tip of the temporal lobereceives input from all the senses
evaluates the emotional significance of stimuli and facial expressions, especially thoseinvolving fear, distress, or threat
LIMBIC SYSTEM: OLD BRAIN (CONT.)Thalamus
gathers and processes information from the sensesinvolved in receiving sensory information, doing some initial processing, and then
relaying the sensory information to areas of the cortexregulates awareness, attention, motivation, and emotional sensations
Hippocampuscurved structure inside the temporal lobeInvolved in saving many kinds of fleeting memories by putting them into permanent
storage in various parts of the brain
LIMBIC SYSTEM: OLD BRAIN (CONT.)Autonomic nervous system
Sympathetic - triggered by threatening or challenging physical or psychological stimuliPhysiological responses
increased heart rate, increased blood pressure, and dilated pupilsfight or flight
Parasympatheticdecreases physiological arousalreturns the body to a calmer, more relaxed statestimulates digestion during eatingPhysiological responses
decreases heart rate
lowers blood pressurestimulate digestionbody returns to more relaxed state.
LIMBIC SYSTEM: OLD BRAIN (CONT.)LIMBIC SYSTEM: OLD BRAIN (CONT.)
Autonomic nervous systemHomeostasis
sympathetic and parasympathetic systems work together to keep the bodys level of
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arousal in balance for optimum functioningENDOCRINE SYSTEM
Endocrine SystemMade up of numerous glands that are located throughout the body. Glands secrete
various chemicals called hormones.Pituitary
PancreasThyroidAdrenal glandsGonads
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM (CONT.)Pituitary gland
hangs below the hypothalamusdivided into anterior and posteriorAnterior
front portionregulates growth through secretion of growth hormoneproduces hormones that control the adrenal cortex, pancreas, thyroid, and pancreas
Posteriorrear portionregulates water and salt balance
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM (CONT.)Pancreas
regulates the level of sugar in the bloodstream by secreting insulinThyroid
located in the neckregulates metabolism through secretion of hormones
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM (CONT.)Adrenal glands
adrenal cortex (outside part) - secretes hormones that regulate sugar and salt balance
adrenal medulla (inside part) - secretes two hormones that arouse the body to deal withstress and emergencies
epinephrine (adrenaline)norepinephrine (noradrenaline)
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM (CONT.)Gonads
Femalesovaries produce hormones that regulate sexual development, ovulation, and growth
of sex organsMales
testes produce hormones that regulate sexual development, production of sperm, andgrowth of sex organs
Module 5Sensation
EYE: VISIONStructure and function
eyes perform 2 separate processes
gather and focus light into precise area in the back of eyearea absorbs and transforms light waves into electrical impulses - process called
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transductionEYE: VISION
Structure and function
Vision: 7 steps
Image reversedLight waves
CorneaPupilIrisLensRetina
EYE: VISIONStructure and function
Image reversed
In the back of the eye, objects appear upside down.somehow the brain turns the objects right side up
Light waves
light waves are changed from broad beams to narrow, focused ones
EYE: VISIONStructure and function
Cornea
rounded, transparent covering over the front of your eyePupil
round opening at the front of the eye that allows light waves to pass into the eyesinterior
EYE: VISIONStructure and function
Iris
circular muscle that surrounds the pupil and controls the amount of light entering theeye
Lenstransparent, oval structure whose curved surface bends and focuses light waves into
an even narrower beamEYE: VISION
Structure and function
Retina
located at the very back of the eyeball, is a thin film that contains cells that areextremely sensitive to light
light sensitive cells, called photoreceptors, begin the process of transduction byabsorbing light waves
Conesconcentrated in center of eye (fovea)
approx. 6 million
allow us to see in bright light, see fine spatial detail, and see different colorsadapt quicklyone cone often synapses onto only a single ganglion cell (increases visual acuity)
Rodsconcentrated in periphery
approx. 120 millionallow us to see in dim light and at nightadapt slowlythe axons of many rods synapse onto one ganglion cell (increases sensitivity to dim
light)
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EYE: VISIONVisual pathways: Eye to brain
Optic nerve
Primary visual cortexVisual association areas
EYE: VISIONVisual pathways: eye to brain
Optic nerve
nerve impulses flow through the optic nerve as it exits from the back of the eyethe exit point is the blind spotthe optic nerves partially cross and pass through the thalamusthe thalamus relays impulses to the back of the occipital lobe in the right and left
hemisphereEYE: VISION
Visual pathways: eye to brain
Primary visual cortexthe backs of the occipitals lobes is where primary visual cortex transforms nerve
impulses into simple visual sensationsVisual association areas
the primary visual cortex sends simple visual sensations to neighboring associationareas
Visual Impairment and the Artificial EyeEAR: AUDITION
Stimulus:
Sound waves
stimuli for hearing (audition)ripples of different sizes
Sound waves travel through space with varying heights and frequency.Height
distance from the bottom to the top of a sound wavecalled amplitude
Frequency
number of sound waves occurring within one secondEAR: AUDITION
Measuring sound waves
decibel: unit to measure loudness
threshold for hearing:
0 decibels (no sound)140 decibels (pain and permanent hearing loss
EAR: AUDITIONOuter, middle, and inner ear
Outer ear - consists of three structures
external earoval shaped structure that protrudes from the side of the headfunction - pick up sound waves and then send them down the auditory
canalauditory canal
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long tube that funnels sound waves down its length so that the waves strikethe tympanic membrane (ear drum)
tympanic membranetaut, thin structure commonly called the eardrumSound waves strike the tympanic membrane and cause it to vibrate
EAR: AUDITIONOuter, middle, and inner ear
Middle ear
bony cavity sealed at each end by membranes.the membranes are connected by three tiny bones called ossicles
hammer, anvil, and stirruphammer is attached to the back of the tympanic membraneanvil receives vibrations from the hammerstirrup makes the connection to the oval window (end membrane)
EAR: AUDITIONOuter, middle, and inner ear
Inner ear
contains two structures sealed by bonecochlea: involved in hearingvestibular system: involved in balance
EAR: AUDITIONCochlea
bony coiled exterior that resembles a snails shell
contains receptors for hearing
function is transduction
transforms vibrations into nerve impulses that are sent to the brain for processing into auditory
information
EAR: AUDITIONAuditory brain areas
sensations and perceptionstwo step process occurs after the nerve impulses reach the brain
primary auditory cortex
top edge of temporal lobetransforms nerve impulses into basic auditory sensations
auditory association area
combines meaningless auditory sensations into perceptions, which are meaningfulmelodies, songs, words, or sentences
VESTIBULAR SYSTEM: BALANCEPosition and balance
vestibular system is located above the cochlea in the inner earincludes semicircular canals
bony arches set at different angleseach semicircular canal is filled with fluid that moves in response to movements of your head
canals have hair cells that respond to the fluid movement
function of vestibular system
include sensing the position of the head, keeping the head upright, and maintaining balance
CHEMICAL SENSESTaste
chemical sense because the stimuli are various chemicals
Surface of the tongue
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chemicals, which are the stimuli for taste, break down into moleculesmolecules mix with saliva an run into narrow trenches on the surface of the tonguemolecules then stimulate the taste buds
Taste buds -
shaped like miniature onionsreceptors for taste
chemicals dissolved in saliva activate taste budsproduce nerve impulses that reach areas of the brains parietal lobebrain transforms impulses into sensations of tastenot located in a particular area like previously believed
CHEMICAL SENSES (CONT.)
Five basic tastes
sweetsaltysourbitterumami: meaty-cheesy taste
CHEMICAL SENSES (CONT.)Smell or olfaction
called a chemical sense because its stimuli are various chemicals that are carried by the air
Function of olfaction
receptors, through transduction, transform chemical reactions into nerve impulsesCHEMICAL SENSES (CONT.)
Smell, or olfaction
Steps for olfaction
StimulusOlfactory cellsSensation and memories
Functions of olfactionCHEMICAL SENSES (CONT.)
Smell, or olfaction
Stimulus
we smell volatile substancesvolatile substances are released molecules in the the air at room temperatureexample:
skunk spray, perfumes, warm brownies; not glass or steelCHEMICAL SENSES (CONT.)
Smell, or olfaction
Olfactory cells
receptors for smell are located in a I-inch-square patches of tissue in the uppermost
part of the nasal passages.olfactory cells are covered in mucusvolatile molecules dissolve and stimulate the cellsthe cells trigger nerve impulses that travel to the brainwhich interprets the impulses as different smells
CHEMICAL SENSES (CONT.)Smell, or olfaction
Sensations and memories
nerve impulses travel to the olfactory bulb
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impulses are relayed to the primary olfactory cortexcortex transforms nerve impulses into olfactory sensationscan identify as many as 10,000 different odorswe stop smelling our deodorants or perfumes because of decreased respondingcalled sensory adaptation
CHEMICAL SENSES (CONT.)
Smell, or olfactionFunctions of olfaction
to intensify the taste of foodto warn of potentially dangerous foodselicit strong memories; emotional feelings
Smell MemoryTOUCH
Touch
includes pressure, temperature, and pain
Receptors in the skin
skin
hair receptors
free nerve endingsPacinian corpuscle
TOUCH (CONT.)Skin
outermost layerthin film of dead cells containing no receptors
just below, are fist receptors which look like groups of threadlike extensions
middle and fatty layer
variety of receptors with different shapes and functions
some are hair receptors
TOUCH (CONT.)Hair receptors
free nerve endings wrapped around the base of each hair folliclehair follicles fire with a burst of activity when first bent
If hair remains bent for a period of time, the receptors will cease firing.
sensory adaptation
example: wearing a watch
TOUCH (CONT.)Free nerve endings
near bottom of the outer layer of skin
have nothing protecting or surrounding them
Pacinian corpuscle
in fatty layer of skinlargest touch sensor
highly sensitive to touchresponds to vibration and adapts very quickly
TOUCH (CONT.)Brain areas
somatosensory cortex
located in the parietal lobe
transforms nerve impulses into sensations of touch temperature, and pain
PAINWhat causes pain?
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pain: unpleasant sensory and emotional experience that may result from tissue damage, ones
thoughts or beliefs, or environmental stressors
pain results from many different stimuli
PAIN (CONT.)How does the mind stop pain?
gate control theory of painnonpainful nerve impulses compete with pain impulses in trying to reach the brain
creates a bottleneck or neutral gate
shifting attention or rubbing an injured area decreases the passage of painful impulses
result: pain is dulled
PAIN (CONT.)Endorphins
chemicals produced by the brain and secreted in response to injury or severe physical or
psychological stress
pain reducing properties of endorphins are similar to those of morphine
brain produces endorphins in situations that evoke great fear, anxiety, stress or bodily injury as
well as intense aerobic activity
http://www.msjc.edu/sjcpsyc/mmaggard/PSYC101/module5.doc
Module 6Perception
PERCEPTUAL THRESHOLDSBecoming aware of a stimulus
Gustav Fechner
defined the absolute threshold as the smallest amount of stimulus energy (such as sound or
light) that can be observed or experienced
Absolute threshold
the intensity level of a stimulus such that a person will have a 50% chance of detecting it
PERCEPTUAL THRESHOLDS (CONT.)Subliminal stimulus
has an intensity that gives a person less than a 50% chance of detecting the stimulus
PERCEPTUAL THRESHOLDS (CONT.)E. H. Weber
worked on the problem of how we judge whether a stimulus, such as loud music, has increased or
decreased in intensity
concept of just noticeable difference (JND)
refers to the smallest increase or decrease in the intensity of a stimulus that a person is able to
detect
Webers lawThe increase in intensity of a stimulus needed to produce a just noticeable difference grows in
proportion to the intensity of the initial stimulus.
SENSATION VERSUS PERCEPTIONBasic Differences
Sensations
our first awareness of some outside stimulus.
outside stimulus activates sensory receptors, which in turn produce electrical signals that are
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transformed by the brain into meaningless bits of information
Perceptions
the experience we have after our brain assembles and combines thousands of individual
sensations into a meaningful pattern or image
SENSATION VERSUS PERCEPTION (CONT.)Changing sensation into perception
Stimuluschange of energy in the environment, such as light waves, sound waves, mechanical pressure,
or chemicals
Transduction
change physical energy into electrical signals
electrical signals are changed into impulses that travel into the brain
Brain
impulses from senses first go to different primary areas of the brain
SENSATION VERSUS PERCEPTION (CONT.)Changing sensation into perception
brain: association areas
sensation impulses are sent to the appropriate association area in the brain
Personalized perceptionseach of us has a unique set of personal experiences, emotions, and memories that are automatically
added to our perceptions by other areas of the brain
RULES OF ORGANIZATIONStructuralist versus Gestalt psychologists
Structuralists
believed that you add together hundreds of basic elements to form complex perceptions
Gestaltists
believe our brains follow a set of rules that specify how individual elements are to be
organized into a meaningful pattern, or perception
RULES OF ORGANIZATION (CONT.)Organizational rules
rules of organization: identified by Gestalt psychologistsspecify how our brains combine and organize individual pieces or elements into a meaningful
perception
Figure-ground
states: in organizing stimuli, we tend to automatically distinguish between a figure and a
ground
Similarity
states: in organizing stimuli, we group together elements that appear similar
RULES OF ORGANIZATION (CONT.)Organizational rules
Closure
states: in organizing stimuli, we tend to fill in any missing parts of a figure and see the figureas complete
Proximity
states: in organizing stimuli, we group together objects that are physically close to one another
RULES OF ORGANIZATION (CONT.)Organizational rules
Simplicity
states: stimuli are organized in the simplest way possible
Continuity
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states: in organizing stimuli, we tend to favor the smooth or continuous paths when
interpreting a series of points or lines
PERCEPTUAL CONSTANCYSize, shape, brightness & color constancy
Size constancyrefers to our tendency to perceive objects as remaining the same size even when their images
on the retina are continually growing or shrinkingShape constancy
refers to our tendency to perceive and object as retaining its same shape even though when we
view it from different angles, its shape is continually changing its image on the retina
PERCEPTUAL CONSTANCY (CONT.)Size, shape, brightness & color constancy
Brightness constancy
refers to the tendency to perceive brightness as remaining the same in changing illumination
Color constancy
refers to the tendency to perceive colors as remaining stable despite differences in lighting
DEPTH PERCEPTIONBinocular (two eyes) depth cues
Depth perceptionrefers to the ability of your eye and brain to add a third dimension, depth, to all visual
perceptions, even though images projected on the retina are in only two dimensions, height,
and width
Binocular depth cuesdepends on the movement of both eyes
Convergence
refers to a binocular cue for depth perception based on signals sent from muscles that turn the
eyes
DEPTH PERCEPTION (CONT.)Retinal disparity
refers to a binocular depth cue that depends on the distance between the eyes
DEPTH PERCEPTION (CONT.)Monocular depth cues
produced by signals from a single eye
Linear perspective
monocular depth cue that results as parallel lines come together, converge, in the distance
Relative size
monocular depth cue that results when we expect two objects to be the same size and they are
not
Interposition
monocular depth cue that comes into play when objects overlap
DEPTH PERCEPTION (CONT.)Monocular depth cues
Light and shadowmonocular depth cues where brightly lit objects appear closer, while objects in shadows
appear farther away
Texture gradient
monocular depth cue in which areas with sharp, detailed texture are interpreted as being closer
and those with less sharpness and poorer detail are perceived as more distant
DEPTH PERCEPTION (CONT.)Monocular depth cues
Atmospheric perspective
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monocular depth cue that is created by the presence of dust, smog, clouds, or water vapor
Motion parallax
monocular depth cue based on the speed of moving objects
DEPTH PERCEPTION (CONT.)ILLUSIONS
Strange perceptions
Illusiona perceptual experience in which you perceive an image as being so strangely distorted that, in
reality, it cannot and does not exist
Impossible figure
perceptual experience in which a drawing seems to defy basic geometric laws
Stereogram
a stereogram is formed by superimposing two repeating patterns
the two patterns are slightly offset; when viewed properly, this offset is seen as a binocular
disparity
Stereogram
EXTRASENSORY PERCEPTIONDefinition
a group of psychic experiences that involve perceiving or sending information (images) outside
normal sensory processes or channels
Four general abilities
Telepathy - ability to transfer ones thoughts to another or to read the thoughts of others
Precognition - ability to foretell events
Clairvoyance - ability to perceive events or objects that are out of sight
Psychokinesis - ability to exert mind over matter; moving objects