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Uniwersytet Papieski Jana Pawla II w
Krakowie
Self-study Course
for Trainers of
Intercultural
Mediators
Module 4
Communication
techniques
Uniwersytet Papieski Jana Pawla II w
Krakowie
2
© TIME project partnership, 2016
www.mediation-time.eu
Development of document:
Uniwersytet Papieski Jana Pawla II w Krakowie
Editing of document:
Olympic Training and Consulting Ltd, www.olympiakokek.gr
This project has been funded with support from the European Commission. The TIME project reflects the views only of the author, and the Commission cannot be held responsible for any
use which may be made of the information contained therein.
3
Table of Contents
1. Objectives of module ...........................................................................4
2. Introduction to communication ................................................................5
2.1. Definitions ........................................................................................5
2.2. Basic terms of communication .................................................................6
3. Communication features .......................................................................9
3.1. Classification and roles of communication ...................................................9
3.2. Features, roles and competences .............................................................9
3.3. Basic communication models ................................................................ 11
4. Communication techniques .................................................................. 15
4.1. Levels of communication ..................................................................... 15
4.2. Main rules of interpersonal communication ............................................... 16
5. Verbal and non-verbal communication ..................................................... 18
6. Improving communication effectiveness and argumentation ........................... 27
6.1. Effective communication ..................................................................... 27
6.2. Argumentation ................................................................................. 28
6.3. Persuasion techniques ........................................................................ 29
6.4. Tools of communication ...................................................................... 29
7. Problems in communication .................................................................. 33
7.1. Communication barriers ...................................................................... 33
7.2. Barriers to accurate perception ............................................................. 33
7.3. Barriers to effective verbal communication ............................................... 34
8. Principles of intercultural communication ................................................. 36
9. Selected reading ............................................................................... 38
4
1. Objectives of module
Communication is at the core of both training and intercultural mediation. This module
provides the trainer who hasn’t previously received training on communication issues with
an in-depth discussion of communication principles that apply in general, as well as
communication issues in multicultural environments and the mediation context.
At the end of this module you will be able to:
1. Analyze and interpret verbal, non-verbal, informative and persuasive messages
2. Understand how problems in communication arise
3. Apply appropriate techniques in order to improve communication with a variety
of different people including students
4. Create messages tailored to different levels of communication and choose
appropriate communication tools depending on the purpose
5. Understand the dilemmas associated with conducting discussions in a
multicultural context
6. Apply the principles of intercultural communication
5
2. Introduction to communication
2.1. Definitions
Communication is the transmission of mental content - that is thinking or feeling, between
two or more people who interact with each other. At the same time one of them serves as
the sender, and the other(s) as the receiver, while their roles may change during the
process.
Communication takes effect through facial expressions, gestures, the touch, images,
music, the body's movements, and above all, thanks to the natural languages. That's why in
every aspect of life and social functioning the role of communication is so important.
In the etymological sense of the word communication comes from the Latin
"communicare", which means ‘to put in common’, ‘to share’. Although it is widely known
and used in different languages, it is not always clear and well understood.
There are about 100 different definitions of communication; here we are going to mention
just a few in order to highlight the different functions of the communication process:
Communication as a basic term
In 1909, Cooley in the study "Social Organization" formulates a classic definition of
communication:
It is “the mechanism through which human relations exist and develop—all the symbols of
the mind, together with the means of conveying them through space and preserving them
in time. It includes the expression of the face, attitude and gesture, the tones of the
voice, words, writing, printing, railways, telegraphs, telephones, and whatever else may
be the latest achievement in the conquest of space and time.”
Communication as transmission
Transfer of information in a very broad sense of the term (Ayer).
Transfer of information, ideas and emotions; skills or transmission process (Bertson,
Steiner).
Communication as understanding
Communication is a process by which we understand others, and try to be understood
(Anderson).
The process by which two people come to the same thoughts or feelings (Adler).
Communication as mergers
A process that combines the discrete parts of our living environment (Reuch).
Create a whole society of individuals using language or signs (Sherry).
6
Communication as interaction
Communication is social interaction through symbols (Gerbner).
Communication as a replacement
Communication is the exchange of meanings between people. It is possible to the extent
that individuals have common perceptions, desires and attitudes (Balchey).
2.2. Basic terms of communication
The effectiveness of communication depends on whether the sender:
Knows the audience
Choses the right way of communication, including the media
Has knowledge of the rules of argumentation and persuasion
Transmits the message at the right time
Choses the right form of communication, including the content of the message,
style, slogan, written text or spoken word
The following principles of communication apply when sending a message:
Prepare and inspire the audience
A positive attitude towards the recipient is very important. ‘The boomerang principle’
works here - what we send to the world, comes back to us. You could say simplifying
that what we get from people is what we give them.
Graph 1: Key elements of communication.
7
Remember about the first impression
During the first meeting we experience hundreds of stimuli archaic, which we do not
control (expansion of the pupil, muscle twitching under the eyes etc.). First
impressions cannot be done second time and they are hard to change. The first 15
seconds of the first 20 words and gestures will have an impact on whether or not we
will get along with that person.
Be aware of perceptions and stereotypes, and avoid them
Stereotypes simplify our life but they do not help in communication. When
stereotyping we generalize and make unauthorized inferences. Often on the basis of
one characteristic we conclude about other characteristics e.g. good education is
associated with good manners. However, stereotype-free thinking is essential for good
communication.
Listen well
Unfortunately, the ability to listen decreases with age. Children listen well because
they are curious. Why do not adults listen as well? Because they think of something
else; they are contemplating what to answer; because of the internal speakers; lack of
interest. How can we help ourselves in listening? We can paraphrase words of the
sender; summarize the meaning of what he says; confirm; ask questions; use
confirming gestures.
Graph 2: Active listening.
The effectiveness of communication is also affected by the recipient or the target group.
All the following characteristics of the recipient play an important role in decoding the
message:
activity level
intellect, perceptive capability
personality
demographic characteristics
8
knowledge
motivation
attitude
self-esteem
stereotypes, likes and dislikes
The message itself should also be adapted to the given situation in which we are trying to
communicate. The sender should take into account:
The recipient’s attitude towards the subject of the message
The recipient’s attitude towards the channel of information
The objectives of the target group
Current needs, interests, expectations of the sender and the recipient
The environment - family, professional, other - which affects the way of receiving
and interpreting information
1. Mass communication theory: An introduction, McQuail, Denis, Thousand Oaks, CA,
US
2. Communication and Persuasion: Central and Peripheral Routes to Attitude Change
Richard Petty, John Cacioppo,
https://books.google.pl/books?id=nFFDBAAAQBAJ&lpg=PT12&ots=idGdAtJJp9&dq=com
munication&lr&hl=pl&pg=PT3#v=onepage&q&f=false
3. Communication theory
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/51/Communication_Theory.pdf
4. Communication techniques
http://www.urd.org/IMG/pdf/MP_GB_CHAPITRE4.pdf
9
3. Communication features
3.1. Classification and roles of communication
Communication processes are classified according to the purpose:
1. Informative communication. Its primary purpose is to establish facts, creating mutual
agreement and understanding between participants, knowledge sharing, explanation and
briefing, assuming that the sender does not have the intention of influencing the attitude
of receivers. It fulfills strictly informational functions and is objective in nature.
The basic methods of information include:
Narrative – conveying the facts from the beginning to the end.
Description – it usually relates to people, objects or situations. The order of facts is
not the most important.
Demonstration - verbal communication during the transfer accompanied by
simultaneously performing other activities illustrating the message.
Defining - explaining concepts, their classification, differentiating, pointing to
synonyms, antonyms, a reference to examples or comparisons.
2. Persuasive communication. The main aim is to influence, using inducements and
translations. Information is subjective and not necessarily reliable. The object of
persuasion can be an individual, ideas, values or phenomena, i.e. anything that can be
estimated at an intellectual, moral or emotional level. The fundamental value is the
impact on the recipient, to get him to attitudes that are compatible with the intentions of
the sender, without applying pressure.
There are three types of persuasion:
Convincing - a classic example is the transaction process, where both sides seek
agreement and understanding. It is the most ethical.
Inducing - the intention is to attract the receiver to the sender's ideas, values and
attitudes that professes unit persuasion. It is used in advertising or in education.
Depending on the purpose and whom it serves, it may be either useful or harmful.
Stimulating - or agitation. It aims to achieve short-term benefits. This type of
persuasion is accompanied with the most ethical controversies.
3.2. Features, roles and competences
The basic characteristics of the communication process agreed by researchers from
different schools and theoretical approaches are that:
Communication is a specific social process as it relates to at least two individuals
and the social environment.
10
Communication always occurs in a specific social context, which is determined by
the number and nature of the participants in the process. Context may be
institutional, group, public, mass or intercultural.
Communication is a creative process, during which new concepts are built and the
knowledge about the surrounding reality is acquired continuously.
Communication is always dynamic because it is about receiving, decoding and
interpreting information.
Communication is a continuous process because it takes place from the moment of
birth until death, provided of course that the person will stay in a social
environment.
Communication is the process of symbolic because in most cases symbols and signs
are used. In order to make communication possible, there must exist a common
semiotic ground (same characters and symbols) at least at an elementary level.
Communication is an interactive process between its participants producing certain
relationships, which can be divided into two types: a) partner relationship –
symmetric communication, and b) relationship of domination and subordination –
unbalanced communication
Naturally, in order to participate in verbal communication some kind of competence and
efficiency is required. These competences are mutually conditioning, so that knowledge
cannot occur in the human mind without specific skills. And skills cannot appear without
previously acquired competences. In communication we can distinguish three main
competences.
a) Linguistic competence: It refers to the unconscious knowledge to build sentences
grammatically correct and meaningful. Knowledge of the language system includes all
three levels of language: phonological, morphological and syntactic. According to
Chomsky’s theory linguistic competence is the knowledge of the abstract rules that
determine both message creation and reception (understanding).
b) Communicative competence: It refers to knowledge about the use of language in a
social group. It is the ability to adapt language use:
According to different systems and social roles, depending on cultural context, the
social position of the sender and the receiver, the type of contact (official –
unofficial), the stability of the contact etc.
According to the given situation, such as the number of speakers, time and place
of the conversation, the conversation dynamic, the channel of transmission etc.
c) Cultural competence: It refers to society or a social group we communicate with:
It is the knowledge about reality, i.e. about the phenomena surrounding us in
social groups. It is a subjective interpretation of the phenomena occurring in a
social group, made from the point of view of accepted values (Grabias 1997).
11
We cannot acquire communicative competence without considering the views and
perspectives of people from different cultures. Communication requires
understanding, and understanding requires the ‘incarnation’ of the foreigner and
increasing his and our cultural experience, always taking into account the
different culture in relation to our home culture (Kramsch 1993).
3.3. Basic communication models
Laswell’s model
Source: http://communicationtheory.org
Laswell’s model is widely regarded as one of the basic models of mass communication. It is
characterized by a simple and clear design based on a series of questions:
- Who communicates?
- What is the message?
- By what means of communication?
- To whom?
- With what result?
This model is about the process of communication and its function to society. According to
Lasswell there are three functions of communication:
- Surveillance of the environment
- Correlation of society components
- Cultural transmission between generations
Lasswell’s model suggests also that the message flows in a multicultural society with
multiple audiences. The flow of message is through various channels.
Shannon - Weaver’s model
The communication model of Shannon and Weaver is characterized by simplicity and
linearity. This model is specially designed to depict the effective communication between
sender and receiver. It also describes factors that affect the communication process called
12
“noise”. At first the model was developed to improve technical communication. Later it
was widely applied in the field of communication in general.
It is worth noticing that this model includes Noise. The messages are transferred from the
encoder to the decoder through various channels. During the transmission process
messages may be distorted or affected by noise, which results in the disturbance of the
communication flow or in that the receiver may not receive the correct message.
Noise is understood in communication theory as any type of interference that substantially
impedes the process of message decoding. We divide it into:
a) External noise - connected with the outside environment of the process (i.e.
volume, temperature, light);
b) Internal noise - feelings and mental aptitude of participants in the communication
process, i.e. headache, fatigue, forgetfulness, anger, stereotypes, prejudices;
c) The semiotics –intentional or unintentional mistakes by the sender in the meaning
of words or sentences block positive decoding by the receiver.
Source: http://communicationtheory.org
13
Newcomb’s model
This model of communication was introduced by Theodore M. Newcomb in 1953. Newcomb
adopts a different approach to the communication process. The main purpose of his theory
is to introduce the role of communication in a social relationship (society) and to maintain
social equilibrium within the social system. He does not include the message as a separate
entity in his diagram, implying it only by use of directional arrows. He concentrates on the
social purpose of communication, showing all communication processes as a means of
sustaining relationships between people. Sometimes it’s called an “ABX” model of
communication.
Source: http://communicationtheory.org
Schramm’s model
Schramm proposes a circular model, suggesting that communication is circular in nature:
Encoder = Message sender
Decoder = Message receiver
Interpreter = Person trying to understand or interpret
This model presents communication in a practical way. It is not a traditional model. It can
be applied to ourselves or two people; each person acts as both sender and receiver and
hence uses interpretation. Encoding, interpreting and decoding take place simultaneously.
Advantages of Schramm’s model of communication are:
- It is a dynamic model – it shows how a situation can change
- It shows why redundancy is an essential part of communication
- There is no separate sender and receiver; sender and receiver is the same person
14
- It assumes communication to be circular in nature
- Feedback is a central feature
Source: http://communicationtheory.org
1. Laswell, H. (1948). The structure and function of communication in society.
In L. Bryson (Ed.), The communication of ideas. New York: Harper.
2. Ruben, B. D. (1984). Communication and human behavior. New York:
Macmillan Publishing Co.
3. Schramm, W. (1954). How communication works. In W. Schramm (Ed.), The
process and effects of mass communication. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois
Press.
4. Shannon, C. & Weaver, W. (1949). The mathematical theory of
communication. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press.
5. Communication theory website, http://communicationtheory.org
15
4. Communication techniques
4.1. Levels of communication
Communication takes place at several levels:
1. Intrapersonal communication – it refers to biological and psychological processes,
i.e. the perception and reaction of the central nervous system to stimuli coming
from the body.
2. Interpersonal communication - the lowest level of social communication. Usually it
takes place face to face.
3. Group communication - communication in small groups such as family, group of
employees or friends.
4. Intergroup communication - it refers to bigger groups in which not all members
have personal, direct contact, such as local communities, associations and unions.
5. Organizational / institutional communication - communication is formalized, while
power and control are clearly defined, as are the roles of the sender and the
recipient.
6. Mass communication – it is the widest communication process by means of media
widely understood. Transmission and exchange of information involve the largest
number of people. It also takes the most time.
16
4.2. Main rules of interpersonal communication
Our effectiveness as speakers depends on both form and content of expression. It should,
therefore, follow certain rules of adequate preparation of expression, as well as of
conducting a conversation. The key principles of good communication are:
Know yourself - your own goals, characteristics, preferences, temperament and
motives.
Consider the recipient’s fluctuating attention levels. No one is able to pick up all our
messages regardless of what we say and how. You have to take into account the
inevitable fluctuations of listeners' attention.
Pay attention to feelings - the mental state, the emotional condition of the listener.
Pay attention to the intended meaning. Understanding the content of a message is
fuller when we try to grasp the meaning of the entire statement, not a particular
statement or isolated words. Content should be interpreted according to its context.
Accept opposing points of view. Try to look at the issue from the position of your
interlocutor.
Speak in a clear, factual way. Confusing message presentation, poor content
adaptation, as well as the excessive and exaggerated use of metaphor are common
errors in message transmission.
Support your words with non-verbal communication. Pay special attention to the
consistency of verbal and non-verbal communication so as to avoid conflicting or
unclear messages.
Active and effective listening
Interpersonal communication involves processes of listening and speaking interchangeably.
During the conversation interlocutors assume the roles of both the listener and the
speaker. So besides clear formulation of messages it is necessary to listen effectively as
well. Here are some principles:
Motivation to listen is the most important single feature that distinguishes a good
listener from a bad listener. It is a mistake to assume that others do not have to tell us
anything significant, because, for example, they are younger, less educated, do not
occupy an important position etc.
Open-mindedness while listening means respecting the way of thinking of the other
part, even if we do not share their opinion.
Patience is the ability to listen to the whole message, regardless of its length. Proper
behavior as a listener means refraining from interrupting the speaker.
17
Insightful listening means that we try to grasp the idea, the central meaning, not just
isolated words and sentences.
Sensitivity is the ability to capture any signs of emotional reactions, both positive and
negative. Sensitive recipients do not only perceive these signs, but also they take into
account the emotional state of the other part in their responses.
Put the speaker at ease. Create an atmosphere of approval and understanding that
facilitates the speaker to express all his thoughts related to the subject.
1. http://www.skillsyouneed.com/ips/interpersonal-communication.html
2. “Interpersonal Communication Processes”, chapter 6 from ‘A Primer on
Communication Studies’, http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/a-primer-on-
communication-studies/s06-interpersonal-communication-pr.html
3. Interpersonal Communication, Peter Hartley, London and New York,
http://home.lu.lv/~s10178/interpersonalcommunication.pdf
4. http://www.the-performance-
factory.com/media/seh/StrategyExecutionHeroes_dwnld_06.pdf
18
5. Verbal and non-verbal communication
Verbal communication
In verbal communication information is transmitted by speaking. In this type of
communication crucial factors are:
Pronunciation and articulation – poor pronunciation and articulation can obscure a
message or make it unintelligible
Fluency – the extent to which our statement is smooth and free of interludes, pauses
or hesitation has a big impact on the recipient of the message, as it facilitates
understanding and is related to assertiveness
Content expression - choice of vocabulary and linguistic register, along with
grammatical correctness, play an important role in creating or eliminating distance,
gaining or losing respect and acceptance, and adapting to the interlocutor
Time – lengthiness or brevity of speech can imply a lot about the speaker’s
competence, intentions, politeness, and context awareness
Non - verbal communication
Verbal communication is usually accompanied by several forms of non-verbal
communication, expressed by:
o gestures - movements of the arms, hands, fingers, legs, feet, head and body;
o facial expressions;
o touch and physical contact;
o physical appearance - the way of dressing, grooming and visual exposure;
o paralinguistic sounds - such as sighs, grunts, cries, wheezing, whistling, moaning,
laughter or any sounds that do not form words;
o prosodic elements - intonation, emphasis, tone of voice, loudness, rhythm of
speech, pitch of the voice;
o eye contact, in which the quality and length of the looks is an important element
of communication;
o posture - the level of tension or relaxation and openness or closure;
o physical distance between the interlocutors - the distance between them in the
course of the conversation provides important information about social relations,
level of intimacy etc.;
19
Graph 3: Zones of physical distance.
The above-mentioned aspects of non-verbal communication are subject to different
divisions or classifications in literature. However, these expressions are the most basic
phenomena, which perform the functions of non-verbal communication. A noteworthy
classification of the functions of non-verbal communication was developed by Ekman and
Friesen (1969). These scientists have pointed to the 5 essential functions of this type of
communication, namely emblems, illustrators, indicators of emotions, regulators of
conversation, and adapters.
I. Emblems
It refers to behavior such as showing someone the tongue, "winking" or the shaping with
fingers the letter V. These behaviors have to us quite a clear meaning - showing the tongue
is a sign of disrespect, "winking" indicates sympathy, while the letter V signals the will to
win. All the gestures and other nonverbal acts that are easily translatable into words and
read by conventional cultural codes, may perform the function of emblems.
II. Illustrators
Non-verbal behavior often illustrates, augments or even contradicts our speech. We
emphasize for instance the size of things by using gestures. Certain gestures help us to
embellish a story and add to its dynamics. A significant number of illustrators refers to
something symbolic. Closed movements, hiding hand, clenching fists are usually
accompanied by negative emotions and uncertainty.
III. Indicators of emotions
Indicators of emotion refer to involuntary signals about our state of emotion. The strongest
emotions are expressed by means of mimic. Facial expressions are a link to the mental
state of another human being, recognized intuitively and comprehensively. The range of
facial expressions and gestures revealing emotional states is virtually unlimited.
IV. Regulators of conversation
Certain forms of behavior help in regulating the conversation by maintaining and modifying
the way of speaking and listening, for example:
20
o End of speech - the speaker changes the intonation for questioning, reduces the
volume and makes eye contact with the recipient
o Continuation of expression - increased volume, avoiding pauses (on behalf of the
speaker), nods and agreement smiles (on behalf of the listener)
o The willingness of expression – moving hand up, rapid breathing, increasing
tension in body position, striving to establish eye contact
o Unwillingness of expression - the adoption of a relaxed body position,
maintaining silence, avoiding eye contact with the speaker
V. Adapters
Adapters are used to achieve the most comfortable position to talk. It consists of the right
body position, the desired viewing angle, etc. They also include unconscious body
movements, such as touching one’s face etc.
21
Face expression
The face is the most expressive part of the body as it reflects the rapidly changing moods,
reactions to the speech and behavior of the sender and receiver. The face expresses
primarily feelings and emotions.
Some areas of the face are more expressive than others. Very meaningful are eyebrows:
Fully raised - disbelief
Raised to half - surprise
Normal - no comment
Lowered to half - embarrassed
Completely depressed - anger
A similar power of expression we can see in the mouth area. Changing the position of the
corners of the mouth expresses states of satisfaction (raised) to dissatisfaction or
depression (lowered).
Changes in facial expression should be the result of conscious control. By monitoring and
controlling the muscles of the face, we can hide inappropriate or unacceptable to the
environment reactions. With the conscious management of facial expressions, we can often
achieve effects such as intensification of emotions, neutralization of emotions, masking
emotions.
This does not necessarily mean that controlling expressions allows us to hide our true
emotions. This is because the expression of a particular emotional state usually involves
several areas of the face. Nevertheless, the observation of the receiver’s face often helps
with conducting communication, reading current emotions.
Gestures and body language
When we talk we constantly move not only our hands or head, but also our whole body.
These movements are coordinated with speech and they are part of the overall process of
communication. Movements of our head are specific kind of gesture and have two main
functions:
1. They act as enforcement, reward and encouragement for the sender to
continue the speech
2. The synchronization of interaction
Gestures, depending on their function, are divided as described above in emblems,
illustrators, indicators of emotions, regulators of conversation, and adapters.
Speaking of gestures, an important part is the body position (body language). The way of
sitting or standing reveals a lot about our well-being. One of the messages emitted by the
body posture is a state of psychological tension. This is evidenced by the static signs (feet
close together, hands pressed to the body, clenched hands) and kinetic signs (continuous
movement of the feet or hands, turning head).
22
Using the posture we can also communicate our attitude towards the other person. Setting
the body directly for easy eye contact, body tilting forward or touching are the expressions
of a positive attitude to the relation. An expression of liking is to assume a position similar
to the other person’s.
Eye contact
We can identify many shades of meaning contained in the look. We meet the neutral,
warm, caring or dismissive gaze. It should be noted that usually we interpret not only the
eyes, but also the wealth of information contained in other non-verbal behavior and
situational context. The final impression is the result of receiving all the elements
interpreted together. Approximately half of the duration of the conversation is maintained
with eye contact between interlocutors.
The exchange of look opens a channel of
communication preceding the exchange of words.
There are also situations when avoiding eye contact
is used to prevent the further stages of talk (for
example, if students do not want to answer the
teacher's question). Careful observation of our
interlocutor’s gaze can be very helpful in retrieving
feedback on how our message was interpreted or
perceived.
Pupils, eyebrows and eyelids are also involved in the expression of emotions. It was noted
that pupils expand when viewing objects considered attractive but narrow while watching
uninteresting or disliked objects. Such a reaction cannot be consciously controlled. In
turns, the amount of blinking decreases in fatigue and lethargy.
On the other hand intentional eye expressions can reveal recognition, respect, sympathy,
contempt or resentment, helping us express our attitude towards our interlocutor. Length
and intensity of the gaze do also reveal a lot about our emotions. When a person avoids
eye contact we can feel indifference, dislike or even antipathy. The quality of eye contact
is one of the most important criteria in distinguishing between “warm” or “cold”
interlocutors.
Cultural differences in non-verbal communication
Effective intercultural communication requires that we are closely acquainted with the
communication style adopted in another culture, which in many important aspects may be
quite different from the style that prevails in our country. This means that we must begin
by rejecting an ethnocentric view proclaiming that the communication style of our own
culture is the best.
Eye contact
has a strong cultural element. What
is considered honest and respectful
in certain cultures is rude and
inappropriate in other cultures.
23
In different cultures, we can see a variety of non-verbal behaviors. Being aware of them
raises communicative competence and helps us to reliably communicate with people from
another culture.
One of the most important cultural characteristics is contact (proximity). Proximity refers
to activities or actions that signal a desire to establish a closer contact with another
person, such as the manifestations of affection, eye contact, closeness and openness.
Cultures that display behavior associated with high levels of proximity are known as "high
contact cultures" because the members of such cultures stay closer to one another, and
more often make contact by touch. Researches show that cultures that are more open are
for example Saudi Arabia, France, Greece and Italy. Those cultures are usually located in
"warm" climates. "Low contact cultures", that include Scandinavia, Germany, Britain, the
United States, Japan, have a climate that can be described as "cool". This is an important
dimension because a socially sensitive guest must know how to behave in a particular
culture.
A second dimension that can be used to make comparisons between cultures is the degree
of individualism or collectivism. Western cultures are associated with individualism, while
Eastern cultures identify with collectivism. Countries with a culture that promotes
individualism include the United States, Canada, Belgium and Denmark; while the
countries with the least individualistic cultures are Colombia, Pakistan, Taiwan or Hong
Kong. There are many significant differences in non-verbal behavior of members of these
two types of cultures. For example, members of individualist cultures prefer a bigger
distance in the relationship with the other person, but they more often use nonverbal
behaviors during contact.
Another cultural dimension is context. Context refers to the extent to which messages are
explicitly communicated or inferred through contextual cues. In low context cultures most
of the information comes from explicit verbal communiques. Messages are specific,
detailed and direct. Examples of low context cultures are the Scandinavian and the
German. In high context cultures much is left unsaid or inferred by choice of words and the
cultural context. More emphasis is put on human relations. High context cultures include
countries such as China, Japan, and Korea.
The likelihood of success in intercultural communication can be increased by training
aimed at developing some competences. The key skills are: maintaining appropriate eye
contact, listening carefully (in the sense of information processing, not just passive
listening) and smiling.
Before making contact with people belonging to other cultures, it is good to
be prepared for it. Here are some aspects that should be noted:
Refer to the rules of showing emotions in public. It is particularly important to
know how you can use facial expressions and hand gestures.
24
Be sure to follow the rules guiding forms and sequence of behaviors during
greetings.
Determine the degree of physical contact, commitment and availability that is
expected in public.
Take into account the culture-specific expectations regarding the use of touch,
movement, eye-contact and time standards (e.g. arriving late).
You should learn to recognize and avoid the use of emblems and behaviors that can
be perceived as an insult or offense.
Specify the type of personal clothing and accessories that are compatible with the
cultural convention.
Assertiveness in communication
Assertiveness, next to empathy, is the basic skill forming part of emotional intelligence.
Under this concept the ability to express opinions, criticisms, needs and wishes is
described, as well as sensitivity to others, firmness, and the ability to deny to others in a
way that does not hurt them.
Assertive persons are able to control their emotions. They do not readily lend themselves
to manipulation and other pressures, and are able to communicate clearly their
expectations. Assertive persons show how they want to be treated, knowing how to define
clearly the boundaries that others cannot exceed. Moreover, this is done in a fair way,
directly and boldly, without paralyzing fear, accepting limitations, regardless of whether a
given situation is managed successfully or not.
An assertive attitude characterizes people who have a self-image adequate to reality. They
set realistic goals, making full use of their capabilities, while at the same time they do not
undertake too difficult tasks. They have their own views and do not hesitate to talk about
them. They can tell the truth or their own opinion, but in a tactful manner. Assertive
persons have a rare ability – they can talk about themselves and accept criticism in a
constructive way.
These features make assertive people to be liked in their environment and can create
sincere relationships with others. They are perceived as honest, loyal, trustworthy and
consistent in their behavior. People like to discuss with assertive people, feeling
comfortable.
Assertive behavior is usually acquired and it can be learnt. Mastering assertiveness
requires a lot of work and, above all, careful observation of ourselves in order to
understand our own needs.
25
However many people instead of being assertive adopt attitudes that impede
communication such as: submission, aggression or manipulation. Such attitudes and
behaviors lead to conflicts, misunderstandings and quarrels.
Submission
Submission in interpersonal relations is manifested by excessive respect for the rights of
others and skipping, pushing or jamming of our own. Submissive people do not express
their opinion if it is contrary to what the other person says, or are willing to change it.
Those people rarely ask for something, because there think that others will refuse them.
They cannot accept praise, as they are ashamed and embarrassed. They are eager to
praise others, but excessively criticize themselves, exaggerating their faults, and ignoring
their benefits.
Aggression
Aggression in daily contact between people is the desire to dominate over others, to prove
that we are always right. Aggressive people as opposed to the submissive as they pose their
own rights, needs and desires above the rights, needs and desires of others. They do not
simply express their opinion, but they impose it on others. Their requests are more like
orders, not taking into account that anyone can deny. They criticize everything and
everyone, not accepting self-criticism.
Manipulation
Manipulation manifests a lack of integrity, authenticity and spontaneity in dealing with
people. Manipulators deliberately choose influencing techniques in order to reach a certain
effect for their own interest. The key factor is not the number of influence techniques
used, but the intention of the speaker. Influencing the audience for your own selfish
interests is considered manipulation, and has a negative connotation, as it is veiled
domination over others. During manipulation we do not express opinions, we say what is
the most cost-effective in a given situation.
Neither of these approaches helps in establishing and maintaining successful relationships.
The attitude that helps to achieve satisfaction in dealing with people is assertiveness.
Assertive people are able to express their requests freely, but take into account the fact
26
that someone can refuse them. They can receive both criticism and praise because they
know their pros and cons. Being assertive is not easy, requires training and intensive work,
but this effort is profitable both for professional and personal contacts.
1. http://www.skillsyouneed.com/ips/nonverbal-communication.html
2. https://www.andrews.edu/~tidwell/bsad560/NonVerbal.html
3. Nonverbal Behavior and Nonverbal Communication: What Do Conversational Hand
Gestures Tell Us? Robert M. Krauss, Yihsiu Chen, and Purnima Chawla, Columbia
University, http://www.columbia.edu/~rmk7/PDF/Adv.pdf
4. https://www.boundless.com/communications/textbooks/boundless-communications-
textbook/delivering-the-speech-12/effective-visual-delivery-65/proxemics-263-7998/
5. Communication skills
http://cw.routledge.com/textbooks/9780415537902/data/learning/11_Communicatio
n%20Skills.pdf
6. Successful Nonverbal Communication: Principles and Applications, Dale G.
Leathers, Michael Howard Eaves
https://books.google.pl/books/about/Successful_Nonverbal_Communication.html?id
=ZXhWAAAAYAAJ&redir_esc=y
27
6. Improving communication effectiveness and argumentation
6.1. Effective communication
There are 7 C’s of effective communication which are applicable to both written as well as
oral communication. These are as follows:
Clarity - Clarity implies emphasizing on a specific message or goal at a time, rather than
trying to achieve too much at once. Clarity in communication has the following features:
It makes understanding easier.
Complete clarity of thoughts and ideas enhances the meaning of the message.
A clear message makes use of exact, appropriate and concrete words.
Conciseness - Conciseness means wordiness, i.e. conveying your message in the least
possible words without forgoing the other C’s of communication. It is both time-saving and
cost-saving.
It underlines and highlights the main message as it avoids using excessive and
needless words.
Concise communication provides short and essential message in limited words
to the audience.
Concise message is more appealing and comprehensible to the audience.
Concreteness - Concrete communication implies being particular and clear. Concreteness
strengthens confidence. A concrete message has the following features:
It is supported by specific facts and figures.
It makes use of words that are clear and build reputation.
Concrete messages are not misinterpreted.
28
Correctness - Correctness in communication implies that there are no grammatical errors
in communication. Correct communication has the following features:
Use the right level of language
Correct use of grammar, spelling and punctuation
Accuracy in stating facts and figures
Coherence - Consideration implies “stepping into the shoes of others”. Effective
communication must take the audience into consideration, i.e. the audience’s viewpoints,
background, mind-set, education level, etc.
Completeness - The message must be complete. It should convey all facts required by the
audience. The sender of the message must take into consideration the receiver’s mindset
and convey the message accordingly. A complete message has the following features:
It develops and enhances the sender’s reputation
It always gives additional information wherever required; it leaves no questions
in the mind of the recipient
It helps in better decision-making
Courtesy - Courtesy in a message implies that the sender expresses not only his thoughts
but also respect for the recipient. The sender of the message should be sincerely polite,
judicious, reflective and enthusiastic.
6.2. Argumentation
There are three types of argumentation or reasoning:
Objective (factual) arguments
True, authentic specific examples that confirm the validity of the thesis proclaimed. The
listener treats them as evidence. There can be no doubt; it is difficult to disprove the
thesis. Examples:
Numbers e.g. statistical data, research results, summarizing statements
Statements of reputable scientists
Quotes from scientific publications; historical documents
Literal quotations, statements of authorities
Logical arguments
Drawing conclusions from true or probable grounds. Examples:
Analogies: inference of similarities.
Induction: gathering detailed information in order to make generalizations. The
sender collects facts in order to reach an accurate conclusion. From specific to
general.
Deduction: reverse reasoning from induction. From general to specific.
Dilemma: two conditions of mutually excluding nature that lead to the need to
choose one of them. A dilemma correctly constructed is irreversible.
29
Emotional arguments
They appeal to the feelings of the audience or the speaker. The sender is trying to build
his argument on sympathy, fear, resentment, pity, compassion, etc. It is the weakest way
of argumentation and should rather be used for coloring statements or giving them specific
individual characteristics (such as individual style, pathos or being moved). In official
statements this type of argument is rather unwelcome.
6.3. Persuasion techniques
Persuasion is a basic psychological and communicative means of modifying attitudes and
behavior. Effective persuasion has the following features:
Specific objectives and goals - an indication of concrete results
The use of logical arguments in the form of rational lines of reasoning, supported by
reference to evidence
Recognition of existing attitudes and behavior patterns on behalf of the recipient
Motivating use of language to induce action
Building credibility based on telling the truth
Convincing and attractive message formulation
There are six phases in the process of persuasive communication:
1. The message should be presented in a good place, in a good time and by the
channel easily available for the receivers.
2. Getting and maintaining the attention of the recipient
3. Decoding meanings
4. Reflection upon interpretation of the message, followed by acceptance or
rejection
5. Remembering the content by the receivers. Content should be easy to
remember.
6. Changing attitudes, the most important impact of persuasive communication
6.4. Tools of communication
Paraphrase
Paraphrase is a free modification of the sentence, which develops and modifies the
content of the original, while retaining its essential meaning. The communication
paraphrase is repeating in own words what has been told by the sender.
Paraphrase is a very useful tool because:
It is a way to make sure that we understood the gist of another person.
It facilitates remembering content of the conversation.
It is a signal of interest in the conversation and builds contact.
It creates an atmosphere of safety.
30
If we find that we have understood the words of the sender incorrectly, paraphrase
would give a chance to correct it.
Paraphrase begins usually with sentences like the following:
"Do I understand that you..."
"If I understand well..."
"From what you said, I understood that..."
"Do you mean that..."
"If I understand you correctly, you think that ..."
"I understand that ..."
"In other words…".
Asking
Asking the right questions is at the heart of effective communications and information
exchange. By using the right questions in a particular situation we can improve a whole
range of communications skills, such as: gathering better information and learning more,
building stronger relationships, helping others to understand.
Open and closed questions
A closed question usually receives a single word or very short, factual answer. The answer
is usually "Yes" or "No”. Open questions elicit longer answers. They usually begin with
what, why, how. An open question asks the respondent for his or her knowledge, opinion
or feelings. "Tell me" and "describe" can also be used in the same way as open questions.
Open questions are good for:
Developing an open conversation
Finding out more detail
Finding out the other person's opinion or issues
Closed questions are good for:
Testing your or the other person's understanding
Concluding a discussion or making a decision
A misplaced closed question can disturb the conversation and lead to awkward
silences, so they are best avoided when a conversation is in progress.
Funnel questions
This technique involves starting with general questions, and then homing in on a point in
each answer, and asking more and more detail at each level. Funnel questions are good
for:
Finding out more detail about a specific point
Gaining the interest or increasing the confidence of the person you're speaking
with
31
Rhetorical questions
Rhetorical questions aren't really questions at all, in that they don't expect an answer.
They are just statements phrased in question form. Rhetorical questions are good for
engaging the listener.
Using questions in communication
Questions are a powerful way of:
Learning
Relationship building
Managing and coaching
Avoiding misunderstandings
Easing a heated situation
Persuading people
Summarize
A summary is a concise overview of the most important points from a communication,
whether it’s from a conversation, presentation or document. Summarizing is a very
important skill for an effective communicator. A good summary can verify that people are
understanding each other, can make communications more efficient, and can ensure that
the highlights of communication are captured and utilized.
When summarizing, consider the following guidelines:
When listening or reading, look for the main ideas being conveyed.
Look for any major point that comes from the communication. What is
the person trying to accomplish in the communication?
Organize the main ideas, either just in your mind or written down.
Write a summary that lists and organizes the main ideas, along with
the major point of the communicator. The summary should always be
shorter than the original communication.
Does not introduce any new main points into the summary – if you
do, make it clear that you’re adding them.
If possible, have other readers or listeners also read your summary
and tell you if it is understandable, accurate and complete.
32
1. Effective Communications
http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/documents/archives/effective-
communications.pdf
2. http://www.skillsyouneed.com/ips/improving-communication.html
3. Effective communication, communication skills
http://www.free-management-ebooks.com/dldebk-pdf/fme-effective-
communication.pdf
4. https://www.uscg.mil/auxiliary/training/tct/chap7.pdf
5. http://managementhelp.org
33
7. Problems in communication
7.1. Communication barriers
Most people would agree that communication between two individuals should be simple.
However, it is important to remember that there are differences between talking and
communicating. When you communicate, you are successful in getting your point across to
the person you’re talking to. When we talk, we tend to erect barriers that hinder our
ability to communicate. There are seven of these types of barriers to effective
communication, including:
Physical barriers
Perceptual barriers
Emotional barriers
Cultural barriers
Language barriers
Gender barriers
Interpersonal barriers
If we want to communicate smoothly, we need to pay particular attention to some very
important factors in mutual contacts:
Empathy, or to empathize with the other person;
Kindness, that is, respect for others and their opinions, even if they differ from our
own;
Authenticity, namely a ratio of the real to the various problems;
Directness in expressing their feelings and ideas;
Openness in expressing feelings;
Acceptance of feelings. Expressing what we feel and the expectation that the other
person will take the same attitude, is essential.
Recommended video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hn1FRhNa-Ts
7.2. Barriers to accurate perception
Stereotyping and generalizing. Be careful not to hold on to preconceptions about
people or things. We often have a tendency to see what we want to see, forming an
impression from a small amount of information or one experience, and assuming
that to be highly representative of the whole person or situation.
34
Not investing time. Making assumptions and ignoring details or circumstances can
lead to misconceptions. When we fail to look in-depth for causes or circumstances,
we miss important details, and do not allow for the complexity of the situation.
Having a distorted focus. Focusing on the negative aspects of a conversation or a
situation is a habit common to many people. Even though we may recognize the
positive things, we often give more weight to the negative, allowing one negative
comment to overshadow numerous positive ones.
Assuming similar interpretations. Not everyone will draw the same conclusions
from a given situation or set of information. Everybody interprets things differently.
Make sure to check for other people’s interpretations, and be explicit about your
own.
Experiencing incongruent cues. As speakers and as listeners we are constantly and
simultaneously sending cues and receiving them from other people. Try to be
consistent with your verbal cues and your body language. Do not say one thing and
express something else through your body language. Be aware of how your non-
verbal communication relates to your spoken words.
Strategies for accurate perception
Analyze your own perceptions. Question your perceptions, and think about how
they are formed. Check in with others around you regularly, and be
aware of assumptions that you are making. Seek additional
information and observations.
Work on improving your perception. Increase your awareness of
barriers to perception, and which ones you tend towards. Check in
with yourself regularly. Seek honest, constructive feedback from others regarding
their perceptions of you as a means of increasing your selfawareness.
Focus on others. Develop your ability to focus on other people, and understand
them better by trying to gather knowledge about them, listening to them actively,
and imagining how you would feel in their situation.
7.3. Barriers to effective verbal communication
Lack of clarity.
Using stereotypes and generalizations.
Jumping to conclusions.
Dysfunctional responses. Ignoring or not responding to a comment or question
quickly undermines effective communication.
Lack of confidence.
35
Strategies for effective verbal communication
Focus on the issue, not the person. Try not to take everything
personally, and similarly, express your own needs and opinions in
terms of the job at hand. Solve problems rather than attempt to
control others.
Be genuine rather than manipulative. Be yourself, honestly and
openly. Be honest with yourself, and focus on working well with the people around
you, and acting with integrity.
Empathize rather than remain detached.
Be flexible towards others. Allow for other points of view, and be open to other.
Value yourself and your own experiences. Be firm about your own rights and needs.
Undervaluing yourself encourages others to undervalue you, too.
Present yourself as an equal rather than a superior, even when you are in a position
of authority.
Use affirming responses. Ask questions, express positive feelings, and provide
positive feedback when you can.
Sources:
1. Beebe et al. Interpersonal Communication: Relating to Others 2nd Canadian Edition.
(Scarborough, Ontario: Allyn and Bacon, 2000).
2. https://uwaterloo.ca/centre-for-teaching-excellence/teaching-resources/teaching-
tips/communicating-students/telling/effective-communication-barriers-and-strategies
1. Communication: The Process, Barriers, And Improving Effectiveness
http://www.nationalforum.com/Electronic%20Journal%20Volumes/Lunenburg,%20Fred
%20C,%20Communication%20Schooling%20V1%20N1%202010.pdf
2. OVERCOMING BARRIERS TO COMMUNICATION
http://aede.osu.edu/sites/aede/files/publication_files/Overcoming%20Barriers%20to%
20Communication.pdf
3. How to Overcome Communication Barriers in the Workplace
http://www.bizmove.com/books/how-to-overcome-communication-barriers-in-the-
workplace.htm
4. Study on Communication Barriers in the Classroom: A Teacher’s Perspective
http://www.ojcmt.net/articles/61/618.pdf
36
8. Principles of intercultural communication
As described before, communication can be a challenge. The challenge becomes even
bigger when interlocutors belong to different cultures, adopting different values,
communication styles and non-verbal signs. The art of intercultural communication (or
cross-cultural) is the subject of numerous books, studies, and even post-graduate courses.
To get started, however, some principles or key-assumptions of intercultural
communication are presented here, as described in an essay on cross-cultural
communication (http://www.termpaperwarehouse.com/essay-on/Cross-Cultural-
Communication/283583):
1) The less knowledge or understanding that you have about a culture, the broader
the differences are, and communication between parties will be more difficult.
2) Cultural differences and understandings are the cause of breakdowns in
communication.
3) Communicating across cultures helps people to become more aware of their own
communication processes, such as their tone, word choices, and hand gestures they
use when speaking.
4) Cultures vary with their different types of acceptable behaviors; in cross-cultural
communication you have to be aware of what is taboo and what is acceptable in
that culture.
5) Other cultures’ understanding or normalcy may be different than your own. Be
mindful how the worldview or values of different groups affect their patterns of
communication.
6) Your view of people affects the way that you communicate with them (the
boomerang effect described earlier in this document).
On a more practical level, when communicating with people with a different cultural
background than your own try to
(http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2360987):
Speak in a simple and clear way. Avoid using slang and idioms
Listen even more carefully. If in doubt, ask for confirmation of understanding
Be aware that accenting and intonation can cause meaning to vary significantly
Respect the local communication formalities and styles
Observe body language and try to understand how it differs across cultures
Try to see your culture through the eyes of others. Why not read literature about
your culture as presented by authors from different cultures in order to understand
the projected views of your culture?
37
Check out the following tips:
http://www.wikihow.com/Communicate-Well-With-People-from-Other-
Cultures
Then try to apply them during a cross-cultural encounter, preferably with a
friend from another culture. Try to discuss afterwards aspects of non-verbal
communication that caused you difficulties or you need to be especially
mindful of.
Intercultural communication is at the very heart of intercultural mediation.
What are common challenges faced by local professionals, IMs and migrants?
What could help them? See http://www.pcc4u.org/learning-modules/focus-
topics/topic-4-culture-centred-care/2-culture-centred-communication/activity-
4-intercultural-communication-principles/
Intercultural communication: http://personales.upv.es/mcandel/Hybels9_Ch3.pdf
Communicating in different countries:
http://www.forbes.com/sites/kenmakovsky/2014/04/03/communicating-in-different-
countries/#1bac8d8e45ef
38
9. Selected reading
Dutch
Books
1. Van Ginneken, J. (2008). Handboek wereldburger: Een inleiding interculturele
communicatie. S.l: Boom onderwijs.
2. Muylle, C. (2008). Communicatieleer: communicatie: een eerste inkijk. De Boeck
Hoger.
3. Kijlstra, M. A., Van Wieringen, J. C. M., & Schulpen, T. W. J. (2001). Cultuur en
communicatie. Tijdschrift voor kindergeneeskunde, 69(5), 46-50.
4. Guijt, T. (2013). "Het is niet mijn cultuur, dat is best lastig": Een onderzoek naar de
communicatie tussen verpleegkundigen en patiënten in de psychiatrie.
5. Shadid, W.A (1998 en 2007): Grondslagen van interculturele communicatie:
studieveld en werkterrein, Houten [etc.]: Bohn Stafleu Van Loghum.
6. Preijde, L. P. M. (2010). Hoe communiceren Nederlandse Verpleegkundigen met
patiënten die slecht Nederlands spreken?
French
Books
1. Demattelart A. (2004). Histoire des théories de la communication. La Découverte,
pp. 128.
2. Iandolo, C. (2001). Guide pratique de la communication avec le patient:
Techniques, art et erreurs de la communication. Paris: MMI editions.
3. Watzlawick, P. (1979). Une logique de la communication. Paris, Éd. du Seuil,
1979.
4. Barrier G. (2013). Le langage du corps en relation d’aide : la communication non
verbale au-delà des mots. ESF, 2013, coll. Psychologies et psychothérapies, pp.
2015
German
Books
1. Handbuch Kommunikation: Grundlagen - Innovative Ansätze - Praktische
Umsetzungen (2008, Bruhn, Esch)
2. Kommunikationstraining: Zwischenmenschliche Beziehungen erfolgreich gestalten
(2013, Birkenbihl)
3. Kommunikationstechnik (2014, Meyer)
4. Einführung in Körpersprache und nonverbale Kommunikation (2013, Sollmann)
5. Kommunikation - eine Schlüsselqualifikation: Einführung zu wesentlichen Bereichen
der zwischenmenschlichen Kommunikation. Ein Lehrbuch (2008, Ternes)
6. Interkulturelle Kommunikation: Interaktion, Fremdwahrnehmung, Kulturtransfer
(2012, Lüsebrink)
39
Links
1. Psychatrienetz: Wie kann Kommunikation gelingen?
http://www.psychiatrie.de/bapk/rat/kommunikation/regeln-und-techniken/
2. Interkulturelle Kommunikation / Verbale und Non-verbale Kommunikation
https://www.hdm-stuttgart.de/arbeitsamt/inhalt/arbeitswelt/rose-neiger/text.htm
Greek
Books
1. Μη λεκτική επικοινωνία: Σύγχρονες θεωρητικές και ερευνητικές προσεγγίσεις στην Ελλάδα. Ν. Πολεμικός & Α. Κοντάκος (επιμ.) Αθήνα: Ελληνικά Γράμματα, 2002.
2. Κουκουνάρας - Λιάγκης, Μάριος (2009). Ο Θεός, ο δικός μου, ο δικός σου: Πολιτισμός, εκπαίδευση, ετερότητα: Έρευνα για τη διαπολιτισμική επικοινωνία. 1η έκδ. Αθήνα: Γρηγόρη.
3. Verderber, Rudolph F., & Verderber, Kathleen S. (2006). Δεξιότητες διαπροσωπικής επικοινωνίας. Mετάφραση Αντιγόνη Αποστολοπούλου, επιμέλεια Ανδρέας Ν. Ζεργιώτης. 1η έκδ., Αθήνα: Έλλην.
4. Κριτσωτάκις, Γιάννης. Διαπολιτισμική Επικοινωνία.
Italian
Links
1. S. Privitera. Tecniche di comunicazione. La comunicazione interpersonale.
http://www.unipa.it/archivio-intranet/.content/documenti/Dispensa_PRIVITERA.pdf
2. Michela Giangualano. Compendio di teoria della comunicazione.
http://www.ueonline.it/contributi_news/teoria_della_comunicazione.pdf
3. Rapporto mondiale dell’UNESCO. Investire nella diversità culturale e nel dialogo
interculturale. http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0018/001847/184755ita.pdf
4. La comunicazione e i suoi codici. Luzappy.
http://www.luzappy.eu/comunicazione/comunicazione%20e%20suoi%20segni.pdf
5. Luigi Anolli. La comunicazione non verbale.
http://www.archivio.formazione.unimib.it/DATA/Insegnamenti/2_423/materiale/5_c
omnonverbale_2p.pdf
6. Problemi di comunicazione interculturale.
http://www.usrlazio.it/_file/documenti/intercultura/1Materiali/[31]%20Pratiche%20i
nterculturali%20(a11)/comunicazione.pdf
Polish
Books
1. Malinowski Rubio María Paula, Imigranci a komunikacja międzykulturowa w sferze
usług publicznych w Polsce, Kraków 2011.
2. M. Szopski "Komunikowanie międzykulturowe" WSiP, Warszawa, 2005.
3. A. B. Pease "Mowa ciała" Wydawnictwo Rebis, Poznań, 2007.
4. Nowa retoryka dziennikarska, Walery Pisarek, Wydawnictwo: Universitas
40
5. Zuber M., Komunikowanie międzykulturowe, [w:] B. Dobek-Ostrowska (red), Studia z
teorii komunikowania masowego, Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Wrocławskiego,
Wrocław 1999.
Links
1. http://jacko.econ.uj.edu.pl/Publ/Kultura_komunikacja_Jacko_2012.pdf
2. http://www.wsb.net.pl/sites/default/files/web/uczelnia/wydawnictwo/komunikowa
nie_sie_w_spoleczenstwie_wiedzy_xxi_wieku.pdf
3. https://repozytorium.amu.edu.pl/bitstream/10593/2849/1/Komunikologia.%20Teoria
%20i%20praktyka%20komunikacji.pdf
Portuguese
Books
1. Fachada, M. Odete (2000). Psicologia das Relações Interpessoais. Vol. 1 e vol.2, Rumo,
Ed.
Links
1. Vieira, Ana & Vieira, Ricardo (2013). Pedagogia Social, comunicação e mediação
intercultural: http://www.apagina.pt/?aba=7&cat=561&doc=14501&mid=2
2. Davallon, Jean (2003). A mediação: a comunicação em processo? Universidade de
Avignon e da Região de Vaucluse, Laboratório Cultura & Comunicação:
http://revistas.ua.pt/index.php/prismacom/article/viewFile/645/pdf