Müəlliflərdən.lib.bbu.edu.az/files/book/678.pdf · 3. səs studiyası və ya fonetik laboratoriya úəraitində müxtəlif akustik cihazlar vasitəsilə yerinə yetirilən çalıúmalar;

Müəlliflərdən.

“ingilis dilinin fonetikası” (normativ kursu)

İngilis dili fakültəsində təhsil alan azərbaycanlı tələbələr üçün nəzərdə tutulur. Həmin dərslikdə ingilis dili tədrisinin birinci, ikinci və üçüncü illərində tələbələrə bu dildə düzgün tələffüz qaydalarına, praktik danrşıq normalarına və s. dair müəyyən nəzəri məlumat verilir.

Dərslikdə müasir ingilis dili fonetikasmm əsas bölmələri həm təsviri, həm də faktik dil materialları əsasında geniş işıqlandırılır.

Burada müvafiq proqramın tələbələrinə əsasən ayrı - ayrı ingilis nitq səslərinin təcrid olunmuş halda artikulyasiya qaydalarının təsviri verilmiş, onların nitq axınında müxtəlif fonetik dəyişikliklərə uğraması və ayrı - ayrı söz və cümlələrdə işlənməsi qanunauyğunluqları şərh olunmuşdur.

İngilis dilinin intonasiya qaydalarının öyrədilməsi onun nitq səslərinin artikulyasiyasmı öyrənmək qədər əhəmiyyətlidir, çünki xarici dilin öyrənilməsi

prosesində seqment və super seqment səviyyələr yanaşı mənimsənilməlidir. Buna görə də, dərslikdə ingilis dilinin ritmik - melodik quruluşu haqqında ətraflı məlumat verilir, müxtəlif kommunikativ cümlə növlərində müvafiq melodik konturları işlənməsi qaydaları dəqiq təsvir edilir. Bununla bərabər, tələbələrə Iconkret misallar əsasında ingilis dilinin vurğu sistemi və ritmik - melodik vərdişlər də aşılanır.

Qeyd etmək lazımdır ki, ixtisası ingilis dili olan tələbələr bu dili mənimsəməklə yanaşı, gələcəkdə onun tədris metodlarını da öyrənməlidirlər. Buna görə də onlar Azərbaycan dilinin aıtikulyasiya bazasının ingilis dilinin artikulyasiya bazasından ciddi şəkildə fərqlənən cəhətlərinə daha çox diqqət yetirməlidirlər. Bu məqsədlə mümkün ola bilən interferensiya hadisələrini nəzərə alan çalışmalar sistemindən geniş istifadə olunmalıdır. Çalışmalar

sistemində fonetik müntəxəbat materialları şifahi xarici dilin fəal şəkildə öyrənilməsinə imkan yaradır.

Fonetik çalışmaların özü də müxtəlif ola bilər: 1. dərs zamanı müəllimin rəhbərliyi ilə yerinə yetirilən

çalışmalar; 2. dərsdə müəllimin iştirakı və maqnitofon vasitəsilə yerinə

yetirilə çalışmalar; 3. səs studiyası və ya fonetik laboratoriya şəraitində müxtəlif

akustik cihazlar vasitəsilə yerinə yetirilən çalışmalar; 4. sinifdənkənar müstəqil olaraq oxuyub təkrar etmə, əzbərləmə

və s. növ çalışmalar.

Bütün çalışma növləri danışıq üzvlərinin fəal iştirakı ilə yerinə

yetirilməlidir.

Bu dərslik mövcud fonetika dərsliklərindən başlıca olaraq onunla fərqlənir ki, o azərbaycanlı tələbə auditoriyası üçün ana dilinin bəzi fonetik hadisələri ilə müqayisəli şəkildə hazırlanmış və burada mümkün interferensiya amilləri nəzərə alınmışdır.

Kitab orta çətinlikdə olan ingilis dilində yazılmış və burada tələffüz təmrinləri və fonetik terminlər lüğəti verilmişdir.

Müəlliflər dərsliyin yazılması prosesində qiymətli məsləhətlərinə və üçüncü hissənin müntəxəbat materiallarının seçilməsində göstərdiyi köməyə görə ingilis dili kafedrasının keçmiş baş müəllimi mərhum K.K. Sokolovanın əməyini xüsusi qeyd edir və dəyərli məsləhətlərinə görə M.F. Axundov adına Azərbaycan Pedaqoji Rus dili və Ədəbiyyatı İnstitutunun Xarici dillər kafedrasının müdiri dos. Q. Paşayevə, V.İ. Lenin adına APİ - nin xarici dillər kafedrasının müdiri dos. A. Tahirova, habelə SSRİ - nin 50 illiyi adına APXDİ - nin ingilis dilinin fonetikası kafedrasının əməkdaşlarına öz minnətdarlıqlarını bildirirlər.

“İngilis dilinin fonetikası” (normativ kursu) bir necə illik əməyin nəticəsidir. İlk təşəbbüs olduğu üçün kitabda, şübhəsiz, müəyyən nöqsanlar da müşahidə oluna bilər. Həmin nöqsanları və çatışmazlıqları gələcəkdə aradan qaldırmaq üçün öz xeyirxah məsləhətləri itə bizə kömək edəcək mütəxəssislərə əvvəlcədən minnətdarlığımızı bildiririk.

In t roduct ion

The most impoıtant fımction of any language is to serve for intercourse. No thought, no idea can be expresseci without sentences which consist of words. Spoken words in all the languages consist of sonnds. Letters are used to represent spoken words in writing only. Therefore any spoken language is first of all a language of sounds.

İn order to speak any language one must be abie to pronounce words and sentences in that language correctiy. İt means that the learners of a foreign language must first of all know how to pronounce isoiated sounds, learn to join them within words and sentences. They must aIso know how sounds are modified in speech, which of the elements in words and sentences must be stressed and what intonation is used to express a cer:ain thought.

Teachers of a foreign language must not only speak and read correctiy, but aIso know how to teach correct pronunciation.

The teacher must aIso know all the diffıculties that may arise in teaching good pronunciation and possess methods of ove.rcoming these difficulties.

İn order to master the pronunciation of a foreign language the learner must know how to use the organs of speech to produce new speech sounds.

Students of foreign languages must aim learning :o pronounce foreign words correctiy without thinking of how they do it; that means that they must acquire new speech habits.

New speech habits are attained by learning and remembering the articulation of new speech sounds and other phonetic plıenomena, then by systematic training on the basis of special sets of exercises in order to make new speech habits stable. Exercises may be of different kinds; they may be read at the lesson after the teacher or after the magnetic tape record when the student works by himself.

The phoneme

The basis of the phonetic system of a language is its system of phonemes. A phoneme is a smallest sound - unit of a language capable of distinguishing

one word from another word or one grammatical form from another form of the same word. For example, in English the words "bad" [baed] and "bat" [baet] are distinguished by means of two different consonant phonemes:' [d] and [tj; the words "bit" [bit] and " Dcat" [bi;tj are distinguished, by two different vowel phonemes; [i] and [i ]; the plural form of the word "man" [maen] is "’men" [men]. These forms are distinguished by the vowel phonemes [a*] and [el.

These different speech sounds in English are different phonemes. The nurnber of phonemes in eveıy language is li- mited. There are .44 phonemes in the English language.

In connected speech phonemes are united into various combinations in yvhich they influence one another and change their quality to a certain degree. Such slightly mcıdifled speech sounds .are termed phonetic variants, or allophones. Phonetic variants cannot differentiate words or grammatical forms of words. For example, the English consonant phoneme [n] is alveolar in the word "nine" [nain], but in'"ninth" it; becomes dental under the influence of the dental consonant [6]. In the word "button" the consonant [t] becomes slightly nasal, as it has a nasal plosion' under the influence of the nasal consonant [n].

The variant of a phoneme which keeps all its principal characteristic features unchanged (it is usually the one pronounced in isolation) is called the Principal variant of t ıe phoneme. All the other variants are called subsidi- ary variants.

When somebody pronounces one principal variant instead of another the meaning of the word may become changed or lost altogether. For example, it will happen if instead of [b] in "cab" [ksb] we pronounce [p] ("cap" [kaep]), or if instead of long- [i;] in "leave" [li:v] we pronounce [i] as in "live" [li:v], ' and so on. Such mistakes are called phonematic, or phonological.

The wrong uses of one phonetic variant instead of another do not change the meaning of the word, but gives it an unusu pronunciation which sounds as a foreign accent in speech. Such mistakes are called phonetic. When phonetic mistakes are numerous in speech they may hamper its understand- ing. Therefore, when earning a language, it is necessary to learn to articulate all the phonetic variants which occur in different sound sequences.

The phonetic system of a language includes all the phonemes with their variants.

Besides the system of phonemes, the learner of a language must study the syllable formation and syllable division, the word stress and intonation, characteristic of the given language. All these are generally described in a systematic course of phonetics called the normative or practical course.

Transcription

Orthography does not generally exactly represent the phonemes of a language. Therefore a system of special symbols, or signs, has been worked out by the Internatioral Phonetic Association (IPA) to represent the phonemes of

languages, English including. It is called transcription. When different symbols are used to represent the principal variants of

phonemes of a language it is called phonematic transcription. The transcription used. for teaching English at our institutes and schools is based on

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the Latin alphabet and is phonematic in its principle.

İt is aIso used in dictionaries and text-books of English by most authors both in our country arid abroad.

There are 44 phonemes in English, therefore 44 symbols are used in transcription to represent them. They are the following:

Vowels: i:, ı, e, ae, a:, 0:, a, A, u, u;, 3;, ə, lə, eı, sə, ai, Dİ, ou, oə, au. Consonants: p, b, t, d, k, g, m, n, p, f, v, 0, d, s, z, j, 3, h, vv, r, j, 1, tj, d3.

Another variation of transcription is used in our country İn many text- books for schools. It is less exact, because it gives- the same symbols for some vowels which are different in qualih'.

These vowels are: [D], [D] instead of; [p]

[u], [u] [u]

[ə], [ə] [3:] The symbols of transcription are put in square brackets. They are written

separately and in printed vertical signs, for example: [bi:t], [0iqk], [wotf] In order to learn correct English pronunciation one must know the

transcription actively, that is, the learner of English should be abie to write down sentences in transcription and read the transcribed text.

Transcription is aIso a great aid in finding out the pronunciation of unknown words from dictionaries. It aIso helps to remember spelling rules and rules of reading in English.

Transcription is, of course, learned alongside with the articulation of each speech-sound of a language. Correct pronunciation habits of foreign language can be mastered by an adult person or even a child of school age only

consciousiy. Generally a description of a speech sound is given by the teacher first and this description is accompanied by his correct pronunciation of this sound. When different symbols are used to represent the subsid- iary, or allophonic variants of phonemes we deal with phonetic transcription; and this type of transcription is mostly used in phonetic research Works.

English literary pronunciation.

When teaching a foreign language it is necessary to choose one Standard, or

model, which for many reasons is considered to be the best. Such a Standard is

usually called literary or received pronunciation.

The language of a nation is being continually developed and perfected, and

one pronouncing Standard becomes for some reasons the most perfect and highly

developed sound system in comparison with local dialects and jargons. This highest

form of the national language is generally adopted as

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the literary or received Standard for teaching at schools and universities of its

native country.

The contemporary English literary or orthopedic pronunciation is known under the name received pronunciation (RP). it was formed on the basis of the South-English, or London dialect when London became the administra- tive, trade, manufacture and cultural centre of Britain.

The articulation basis of the English language Every language has its own way of using the organs of speech, its own type

and place of stress in words and sentences, different use of intonation in speech, and so on.

Some phonemes of one language may be absent in another, others may resemble, but have difference in some characteristic feature. Ail these characteristic features of a language are called its articulation basis.

The following are the most characteristic features of the English articulation basis in comparison with Azerbaijanian.

Consonants 1. English consonants are not palatalized before or after front vowels. The English consonants [j], [3], [tj] and [da] which soımd somewhat soft,

as they have a second place of obstruction formed by the central part of the

tongue and the hard palate, have this quality regardless of their position in

words.

The lateral constrictive sonorant [1] is clear before all the vowels — both

front arid back.

Azerbaijanian consonants have a stronger tendency for adaptation to vowels;

velar consonants [k], [g] are used with front vowels mostly; after front vowels the

sound [1] becomes soft.

compare: -English words: Azerbaijanian words;

give gil

giri göl

beli bel

tea tin

kin kin

cake kəsmik

2. English voiced noise consonants [h, v, d, Ə, z, 3, g, da] are partly devoiced in final position. If we use a voiceless consonant instead of the partly devoiced one in this position different words will get mixed up, so it leads to phonological mistakes.

For example: cab — araba leave - tərk etmək

cap - papaq

leaf- yarpaq

bus — avtobus bag - çanta

buzz - vızıldamaq tıack - arxa

In Azerbaijanian final consonants are usually devoiced: Kitab (p) məktəb (p) oynaq (k) Hissiz (s) cəhd(t)

3. English consonants may occur in any. sequenccs: voiced and voiceless ones together; two, three and even four consonants may follow one another, both preceding and following vowels in syllables. For example:

mixed [mikst]

rhythm [ri5n]. helpcd

[helpt] wrinkled [rtıpkld] obstacle [əbstakl]

spring [spriq]

square [skwsə]

stress [stres]

split [split]

asked [a:skt]

dodged [dDdad] Similar sequences of consonants do not occur in Azerbaijan- inn. Not more

than one consonant may occur at the beginning of real Azerbaijanian words; at the end may occur two, but tlıe first one must be only constrictivedist, alt, dörd ...

4.The tenseness of muscles is greater in the aıticıılation of the English consonants than in Azerbaijanian. The aspiration of English voiceless plosives [p, t, k] is stronger.

5. English forelingual consonants, except [rj, have an apical articulation while the corresponding AzerbaiJaniaTi consonants are dorsal.

6. There is a third nasa! sonorant [q] in English which is absent in literary Azerbaijanian.

7. There is a constrictive sonorant [w] in English which has a bilabial articulation; no similar phoneme exists in Azerbaijanian.

8. Two forelingual interdental constrictive consonants are characteristic of English. They are [9,5]; no similar phonemes exist in Azerbaijanian.

9. The English post - alveolar sonorant [r] is constrictive, while the Azerbaijanian phoneme [p] is a roller one.

10. There is no backlingual - vetar constrictive consonant in English. 11. İn English there are no medio-lingual plosives 1 ke Azerbaijanian [k]

[gj 12. English word-finai sonorants [m, n. 1] become syllabic when they stand after other consonants. Example:

garden [ga:dn] rhythm [ri5m] little [litl] 8

Vowels

1. English vowels are more tense than the Azerbaijanian ones in stressed syllables, while in the unstressed position- they may undergo reduction and become neutral or even be dropped. Examples:

lesson [lesn] you are right [juə'raitj together [tə'geSə]

But Azerbaijanian vowels do not lose their quality in unstressed position. 2. English vowels rnay difl’er in stability: they may be monophtongs and

diphthongs, in which the organs ot’ speech glide from one vowel position to another within one syllable. There are no diphthongs in literary Azerbaijanian pronunciation.

3. English vowels may differ in quantity according to two principles: in monophtongs the quantity is phonemic and is always connected with the tenseness of vowels: [i;-i] [3;-o] [a:-A], [u;-u], [’sı-ə].

These pairs of vowels diffi;r both in quality and in quantity. In Azerbaijanian the length is not phonemic; long vowels may occur in Azerbaijanian in pre-stress position in some words of foreign origin; they have no short counterparts which are used in the same position .and are therefbre phonetic variants. Besides, Azerbaijanian short vowels become: long in final syllables of certain types of questions used with the rise of tone.

4. English vowels are mostly non-labialized; of twenty English vowels only five are labialized: D:, p,u, u:, cu.

The rounded lips are tense, but very little protruded. The lips are aIso very tense for the unroundecl English vowels, especially for those which are articulated with spread lips: [i, i, e, te, 3:, A, iə, ei, eə, ai, ao]. 1

İn Azerbaijanian the lip-rounding may differ vowel phonemes. The rounded lips are less tense and mote protmded.

5. There are two Central \/owels in English: [ə] and [3], they are absent in Azerbaijanian.

6. English vowels may be front retracted ([!]) and back-ad-vanced ([A][u][ou]).

7. Another striking feature of English is the use of very short checked vowels in closed syllables: [let], [msepj, [lit], [bAd], [put], [gat].

8. The English back open vowels [a:] [o:j and [pj have a vety wide and long resonance chamber. There: are no vowels in /A,zerbaijanian so back, open and tense.

9. On the whole, drring the articulation of English vowels the bulk of the tongue has a more retracted position than in corresponding Azerbaijanian vowels. The tongue takes a contracted dome-like shape; during the articulation of Azerbaijanian vowels the tongue has a tendency to move forward towards the lower teeth, it aIso has a more flat sıırface.

In English there is no vowel harmony, so typical for Azerbaijanian.

Part i

THE ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH PHONETICS

THE ORGANS OF SPEECH AND THEIR FUNCTİONS

Our speech consists of sounds prodiıced by the stream of air Corning out of the lungs. When the air leaves the lungs it passes, through the windpipe. The upper part of the windpipe is called the larynx. İnside the larynx there are two elastic muscular. bands placed on the two sides of it. They are called the vocal eords.

The vocal eords can be brought near together or can move apart. The

opening between the vocal eords is called the glotfis. W'hen the vocal eords are tense and approach each other the air, passing

between, them, makes them vibrate. This vibration of the vocal eords produces a certain musical sound called voice. Vowels and voiced consonants are produced when the vocal eords are drawn near and vibrate.

When the vocal eords are near one another, but not tens, the air passes

between them with a slight friction and we hear whisper. When the vocal eords move apart the air passes freely between them and

they do not vibrate. İn this case no voice is produced. From the larynx the stream of air passes into the pharynx at the back of

the mouth cavity. From the pharynx the stream of air may pass out either through the month cavity or through the nasa! cavity.

The mouth cavity is separated from the nasal cavity by the palate, or the roof of the mouth. The palate is conditionaly divided into three parts:

- the part behind the upper teeth is called the alveoH, or the teeth ridge; -the part behind the alveoli is called the hard palate; - the part behind the hard palate is called the soft palate, or the velum; - the end of the soft palate is called the tıvula.

The alveoli and the hard palate cannot move, but the soft palate with the uvula can move up and down.

When the soft palate is raised, the uvula approaches the back B Back of the tongue BL Blade of the tongue E Epiglottis

F Front of the tongue FP Food passage HP Hard palate L Lips P Pharynx R Roof of the tongue

SP Soft palate

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T Teeth TR Teeth ridge U UvLila V Vocal cords W Windpipe The organs of speech P Pharyngal cavity SP Soft palate U Uvila vocal cords and glottis

The mouth seen from the front

of the pharynx and blocks the passage into the nasal cavity, and the stream of air can pass only throiıgh the mouth cavity and oral sounds are produced.

When the soft palate moves down, it opens the passage into fıll nasal cavity and the stream of air can pass through it. In this case nasal sounds are produced.

The other important speech organ which lies in the lower part of the nasal cavity is the tongue.

The tongue is conditionally divided into the following parts: - the blade (front) with the tip which lies behind the upper teeth and

underneath the alveoli; - the middle of the tongue which lies underneath the hard palate; - the back of the tongue which lies underneath the soft palate; - the root of the tongue which lies underneath the uvula.

The blade of the tongue can move in all directions, the middle of the tongue is less movable and the back of the tongue can move only up and down.

Those organs of speech which can move and take an active part in the

11

production of speech soıınds are called active organa. They are: the vocai cords, the tongııe, the soft palate with the uvula and :he lips. Those organs of speech which carınot move, but with which the active organs fornı an obstruction, are called passive organs. They are the teeth, the alveoli and the hard palate.

The movements of the lower jaw, the tongue and the lips change, the shape and the volunıe of the mouth cavity. The-lips may aIso take different positions and change the shape and size of the mouth opening. The volume of the cavity of the pharynx may be changed by the contraction of the back wall of the pharynx, and by moving the root of the tongue towards the back of the pharynx.

The mouth cavity, the nasal cavity, and the ptıarynx are resonancc chambers.

CLASSIFICATION OF SPBEOH SO' INDS

AH the sounds of our speech are divided into vowels and consonants. ■Vowels are soımds during the articulation of which :he stress of air

coming out of the glüttis does not m.eet any obstı-uction on its way. The vocai cords are tense and vibrate. The sretım of air is vveak. The

muscular tension is distributed evenly over the organs of .speech. VVhen vowels are produced, we hear only pure voice without or with very'

little noise. The quality of vowels depends on the shape of ı,he mouth cavity and on the shape of the opening. The mouth resonator is chang(jd mostly by the movements of the tongue and the lips. When the lips are rounded and protmded the volume of the mouth resonator is largeır. It is aIso increased by the lowering

of tlıe jaw. VVhen consonants are produced the active organs of speech forrn an

obstruction on the way of the stream of air. The organs of speech forming the obstruction are tense. Tenseness is concentrated in the place of formation of obstmction. The stream of air is driven out with great energy and., wTıen passing through the ob- staıction, it produces noise. Tlıerefore consonants are

sounds of noise. The quality of consonants depend;; on the kind of obstruction and the place

where it is formed and on the position of the vocai cords. Consonants may be noise consonants and sorıorants i^sonants). For

sonorants the air passage is wider than for noise consonants and less noise is produced by the weaker stream of air. Tlıe musical tone is stronger thai' the noise.

TYPES OF OBSTRUCTION

Obstructions may be of two types; complete and incomplete. When an

active organ of speech comes into contact with a passive one, thus blocking

12 ,

the air passage, a conıplete obstruction is formed. The obstmction may be released suddenly witlı a plosion as for [p,d,k] and gradually as for [tj, da] , For some consonaiıts the obstruction is not released, but the soft palate is lowered and the air stream passes out through the nasal cavity as for [m;rı] When an active organ of speech approaches a passive one forming a narrow passage for the air stream, the obstruction is incomplete.

The narrowing may have different shapes: flat or round. The organ forming the obstruction may vibrate in the stream of the, passing

air producing a series of quick blockings and releases of the obstruction; rolled consonants are produced in this way.

Classincntion of English vowel phonemes.

All the English vcwel phonemes are divided into two large groups according to the stability of articulation: monophthongs and diphthongs.

Monophthongs are vowels in the articulation of which the organs of speech do not change their position. Therefore the quality of a monophthong does not

perceptibly change to its end. For example: fi:j, [ej, [3:], [a], [u;] etc. Diphthongs are vowels in the articulation of which the organs of speech

glide from the position of one vowel in the direction of another. Thus the quality of the vowel changes within one syllable and the consist of two elements: The fırst element of an English diphthong is called the nucleus. The second element is called the glide. All the diphthongs have one syllable. The fırst element is

syllabic. For example: [ei], [iə], [au], [ouj, [uə] etc. Vowel which have a diphthongal pronunciation, because there is a glide in

their articulation from a more open to a closer position, are called diph- thongoids, for example, the English [i:] and [u:]

The difference in the quality of vowels depends on the shape and size of the moLith cavity which is changed by the movements of the tongue the lips, the

soft palate and aIso by the lowering of the jaw. The shape and size of the mouth opening may r.lso change the quality or vowels. When the lips are protruded the volume of the mouth resonator increases. But the most important for determining the quality of vowels is the position of the position of the tongue which may move horizontally that is forward backw'ard and ver- tically that is up and down in the direction of the palate.

1 .According to the movement of the tongue in the horizontal plane vowels are

classifles into front, front - retracted Central, back and back - advanced.

: For front vowels the body of the tongue is pushed forward and the resonance chamber is formed at the back of the mouth cavity, the front (mid-

13

dle) of the tongııe is raised in the direction of the hard palate, the tip of the tongue is at the lower teeth. The English fully front vowels are [i;], [e], [±] , and the Azerbaijanian front vowels are: [i, e, y, ö, ə].

For front - retracted vowels the tongue is a little more retracted in comparison with the position for fully front vowels and the middle is raised towards the hard palate.

There is one front - retracted vowel in English: [i]. There are no front — retracted vowels in Azerbaijanian,

For Central vowels the Central part of the tongue is raised right against the hard palate. English center vowels are [3:] and [ə].

For back vowels the body of the tongue is in the back part of the mouth cavity. The tip of the tongue is retracted frorn the lower teeth and the back is

raised towards the soft palate. The English fully back vowels are: [u:, D:, a:, 0:]. The Azerbaijanian back vowels are: a, 0, u, 1. For back advanced vowels the body of the tongue is aIso in the back of the

mouth, but a little advanced in comparison with the position for the fully back vowels. The back part of the tongue is raised towards the front of the soft palate.

The English back-advanced vowels are: [u], [A], [ou]. There are no back

advanced vowels İn Azerbaijanian. 2..According to the height to which the tongue is raised, or the vertical

movement of the tongue vowels may be open, close half-close half open. For close vovvels one part of the tongue is raised high to the palate and the

passage is rather narrow. The English close vowels are: [i:], [a:]

The Azerbaijanian close vowels are: [ij, [ü], [u], [ıj. For open vowels one part of the tongue is raised a little in the direction of

the palate, thejaw is lowered and the air passage is very wide. The English open vowels are: [s], [a:], [D:], [0]. The Azerbaijanian open vowels are: [ə], [a], [ö], [0]. Various intermediate positions of the tongue result in half-open vowels.

The English half-open vowels are: [A], [ej, [ə], [3:]. The English half-close vowels are: [ı],[u]. 3. According to the shape of the lips vowels may be rounded, or labialized,

and unrounded, or non - labialized. For rounded vowels the lips are more or less rounded and may be protruded or flat.

The following vowels are labialized in English: [D, D, u, u] and the first

elements of [uə] and [Dİ]. The lip - rounding plays a great role in the articulation of Azerbaijanian vowel phonemes. The lips work energetically and are tense, pursed into a round opening and considerabIy protruded. The lip

14

roundi/ıg may serve as a single characteristic feature in distinguishing phonemes. For example: diz - duz; bel - böl, etc.

For the English unrounded vowels the lips may be neutral as for [a:] or spread as for [i:], [3:].

The Azerbaijanian rounded vowels are: [ü], [ö], [o], [u]. The unrounded vowels are: [a], [e], [1], etc.

4. According to their quantity, or duration, vowels may be long or short. The principle of duration is quite clear in the monophthongs which are

opposed by their length. The duration of vowels may vary under the influence of stress and other conditions, but long vowels and short vowels have always difference in length in the same phonetic conditions.

The English long vowels are: [i:], [a:], [3:], [u:], [D:]. These vowels may occıır in any position in a word: initial, middle, final, in open or closed syllables.

The English short vowels are: [1], [e], [a], [A], [ae]. Only the English monophthongs [e] and [±] have no long counterparts, that is why they are more liable to variations in length. They may become a little longer before voiced consonants, sonorant’s, especialiy.

The English short vowels are checked. that is, their utterance is stopped abruptly without weakening of tenseness by the following consonant. That is why they occur only in closed syllables. All the English short vowels in stressed position are checked.

5. Azerbaijanian long vowels may occur only in certain positions in a word: in unstressed syllables and in non - final position. The long Azerbaijanian vowels differ from noser short pairs in length only, all the other characteristics from one to same: short vowels may become considerabIy longer in Azerbaijanian. İn certain types of questions, in the so - called “noun” questions the vowel of the final syllable is length.

6. The relative tenseness of English vowels is closely connected with their length.

All the English long vowels are tense. The muscles of the tongue, of the mouth cavity and of the pharynx are tense, because in pronouncing long vowels they hold one position for a rather long time. That reqııires a great muscular tension of the .organs of speech.

The vowel, [^] may be rather tense when it occurs before nasal sonorants or before voiced consonants in stressed syllables where it is rather long. The Azerbaijanian vowels are not differentiated according to their tenseness. Long and short vowels are equally tense, but they are never so tense as the English long vowels in stressed position. The unstressed vowels are only a little less tense than the stressed ones. This is probabIy connected with the character of the Azerbaijanian stress which is mainly tonic.

15

7. Neither English, nor Azerbaijanian vowels are differentiated according to the position of the soft palate. They are all oral.

Classification of English Conso nant plıonemes

Consonants are noises produced by the stream of air passing through an obstruction formed in the supra-Iaryngal cavities. The kind of noise depends on the type of obstruction or on the shape and size of the narrowing.

Consonants arc classified according to the following principies: 1. According to the manner of production and the .ype of obstruction. 2. According to the active speech organ, or the organs which form the

obstruction; 3. According to the work of the vocal cords; 4. According to the position of the soft palate. According to the fırst principle consonants are di'dded into four groups: 1) occlusives, or stops; 2) constrictives; 3) occlusive- con-

strictives, or affricates, and; 4) rolled, or trilled, conscnants. 1) For occlusive consonants a complete obstruction is formed by some

active and passive organs. The stream of air is stopf)ed by this obstruction which is quickly released. Occlusive consonants rray be plosives as the English [p], [b|; [fj, [d], [k], [gj (or the Azerbaijania.n[n, b, t, d, k, g, q]) or occlusive sonorants for which the are passage through the mouth is blocked by the lowered soft palate and the released air passes through the nasal cavity as for the English [m], [n], [q] or the Azerbaijania ı:[m], [n]

2) For constrictive consonants the air-passage is narrowed, or con- stricted, and an incomplete obstruction is formed.

The narrowing may be of different shape and sİ5;e, it may m formed in one or two places.

Consonants for which the air-passage is naırrow, tınd the passing air produces a strong friction are called fricative consonants. They are the English [f] , [v], [0], [Ə], [s] [z], [.[], [3],[h] and the Azerbaijanian [f], [v], [s], [z], [ş], []], [x], [ğ]. Tlıe narrowing may be of different .shape: flat or round.

The English fricative consonants pronounced with ftat narrowing are: [f, v, 0, d, I, 3, h].

The Azerbaijanian fricative consonants pronounced with flat narrowing are: [f], [v], [ş],[j], M. [gj, [h].

The English fricative consonants pronounced with a round narrowing are [s], [z]. The round narrowing is formed by the blade of the tongue and the alveoli.

The .Azerbaijanian fricative consonants pronounced with a round narrowing are [cj, [3].

16

Consonants tor w.ıich the air-passage is rather wide and a weaker stream of air produces little l'riction are called constrictive sonorants. İn the prodnc- tion of constrictive sonorants the voice is stronger than the noise.

Constrictive sonoi'ants may be media and lateral. For medial sonorants the air-passage is formed along the middle of the

tongue as for English [w, r, J],

For lateral sonorants the tip of the tongue is pressed against the alveoli or the teeth while the sides of the tongue are lowered, leaving the air- passage along them as for the English [1] and At Azerbaijanian [1].

3) For occlusive-constrictive consonants the articulating organs form a complete obstruction which is slowly released forming a narrow passage for the air at the end of the articulation of the consonant. Thus the air is fırst stopped

and then released and passes out with friction. The English occiusive-constrictive consonants are [tj], [da] and the

Azerbaijanian are [c], [ç]. 4) For rolled consonants the active organ forming the obstruction vibrates

in the stream cf the passing air producing a series of taps against the passive organ. The stı eam of air is repeatedly interrupted as for the Azerbaijanian [p].

Rolled cojısonants are not characteristic of English. 2. According to the active-organ and the place of formation of obstruction

consonants may be: 1) labial: 2) lingual; 3) pharyngal. 1) Labial consonants are subdivided into: a) bilabial and, b) labia - den- tiil a) Bilabial consonants are articulated by the lips brought together. The

English bilabial consonants are [p], [b], [m], [w].

The Azerbaijaniar, bilabial consonants are: [p], [b], [m]. b) Labia - dental (;onsonants are articulated by the lower lip and the up-

per teeth. The English labio-dental consonants are [f], [v], and the Azerbaijanian—[f], [v]

2) Lingual consonants are subdivided .into: a) forelingual; b) mediolingual; c) backlingual

a) Forelingual consonants are formed by the tip and the blade of the tongue or only by the blade of the tongue which may take different positions; vvhen the tip of the hmgue is jowered to the front lower teeth and the obstruction is formed by the blade the tongue and the upper teeth dorsal consonants are product. /^pical consonants are articulated by the tip of the tongue placed against the upper teeth or the alveoli. All the English forelingual consonants,

except [r], are apical, white the corresponding Azerbaijanian consonants are dorsal.

İn the articulation, of cacuminal consonants the tip of the tongue is curled to

the back: wall of the alveoli anu tne tö.ngue taKes tne snape of a

17

spoon. The English [r] is cacuminal.

b) Medio - lingııal consonants are formed by the middle of tlıe tongue raised or pressed against the hard palate. Such are the English [j] and the Azerbaijanian [j].

c) Backlingual consonants are formed by the back of the tongue against the soli palate as in the English fk], [g], [p] and the Azerbaijanian |K], [q], W, [f].

According to the place of formation of obstruction lingual consonants are aIso classified into: a) dental, formed by the blade of the tongue against the teeth; b) interdental, formed by the lip of the tongue placed between the upper and the lower teeth; c) alveolar, formed by the tip of the tongue against the teeth ridge; d) postalveolar, formed by the tip of the tongue against the back part of

the alveoli; e) palatal, formed by the middle of the tongue against the hard palate; f) velar, foımed by the back of the tongue against the soft palate.

This classifıcation is very important when teaching the articulation of English consonants to foreigners.

3) Pharyngal consonants are formed by the root of the tongue which aproaches the back wall of the pharynx as for the [h] and the Azerbaijanian [h].

3. According to the work of the vocal cords consonants m.ay be: a) voiced and, b) voiceless, or breathed İn the production of voiced

consonants the tense vocal cords are brought togcther and vibrate as for the English fb], [dj, [g], [v], [5], [z], [3], [ds], [m], [nj, [q], [w], [I], [r], [j], and Azerbaijanian [b, d, k, q, v, z, j, f, ç, n, m, 1, j, r].

Voiced consonants in which the musical tone prevails over the noise are

called sonorants. There are seven sonorants in English; [m. n, q, w, I, r, j], and fıve sonorants in Azerbaijanian: [m, n, r, 1, y].

Voiceless consonants are those for which the lax vocal cords are wide; apart and do riot vibrate, as for the English: [p, t, k, f, 9, s, j, h, tj] and the Azerbaijanian: n, t, k, f, s, ş, c, x, h.

Voiceless consonant are generally stronger than the voiced ones, as the

stream of air passes out ffeely between the open vocal cords. 4. According to the position of the soft palate consonants may be oral and

nasal. For oral consonants the soft palate is raised closing the passage into the nasal cavity and the air passes through the mouth cavity, as for the English [p, b, t, d, k, g, f, v, 0, d, s, z, J, 3, h, w, 1, r, j, tj, d3] and the Azerbaijanian [p, b, t, d, k, g, q, f, V, s, z, ş, j, c, ç, x, ğ, h, I, r, y].

For nasal consonants the soft palate is lowered and the air passage through the nasal cavity is open as for the English [m], [n], [q].

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THE ARTICULATION OF THE ENGLISH VOWEL PHONEMES English front monophthongs

The English front monophthongs are: [i:], [ı], [e], [s]. The fırst two are different both in quality and quantity (duration) and the other two - in quality only.

AH the English, front monophthongs have the following common features: 1) The body of the tongue, moves to the front paı1 of the mouth, leaving the back part free; 2) The middle of the tongııe is raised in the direction of the hard palate; 3) The tip of the tongue is at the lower teeth; 4) The lips are spread,

English phoneme [i:] is the closest of the front vowels but not so close as in Azerbaijanian.

The English vowel [i:] may have a diphthongized variant which glides from a more open to a closer position.

The Azerbaijanian [i:] in comparison with the English has a more advanced articulation. The English [i:] is long and tense, it is always longer than [ı] in the same phonetic context. [i;] is the longest in final position, a little shorter before voiced consonants and the shortest before voiceless ones, The lips are spread and the opening between the jaws is rather narrow. Thus the English [i:] is front, close, unrounded, long

and tense. The lips for Azerbaijanian [i:] are neutral. The Azerbaijanian [i:] differs from the short vowel [ij by its length only.

The English vowel [i:] may occur in any position in the word — both in (İpen and closed syllables. Care should be taken not to rnake the English vowel [i;] too narrow and not to palatalize consonants before and after it Aİvhich is a typical mistake of Azerbaijanian learners of English: bee, me, sea, leave, beam, lead, beat, sweep, ieaf

The Azerbaijanian vowel [i:] şi:və, di;ni, etc. The English vowel [i] is quite short. The tongue is raised a little less tihan

for [i:]. The body of the tongue is somewhat retracted in comparison yvith [i:]. The tip is at the lower teeth. The lips are spread. Like all the English short

vowels it is lax. This vowel phoneme may be described as front retracted, half-close, unrounded, short and lax.

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When stressed, it alw.ays.stands in closed syllables and is checked. İn Linstressed syllabies it is even shorter and more lax,

The Azerbaijanian vowel [i] is aIso short and lax, tut it is more front and close than the English vowel [ı]. The lips are neutral. The Azerbaijanian [ij may stand in any position in a-word: in-open and closed, stressed and unstressed syllabies. It is more open and back in some bcrrowed words such as [sa:kit] [ka:tib] and may be taken for comparison when teaching the English [ı].

The greatest diffıculty for Azerbaijanian students in learning to pronounce [1] in words is its checked character and the aard proniınciation of consonants before and after it.

The third English front vowel phoneme is [e]. It is short and lax. The, body of the tongue is in the front part of the mcuth, the front part, is raised towards the hard palate a little less than for [1]. The lips are

spread. The English phoneme [e] is a checked vowel and is always followed by a consonant.

Two variants of this phoneme may be observe.d in English: one which is closer is heard before all

kind of consonants, and the other which is used before the "dark" latei’al sonorant [1] in such, words as [bel, tel, wel] etc. The fırst variant is always half-c.lose and the second — half- open.

The English [e] may be a little lengthened in stressed syllable when followed by a sonorant as in ["ten, well, stem"].

The corresponding Azerbaijanian vowel [e] is aIso front, between half- open and half-close, unrounded, short and lax. The lips are neutral. Though short, this vowel is not checked and may stand both ir open and closed syl- İables. There are aIso evidently variants of the Azerbaijanian [e] which are more close and more open. The Azerbaijarı phoneme [e] is very much like the English vowel [e] when it occurs in borrowed words in which it is more

open under influence of the open vowel of the preceding syllable as in [ma:’ne], [ta:’be] etc. But the Azerbaijanian vowel is not checked. The short checked character of the English [e] is difficult for /azerbaijanian learners and they are apt to make je] long in final stressttd syllabies pronounced with the rising tone especialiy. Care should aIso be taken not to palatalize consonants before and after[e]

20

There is a long frcnt monophthong [e] in Azerbaijanian which by some authors considered being a separate phoneme. It has the same articiılation as thö short vowel [e]; but differs only by its duration. It is used only in some words borrowed frorr the Arabic language and always in the unstressed syllables.

The English vowel phoneme [®] is the most open of all the front vowels. The body of the tongue moves to the front part of the mouth cavity. The tip of the tongue is at the lower teeth. The front of the tongue is very little raised and the jaw is ccn- siderably lowered, so the opening for the air is wide. The lips are spread. Though the. English [se] is short, the muscles of the articulating organs are rather tense and the vo-

wel is rather clear and strong. I Thus the English vowel phoneme [ae] is front, open, short and unrounded, ' The vowel [ae] is often lengthened before voiced consonants especially

before nasal sonorants. Such lengthening is possible because there is no cdrresponding long monophthong in English, [äej always stands in closed syllables and very seldom in unstressed ones.

! There is a front vowel phoneme [ə] in Azerbaijanian which resembles thjC English [ae]. It is ı'ront, open, short and ıınrounded. In comparison with the English [^] the A2erbaijanian [ə] is a little more front.

j The lips are neutral. The Azerbaijanian vowel may occur both in open aı^d closed syllables, in stressed and unstressed position without changing its quality.

i There is a long frc nt vowel [ə:] in Azerbaijanian which differ, from the short, [ə] only by its length. İt has the same articiılation and is always used iıj unstressed, and nonfinal syllables.

j Azerbaijanian stuclents oTen replace the English [±] by the Azerbaijanian [ə]. This mistake may be corrected by .lowering the tip of the tongue to the alveoli of the lov\er teeth. Care should be aIso taken not to palatalize consonants before and after [ä;], especially when [äj] is followed by [1], [k], or [g].

The English vowel [ee]; bat, bad, cap, land, damp, stand, sang, carry. The Azerbaijanian vowel [ə]: əl, gəl, rəqs, tək.

‘ The Azerbaijanian vowel [ə;]: tə:nə, bə:zi.

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Eııglish back monophthongs

English back monophtqngs are; [a;], [A], [o], [D:] [u], [u:]. They differ from each other both in quantity (duration).

All the English back monophthongs have the following comınon features: 1) The body of the tongue is retracted leav-

ing the front part of the mouth cavity free; 2) The back part of the tongue is raised in tlıe direction of the soft palate; 3) The tip of the tongue is retracted from the lower teeth.

The English phoneme [a:] is the most open of alt the back vowels. The

tip of the tongue is retracted from the lower teeth and the back part is slightly raised in the direction of the soft palate.

The body of the tongue lies low in the mouth and the jaw is considerabIy lowered, leaving a wide passage for the air between the tongue and the palate.

Thus the English [a;] is back, open, unrounded, long and tense. It may

occur both in open and closed syllables. As all the other long vowels, [a;] is the longest in final stressed syllables

before a pause, a little shorter before voiced consonants and .shortest before voiceless.

For example: far, car, carp. The Azerbaijanian back vowel [a:] is aIso fully back, open, long and un-

rounded. But it is not so tense as the English vowel [a:]. The tongue for Azerbaijanian [a:] is more flat, but less retracted than for the English back vowel [a:] - . . , : .

The English vowel [a:] arm, father, - paıt, start. :**'

The Azerbaijanian vowel [a:] : ma:’rif,

a:’ni, da;’va. The English phoneme [o] is even more

retracted than [a:]. The body of the tongue is drawn back more than for [a:] and the back part is raised a little more than for [a:].

The lower Jaw is considerabIy lowered, the opening between the tongue and the

palate is veı-y wide. The lips are slightly rounded, but not protruded. It is termed the open lip-rounding. The English [0] is short and lax. Thus the

22

English [D] İS back, open, rounded, shot and lax. It occurs only in closed syllables and is a checked vowel.

The Azerbaijanian [o] is not so back and not so open as the English [o]. The body of the tongııe occupies a more ad-

. vanced position and is more flat, but raised \ ^ i higher than for the English vowel. The jaw / , - \ is less lowered, too. The lips are rounded

__ and protruded. The Azerbaijanian [o] is used mostly in root syllables.

The most typical mistakes of Azerbaijanian students in pronouncing the English vowel [o] are: they make it more front and more rounded and not checked, as the Azerbaijanian [o]. Care should be taken not to protrude the lips which must be open and flat, it is necessaiy to lower the Jaw to keep the tip of the tongue retracted from the lower teeth to pronounce this vowel very short.

The English vowel [o]: nod, spot, pocket; long, dog. The Azerbaijanian vowel [o]: od, on, oyun, tox, ol. The English phoneme [D;] differs from [o] both in quality and duration. The body of the tongue is retracted, the back part of the tongue is raised to

the Soft palate higher than for the short vowel [0] and for the long [a:]. The distance between the tongue and the palate is not so wide as for these vowels. The lips are rounded and a little pushed forward forming an open- ^ng smaller than for [o]. The vowel [D:] is long and tense.

The English [D:] is thus back, open (between open and half-open), rounded, long and tense.

İt may be used both in open and closed syllables. The English [D:] is the longest in open stressed syllables before a pause,

slightly shorter before voiced consonants and the shortest — before voiceless consonants.

For example: war, door, tall, talk, dawn, autumn, more, fourth, broad, port, broiıght.

There is no long [o] phoneme in Azerbaijanian. The Azerbaijanian vowel [o] is more advanced and less wide than the English vowel [D:]. The lips are aIso more rounded and protruded and the opening is smaller than foe both [0] and [D:]. When learning the English [D:] the Azerbaijanian students should pay the greatest attention to the position of the lips, they should aIso make [D:] tense and long in stressed position especialiy.

23

The English phoneme [A] is somewhat

advanced in comparison with other back towels. The body c>f the tongue is in the back part of the mouth cavity, but not so far back as for [a:]. The part which is raised is more advanced, The tip of the tongue is behind the lower teeth. The distance

between the tongue and the palate is not so wide as for [o:].

The lips are slightly spread. The vowel [Aj is short and lax. The Englislı vowel [A] is bac!<-advanced, half-open, unroLinded, shot and lax. The English [A] occurs only in closed syllables. İt is a checked vowel. For example: bııd. bun, butter, hvlk, vpper, cunning.

İn Azerbaijanian: at, a’bad, a’ra, aş’kar. In comparison with the Azerbaijanian vowel [a] the English vowel [A] is

more advanced and less open. The lips for the English [A] are slightly spread while for the Azerbaijanian [aJ they are neulral. The Azerbaijanian learners of English often replace the English [A]by the Azerbaijanian [a], making the English back vowel not so short and cheıcked as it must be. To correct this

mistake, [A] should be pronounced veıy briefly with the lips spread and the tip of the tongue behind the lovrer teeth.

The English phoneme [u] is not fiıl- ly back either. The body of the tongue is retracted, but not so far back as for [a:] or for [D].

A t The back of the tongue is raised to the Soft palate higher than for [A]. The

lips are slightly 'ounded, but very little protruded. The distance between the jaws is not wide. The vowel [u] is back- advanced, half-close, rounded, short and

lax. When stressed if must always stand in closed syllables and is checked. The Azerbaijan vowel, [y] is more back than the English [u] it is aIso

half-close, but the lips are considerabIy rour.ded and pushed forward. The short Azerbaijanian vowel [y] may become long in pretonic position in some types of questions. The most typical mistake of Azerbaijanian students in the English [u] will be the sıabstitutipn of the back Azerbaijanian

[y] with greater lip-protrusion. İn order to avoid this mistake it is necessary to make the English vowel very short and to pronoımce it with a very slight lip-protrusion.

The English vowel [u]; good, Icok, bull, stood, pull, put.

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The Azerbaijanian vowel [u]: quş, duz, pul, uşaq.

The English vowel [u:] is the closest of alt the English back vowels. The body of the tongue is retracted more than for [u]. The back of the tongue is raised very high in the direction of the soft pa- ^ late. During lire articulation of [u:] The

tongue moves from a more advanced and open to a closer and more retracted position. That is why [u] is slightly diphthongized the lips are considerably rounded, towards the end. They opening between the jaws are narrow. The vowel

is fully long and tense. The English [u;] - is described as back, close, rounded, long and tense.

The English [u;] is more front after [j] as in "’beauty, few, duty”, etc. İt may be used both in open and closed syllables. The Azerbaijanian

vowel [u] and its long variant [u:] are a little less close than [u:], but, more, front. The lips are more rounded and pushed forward. The long Azerbaija-

nian vowel [u:] is used only in the middle of the words. The English vowel [u:] has the longest variant before the pause, a little

shorter before voiced eonsonants and the shortest before the voiceless ones. The English vowel [u:]ı too, pool, mood, moon, doom, beauty. The

Azerbaijanian students often substitute the English [u:] by the Azerbaijanian [u:] pronouncing it v^ ith a considerable lip- rounding and lip - protrusion

aIso making the English vowel too, open and tax. In order to correcl these mistakes one must retract the tip of the tongue

from the lower teeth, i ound the lips without lip -protrusion.

Eng.lish Central Monophtongs

There are two Central vowels in English: [3:]

and [ə]. In pronouncing the phoneme [3:] the Central

pah: of the tongue is raised in the direction of the

palate almost high as for [e]

The tip of the tongue is at the lower teeth. The

opening between the jaws is narrow. The lips are spread as for [i:]. The English [3;] is long and tense. Thus the English [3:] may be described as Central, almost half-open, unrounded, long and tense.

!t may occur both in open and closed syllables. For example: „fur, stir, huri, worker, learner, nervous, first, turn, peari, verse, journey, German."

25

The English phoneme [3:] is one of the most diffıcult for Azerbaijanian

learners of English. They sııbstitute it by the Azerbaijanian [0] which is a front and rounded vowel.

In order to pronounce [3:] correctly the lips should be spread leaving the teeth slightly open. The tip of the tongue, mııst be at the lower teeth,. The opening between the Jaws must be narrovv. The vowel must be long and tense. The palatalization of consonants before or after [3:] should be care-

fülly avoided. The English phoneme [ə] is generally called neutral as it occıırs, only in

Linstressed syllable. Because of that it is quite lax and may have different variants of quality depending on the preced-

ing or following sounds. The Principal variant of [ə] is pronounced with the Central part of the

tongue raised a little less than for [3:]. The tip of the tongue is against the lower teeth. The lips are slightly spread or neutral. The opening between the Jaws is rather narrow, too.

The vowel [ə] is Central, half-open. unrounded, short and lax. İt may

occur both in open and closed unstressed syllables.

We must distinguish three main variants of [ə]. The .most common is

used at the beginning of the words and as articles and in the middle of the words with any consonants except [k] and [g]. İt is half-open.

Example: aTong, a'broad, a ‘pen, a'ppear, a'bove, 'nervous, 'conference, 'student, the'map, the 'top.

İn combinations with [k] and [g] the vowel becomes half-close and more retracted as in: a'gain, a'go, co'rrect, co'nnect.

A lowered variant of [ə] is used in final position of words, before a pause. It is aIso more retracted than the principal variant.

Ex.: 'data, 'teacher, 'colour, 'learner, 'better, 'actor.

English diphthongs.

Diphthongs are vowels consisting of

two elements pronounced as one syllable,

that is, by one articulatory effort. The or-

gans of speech begin the diphthong with

one vowel position arid move- towards the

second position without stop. This second

position is never fully reached, we hear two

vowels pronounced in one syllable.

The fırst element of English diphthongs is strong and-syllabic, it is

called the nucleus. The second is weak and lax, it is the glide. Such diph-

26

thongs are called falling. AIl English diphthongs may occur both in open ^nd closed syllables.

There are 8 diphthongs in the English langııage. They are:[ıə], [eı], [sə], [aı], [an], [Dı], [on], [nə]. There is a ninth diphthong [Də] English used by some Engüshmen, f. e. in "pour" [pDə] “ore” [Də], but it may always be substituted by the monophthong [D] which is more common in English. If is therefore not an independent phoneme, but a variant of the phoneme [D:] and should not be taught to beginners of English. We may distinguish front and back diphthongs according to their fırst elements. The nucleus of all the front diphthongs are front vowels and the lips for them are spread.

They are: [iə], [ei], [sə], [ai], [an] The English diphthong [iə] begins with the position of an open variant of [i]

which is more tense in the diphthong than in the monophthong. The lips are spread. The tongue moves in the direction of a rather open [ə] which becomes more open when [iə] is in final position. Examples: near, a’ppear, mere, beer, cheerful, pierce.

The following mistakes in the articulation of [iə] should be avoided: a) the nucleus must not be pronounced as a narrow Azerbaijanian [i]; b) the glide must not be too open as the English [A]; c) consonants should not be palatalized before [iə]; d) [iə] should not be substituted by [i:], as it might lead to a phonological mistake.

Cornpare the English words "beard" [biəd] — saqqal and “beed” [bi:d] - muncuq "real" [riəl] — real, doğru; and "reel" [ri:l] sarğı; “fear” [fiə] — qorxu , and fee [fı: — əmək haqqı, gonorar.

The English diphthong [ei] is completely front. The tongue is in the front part of the mouth cavity. The nucleus of the diphthong is a rather open varialy of [e] and the middle of the tongue glides in the direction of an open and lax [i]. The lips are spread.

The following mistake in the prouounciation of [ei] should be avoided, a) the nucleus mast not be too open; b) the glide should not be substituted by the Azerbaijanian [j]; c) consonants should not be palatalized before or after [ei].

Example: shake, lake, pay, a'wake, lay, hate, data, wait. The nucleus of the diphthong [eə] is not used as a monophthong to English.

The middle parton the tongue is raised a little more than for [se], but not so much as for [e], therefore the nucleus of [eə] is front, between half-open and open and unrounded. The lips are spread. The tongue moves in the direction of [ə] which becomes rather open when [sə] occurs in final position.

Examples: ‘fairly, 'careless, 'bearing, stared, pre'pare, stair, where. The following mistakes in the articulation of [eə] should be avoided: a) [sə]

must not be pronounced as a monophthong like [e:] before the sonorant

27

[r] , especially as il! “parents” ['psəıənts], “fäiıry" [‘ffəri], "bearer" [‘bsərə] b) the glide must not be too open üke [A] in final position before a pause.

The nucleus of the English diphthong [ai] i.s a!so not used as a monophthong. It is an open front vowel for which the front part of the tongue is raised a little less than for [äe]. The organs of speech move towards a rather open and lax [i].

The lips are spread. The jaw is considerabIy loweted for the nucleus and rises towards the end of the diphthong.

Examples; fly, why, wine, glide, buy, white, right, child, rhyme, he. The followi'.ıg mistakes should be avoided in pronouncing the English

[ai] ; a) the nucleus must not be pronounced as the A:;erbaijanian vowel [a], which is back. The glide should not be pronounced as the consonant []], which is heard in such Azerbaijanian words as: say, yay, ay, çay after the vowel [aj.

'fhe English diphthong [an] begins with an open front vowel [a] which is a little more back than in case of [ai], The lips are spread. The opening between thejaws is wide. From this position the tongue moves in the direction of [u], but does hot quite reach its position. The glide of [au] is a lax back vowel. The lips are rounded without protrusion.

Care should be taken not to pronounce the nucleus of [au] as the Azor- baijanian back [a]. The glide must not become the rounded Azerbaijanian [y] which is more back and has a considerable lip - protrusion. In order to avoid this mistake the glide of [au] must be veıy short and weak without any lip — protrusion: now, brown, house, crowed, loud, ‘vowel, found.

There are three back diphthongs in English. They are [əi], [ou], [uə]. The diphthong [Dİ] begins with the position of an open back vowel [D]

which is very slightly rounded. It is intermediate between [0] and [D], but nearer in quality to the latter. The tongue moves in the direction of an open lax [i] without reaching its actual position. Ex.: boy, soil, noise, voice, spoil, Join, etc. Care should be taken not to protrude the lips daring the articulation of the nucleus of the diphthong.

The diphthong [ou] is back-advanced. The tongue starts from the position of the back-advanced, half-open vowel [0] rvhich is considerabIy rounded. The lips are not much protruded and the opening between them is rather wide. The back of the tongue is raised to thr: front part of the soft palate and then moves higher in the direction of [u] which is aIso back- advanced, but half-close. The glide of [ou] is almost as tense as its nucleus, that is why this diphthong may be defined as a levelled diphthong.

Examples: road, coat, bone, note, go, no, snow, low. This diphthong is rather diffıcult for Azerbaijanian learners of English to

pronounce properly, as there are similar diphthongs 1 combinations of vo-

28

wels in Azerbaijanian: [ou] an [öü]. The following mistakes should be avoided and corrected: a) the nucleus

must not be substituted by the Azerbaijanian [o] which is back, not back •

advanced, and rounded with considerable lip-protrusion; b) the nucleus must not be proiıounced as the first element of the Azerbaijanian vowel sequence [öü]; vvhiclı is a front vowel, open much rounded with a lip- protrusion.

Such pronunciation would sound in English as dialectal; c) the glide should not be substituted by the Azerbaijanian [u] which is more back and more open and is pronounced with considerable lip-protrusion; d) the glide should not be

substituted by the Azerbaijanian [üj which is a front, close vowel, much rounded with lip-protrusion.

The English diphthong [oə] begins with the position of the back- advanced, rather open variety of [u]. The lips are slightly rounded without protrusion. İt is short and lax, though not so lax as the monophthong [u] The opening between the jaws is narrow. During the glide the tongue moves döwn to the position of

[ə] and the opening for the air becomes wider. The articLilation cf this diphthong is very lax and weak what may ac- cpıınt

of the fact that many Englishmen replace il by [Də] or [oə], and even by [D;], but [uə] is considered to be more correct , as any other pronuncia- tihn, may lead to confusing the meaning of some words, for example: i poor [puə] and pour [po:]

I sure [juə] and shore [fo:] moor [muə] anc, more [mo;] The following mistakes in the articulation of [uə] should be avoided: a) the

nucleus must not be replaced by the Azerbaijanian [u] which is more back and more open and is pronounced with considerable lip-protrusion; b) the glide must not become too open as the vowel [A]; c) the diphthong sjıould not be

replaced by a long- vowel [u:]. This mistake may lead to the c|ontusion of such woi ds as: I sure [Juə] ami shoe [Ju:] i cure

[kjuə] and queue [kju:]

I tour [tuə] anc too [tu:] etc.

I Learners of English should aIso know that the English diphthongs are l^ng in

final position before a pause, somewhat shorter before a voiced con- sşonant and shortest before a voiceless consonant: fear, say, fair, my, how, Hnow, boy, sure, fears, same, fairy, mine, howl, known, boys, fuel, fierce, Safe, scarce, mice, house, note, voice, duet.

29

30

Comparative Table of Classification of English and Azer- baijanian Vowels According to the Height of the Tongue

High fclose) vowels

Close variety i, u: İ, 1, U, Ü

Open variety 1, u

Mid (mid-open) vowels

Close variety e, 3: E, O

Open variety

ə, 1 D:

Low (open) vowels Close variety

Ö

Open variety a:, 3 A, Ə

The trapezium of vowels. The English monophtongs. The Azerbaijanian monophtongs are given in bold type.

31

32

53

Exercise 1. Read the words in the following exercises.

Fist practice [i:| Later practice [i:|

eat tree secret extreme

each , bee eager indeed east chief feeling between

ease people cheaper teaching heap m eat compete pieases leave meet leader agree

key weak Peter greedy need neat Eden receive

tea peal relief police heat leak reveal

The front vowel (i).

1

Open your mouth a little more than for the vowel [i:], take the tip of your tongue a little back from the lower teeth. İt is a short mor.ophthong (see page

22).

Exercise 2 . Draw the tongue position in pronouncing the vowel [i] and [i:].

The front vowel (ıj.

First practice fi| Secod practice [il

in ship silly image ill will city village

ink tili pretty frigid

is nip sixty wiHing

34

First Practice [e) Later Practice [e)

ten yet seventy pencil hen feli recollect twenty bed pet imperil attempt egg set heavy himself end peg select record ieg dead measure beggar

send fen treasure sensible beli ınend leisure request

tent edge bedding deadly teli else present

Words with both [e] and [1] Word-Contract;; with both [1] and [e]

arıy plenty wit-wet

cherry ntessage sit-set

Ferry friendly fill-feü

twenty depend win-when

many resent will-well

ready very bill-t'ell

The front vowei [:je]

r

Open your mouth a little more Ihan for the vowtl [e]. It is a short mo- nophtong. Before the nasal sonants it is pronounced longer than before other sounds

Exercise 4. Draw the tongue position in pronoııncing the vowei [se], mind the length variants of it.

First Practice [rej Later Practice[£e] sat black

36

man . stand married balcony

mat mass matter cabin

sad trap bad İy

campus

Daddy that blat standing

cat bard ^lappyl madman

fat 8äbb¥ğe canal

glad '-■"'İfr?.!) savage average hand stamp marriage exact

back ma:ch impact access

canteen

Word-contrasts with the fomr front vowels [i:], [ı|, [ej, [ x \ :

bean bin Ben ban bet bat Beat bit bed bad

Bend bid fed fad

feed fıd feli Hal

hell hili peck pack peak pick set

pet

sat

pat seat sit ken can peat pit said sad

keen kin

Seed Sid

The Central vowel [3:|

Open your mouth as in the case of the front vowel [e], then put your tongue

backward and up a little to produce the vowel [3:]. It is a long mo- nophtong Exercise 5. Practise the Central vowel [3:] in the following words;

37

Alarm angered complain soldier

Away balcony scenery entered Across desolate altogether former Attend Picadily reasonabi sister

About London handsome doctor

Applause woodland matter rector Again human harder picture Forward (s) future Wider

The back-advanced vowel (A)

əe

Open your mouth as in the case of the front vowel [ae], then put your

tongue back a little and pronounce the vowel [A]. It is a very short monoph-

thong.

Exercise 7. Draw the tongue position in pronouncing the back vowel [A],

minding its variants.

First practice [A] Later practice [A|

One young mother London Cut strııck another hunger

Fun shut worry customer

Up luck coııntry cupboard Uncle toııch husband structure

Such coııple lovely wonderfııl Lunch cousin nothing introduction Love blood something thunder

Does duck understand customer Won jııst hundred mııstard

39

First practice [ä:] Later practice [ä:]

Star grass basking drama Art pass classes alas Hard glass artist remand

Car dark parson remark Ask far carpet regarding

Words with I*I,IAl,|d|

Hat cap

Ham Dan

Lack hut

Match hun

Ban luck

Back much

Mad bun

C at buck

m ud barn

cut bark

cup mark

done cart

heart carp

harm darn

lark march

The back-advanced vowel [vl.

Open your mouth as in tlıe case of the back vowel [ä], then put the back of your

tongue forward and up a little to pronounce the vowel [u], İt is a

41

ver>' short monophthong

Exercise 9. Read the words minding the vowel [v] and its length variants

First practice [n| Later practice [n] Put cook bus.hes foothold

Could book woman woodchuek

Push hood awfully beautiful Full looked wooden spoonful

Bull took sugar bosom

Look foot pailful mistook Hook wood wouldn’t wonderfııl

Shook Good Room

nook

pııll

bullet

The back vowel [u:]

fulfıl

manhood

• n

Open your mouth as in the case of the vowel [u], then put your tongue ııp and back and articiılate the vowel [u;]. İt is a long monophthong.

Exei'cise 10. Read the words minding the diphthongal character of the vowel [ıı:]; and-its length variants.

First practice [u:] Later practice [u:J

Soon school absolutely Tuesday Shoot rııle human beautiful

Move truth Hubert pupil

Youth spoon mlers pnıdent Human shoe kangaroo induce Roof lose issue disapprove

42

Cool prove music ruthless Tooth Gune choosing lunatic

Fruit goose remove assumed Soup sLiitable souvenir

The back vowel |D)

Open your mouth wide, put your tongue slightly back and bring your lips

slighly forward and articulate the vowel [o]. İt is a very short monoph- tong

Exercise 11. Read the words minding the quality of the vowel [0] its length

variants

First practice [o| Later practice [o|

on nod bother cannot shot got wander possible

wrong drop olive holiday

want box doctor Office rod odd o'cIock fondness

long ox dollars consonant

not hot coughing proper cock top robbers rotten

wash clock hobnob swallow what gone novelist

43

War chalk although mortal

Talk Paul daughter

important

haub

Word-contrasts wiith [A) and [3]

Nut naugıt one worm Cut caught touch spawn But bought tuck talk Son sawn spun torch

The diphthong |ıə|

The diphthong [lə] consists of two vowel — --------------- ----- sounds. The fırst vo-

wel is the short [1] and the second one is the neutral sound [ə]. But pronounce the fırst sound stronger than the second one.

Exercise 13. Read the words minding the diphthong [lə]. Don’t palatalize consonants before [lə].

Beer, dear, sneer, ear, mere, shere, tear, spear, steer, here, gear, sphere,

beard, fear, appear, severe, sincere, idea, engineer, pioneer, cashier, cavali- er, fıerce, pierce.

The diphthong |eı|

diphthong [eı] in this way:

[eeeı].

The diphthong

[eı] consists of two vowel sounds: [ej and [1]. fırst make the sound [ej. now make it longer [eee]. Then add [1].

Now pronounce the

45

Exercise 14. Practice the following words minding the diphthong [eı]

Age same wave grape Day frame shame race Name make strange aim

Ape came shave paid Late shake haste tray

Word-contrasts with (ej and [eı|

Get gate beli bail

Pent paint edge age

Let late met mate Fed fade test taste Sent saint pen pain

The diphthong [EƏ]

The diphthong is articulated in the same manner as the diphthong [lə]; the

fırst element of it is more open

Exercise 15. Read the following words minding the diphthong [sə].

Care, chair, air, hair, fair, pair, mare, stare, spare, bare, bear, dare, tear, where, glare, lair, share, wear, affair, despair, compare, there, heir, rare, aerial, aeroplane.

The diphthong [aı|

This diphthong consists

of two vowels: [a] and [ı]. First make the sound [a]. Now make it longer: [aaa], then add the sound [ı]. And pronounce the diphthong [aı]

in this way; [aaaı].

46

, Exercise lö.Read the words minding the diphthong [aı], its. length va- ridnts.

Die, lie, pie, tie, my, high, sigh, tight, slight, shine, mine, kite, light, fly, w|ıy, guy, try, night, flight, type, ivy, eye, ice, nice, mice, size, time, buy, price.

The diphthong [au] consists of two vowel elements. The fırst element [a] is more ffont than the second. But both of them are back vowels. The fırst element is pro-

ncunced longer than the second one: [aaau] . Exercise 17.Read the words minding the diphthong [au] and its length

väriants. j House, loud, cow, how, brown, crown, bound, sound, ground, frown, now,

out, shout, stout, mouse, count, town, down, doubt, about, aloud, nbun, gown, vow, oust, found, scout, mound, south.

The diphthong |ouj

This diphthong has aIso two sounds. Pro- nounce the fırst sound longer than the second

one: [ooou]

tr

Exercise 18. Practise the following words with [ouj minding it length variants. Phone, lone. cone, foe,

Joe, roe, toe, woe, oak, boat, coal, coat, road, flow, grow, know, throw, crown, oh, go, own, so, no, home, bone, snow, shown, stone, soul, whole, rlote, hope loaf, foam, scope, blow, slow.

47

The diphthong [Di|

S. 1>

The diphthong [DI] consists of two vowel el(5ments; [D] and [ı]. The fırst element is the open vowel [D] and the second element is the close vowel [ı]. Pro-

nounce the fırst vowel longer and add the vowel [ı] to it. Exercise 19. Read the v/ords minding the diphthong [DI]. Boy, toy, join, coin, noise, voice, choice, point, moist, toil, enjoy, noisy,

avoid, oil, spoil, soil, convoy, oyster, coil, hoist.

The diphthong [oaj

Open your mouth as in the case of the morıophthcmg [u], then begin the

diphthong with [u] quickly ending it in the neutral soıınd [ə]. The diphthong

[uə] is called a centring diphthong.

Exercise 20. Read the words minding the diphthong [t)ə]

Poor, shure, tour, cruel, moor, doer, steward, boor, pure, fuel, cure, sew- er,

fewer.

48

THE ARTICULATION OF THE ENGLISH

CONSONANT PHONEMES

The English Occlusive Consonant Phonemes

There a'e nine occlusive consonants İn English.

The occlusive consonants in which the noise predominates are plosives, or stops. They are [p, b, t, d, k, g]. The other three are nasal sonorants [m, n, T]]. There are eight plosives in Azerbaijanian [p, b, t, d, k, g, q ] and two nasal sonorants [m, n].

a) Occlusive-plosives. The phoneme [p] is articulated by pressing the lower Hp against the up-

per lip. Thus a complete closure is achieved. The air is compressed in the mouth cavity. The soı^ palate is raised. The closure is quickly released and the air rushes out producing a sound like a plosion. The vocal cords do not vibrate, as the glottis is open. The English , [pj is aspirated in stressed syllables before vowels vhen not preceded by [s]. The aspiration - is stronger before stressed vowels and v/eaker before unstressed ones and in word final poEİtion.

The phoneme [b] is articulated in a similar way, but the vocal cords are drawn together and vibrate, [b] is not aspirated.

: The English [p, b]are bilabial occlusive-—plosive noise consonants. ’ The articulation of the Azerbaijanian

plosives [p] and [b] are almost, the same as that of the English [p] and [b]. The Azerbaijanian [p] is aIso aspirated. Both [p] and [b] become palatalized when used wlth front vowels, this palatalization is phonetic. The English [b] keeps its voice partly in word-fınal position. The Azer- baijanian [b] becomes voiceless in final position at the end of polysyllabic words, partially voiceless at the end of monosyllabic ones.

English [p, b]; pen, pari, peep, pepper, stop, bun, bark, Bobby, cab, bulb, Azerbaijanian; [pis, pas, dub, baba, bil]. The following mistakes are typical of Azerbaijanian learners in the pro-

duction of the English [pj and [b]. I. The palatalization of [pj and [bj before front vowels. II.The devoicing of [b] in word final position, in polysyllabic words es-

pecially.

49

The phoneme [tj is articulated by pressing the tip of the tongue against the alveoli and in this way a complete obstruction is formed (apical articuiation). The soft palate is raised and the air is compressed in the mouth cavity. When the obstruction is released the air rushes out with plosion.

The vocal cords do not vibrate. The English [t] is aspirated before stressed vowels, especially if not preceded by [s].

The phoneme [d] is articulated in a similar way, but the vocal cords vibrate and it is not aspirated. The stream of air is stronger in the production of [t] than in [d]:

The English [t] and [d] are forelinguai alveolar (apical) plosive (occlu-

sive noise) consonants. The corresponding Azerbaijanian forelinguai consonants [t, d] are

formed by pressing the blade of the tongue against the alveoli. The tip is lowered (dorsal articulation).

The Azerbaijanian [t] is aspirated when not preceded by [c]. The Azer- baijanian [t] is stronger than [d] which becomes voiceless at the end of po-

lysyllabic words and partially voiceless at the end when followed by front vowels;

English [t, d]; tall, two, tip, ten, take, pocket, ticket, pity, Steel, den,

dark, date, dead, spend, indeed.

Azerbaijanian [t, d]: [tab, tay, tez, tutmaq, dava, dodaq]. The following mistakes are typical of Azerbaijanian learners in the pro-

duction of the English [t] and [d]. I. They replace the English apical plosives [tj and [d] by the Azerbaija-

nian dorsal consonants [t] and [d]. II. The voiced English [d] is devoiced at the end of polysyllabic words;

[tj and [d] are palatalized before front vowels. The phoneme [k] is articulated by the

back of the tongue which touches the raised soft palate, thus forming a complete obstruction with it. The vocal cords do not vibrate.

The air is compressed behind the obstruction and rushes out with a plosion

when it is removed. [k] is aspirated when followed by a stressed vowel, especially if

not preceded by [s]. The phoneme [g] is articulated in a similar way, but the vocal cords are

drawn near together and vibrate, [g] is not aspirated. The stream of air is stronger in the production of voiceless [k] than in

50

The English [g] remains partially voiced in word-fmal position, The Eİnglish [k] and [g] are backlingual, velar, plosive (occlusive noise) consonants.

' The cürresponding Azerbaijanian con-sonants [k,q] are aIso backlingual, velar (oral) consonants. The first is aspirated

and generally precedes back vowels. It is mostly used in words recently borrowed from Russian, as in [kommunist], [raykom], [komsomol] etc.

The Azerbaijanian [q] is considered to be not wholly voiced in all positions, except iniervocal ones. This opinion is held by some authors, but in text-books it is still described as a voiced consonant.

Both [K] and [q]are never palatalized, [q] become vorceless in word- fmal position.

English [k], [g]: car, cool, cat, keep, speak, J . c r i c k e t , pocket, give, gain, garden, giri, bag..

' • Azerbaijanian [K], [q]:

kolxoz, konsert, qoşa, qonaq.

There is another pair of plosives in Azer- baijanian—[K], [g]— in the production of which the middle part of the tongue is raised and comes into contact with the hard palate. These plosives are medio-lingual, palatal, [k]

is voiceless and aspirated; [g] is voiced and non-aspirated. Both are oral consonants. İn word-final position [g] becomes voiceless, but re-

mains voiced alter [H]. b) Occlusive sonorants. Occlusive sonorants are articulated in a different way than the plosives. A

complete obstruction is formed by an active and a passive organ of speech, but the soft palate is lowered opening the passage into the nasal cavity. When the obstruction is removed the air rushes out through the nasal cavity giving the sonorants a nasal resonance.

The vocal cords vibrate and the musical tone predominates over the noise, because only a part of the air passes through the obstruction.

The closure of the nasal sonorants may be prolonged, white tie plosives are always very short.

The English nasal sonorants are more musical than the Azerbaijanian ones, because they are longer and the consonants, following them remain voiced. They are particularly long between short vowels and voiced consonants and in final position after sllort vowels, as in: land [İsnd], comes [kAmz], tongues [tAqz], brings [bnqz], can [ksen], pin [pm], song, [sorı].

The English nasal sonoranls may be syllabic wlıen they follow another consonant at the end of the syllable:

sudden [sAdn] written [ritn] prism [prizm] bacon [beikr|] The phoneme [m] is articulated by the closure of the lips which are

slightly spread and tense. The vocal cords vibrate, The soft palate is lowered opening the passage into the nasal cavity.

[m] is a bilabial, occlıısive nasal sonorant. It is jyllabic after another consonant at the end of the syllable, f e.: communism ['komjunizm], prism [prizm].

The aıficulation of the Azerbaijanian sonorant [m' is similar to that of [m], but the lips are not so tense and not spread as for [mj, The Azerbaija- nian [m] is never syllabic. English [m]: man, moon, tame, jam, tomb, sum- mit, prism, seldom.

Azerbaijanian [m]: mal, tam, sim, mis. The phoneme [p] is articulated by the tip of the tongue, which is prcssed

against the alveoli (apical articulation). The soft palaie is lowered and the vocal cords vibrate.

[nj is a forelingual. alveolar, (apical), occlusive nasal sonorant. !t is syllabic at the end of a syllable after another sonorant.

f e.: sudden [sAcln], listen flisn], cotton [kDtn j

For the corresponding Azerbaijanian nasal sonorant [nj the tip of the tongııe id lowered and the blade forms an ob-

struction with the alveoli (dorsal articulation). It is not ong after vowels and cannot form syllables, most voiced consonants become: voiceless after it, as in kənd [kənt], bənd [bənt] etc.

Care should be taken not to make the English [n] dorsal as [n] and not to palatalize it before or after front vowels.

English [n]: not, pen, money, London, burden, land.

Azerbaijanian [n]: nal, nanə, şən, zəng, on, kənd.

The third English occlusive sonorant is [r]]. İt is articulated by the back part of the tongue which forms a complete obstruction with the lowered soft palate. The tip of the tongue is behind the lower teeth. The jaw

5T

fs lowered. When the obstruction is removed the air passes out through the pasal cavity. [r)] is a back lingual, velar, occlusive nasal sonorant. The Eng- |ish [TI] İS

ıised only at the erıd of the syllable. For ex: bririg [brir^], singing (sİTiİT]], angry [aeııgri]. There is a similar consonant in Azerbaijanian which |s heard in some words before [q], but in this case this a variant of [n]: tonqal, manqal. Its articulation is the same as that of the English [q]. It is the result of assimilation of [n] by [q].

Azerbaijanian [n]

qanqal manqal tonqal

English [q];

long [bq] sing [siq] bringing [briqiq] language [üqgwida] English [iqgIil] Link [liqk] Blank [bläeqk]

The English [q] presents considerable diffıculties for Azerbaijanian

learners between vowcis especially where it is often substituted by the combination [n, q].

İn order to correct this mistake it is necessary to prolong the closure of [q] and lower the back of the tongue-slowly.

In order to learn tl ıe articulation of [q] it is recommended to begin with [g] for which the posıtion of the tongııe is the same, but the soft palate is raised

up. Then we quickly, without moving the tongue, pronounce [g] through the nose prolonging the closure. Care should be taken to lower the jaw considerabIy and t o keep the tip of the tongue behind the lower teeth. İt is advisable to train the articulation of [q] after back vowels fırst, as the tongue position for them is nearer to that of the sonorant. For example, in "long" [bq], "sung" [sAq], "sunk" [sAqk]. When [q] has been mastered in such words it may be trained after front

vowels, such as: gang [gä;q], sting [stiq] etc. The substitution of [q] by [n] is phonemic in English: sing [siq] —oxumaq (mahnı) sin [sin]—günah etmək thing [0ıq] əşya thin [9ın]—nazik wings [wıqz]—qar adlar wins [winz]—qələbə çalır

All the English occlusive sonorant’s have some characteristics which

53

make them different from the corresponding Azerbaijanian sonorant’s.

I They are longer after short stressed vowels than after the unstressed ones or after

long vowels: man [mäen], Englishman [’irıglijmən], come

[kAm], income ['ir|kəm],

mane [mein] calm [ka:m] II. They are longer after a short vowel foilowed by a voiced consonant than

if foilowed by a voiceless one f e.

spend [spend] winks [wiı^z] limbs - [limz]

spent [spent] winks [wir)ks'|

limp [limp]

III. The Azerbaijanian final sonorants are shorter and less sonorous than the English ones in the same position: ham—həm; become-anam.

IV. The English'[m] and [n] are syllabic after other consonants at the end of

a .syllable. Care should be taken to make them long and tense and not to insert a vowel between them and the preceding consonant:

fdm [fiimj prism [prizm] listen [lisn] cotton [kotn]

English constrictive consonant phonemes

Constrictive consonants are produced by narrowing the air passage at somie place or other, so that an incomplete obstruction is formed. The narrowing may be of different shape and size and may be formed in one or two places.

When the size of the constriction is small the air passing through it produces friction which is always stronger than the musical tone. Consonants produced in this way are called constrictive fricative phonemes, or simply

fricatives. There are nine fricatives in English:[f], [v], [0], [5], [s], [z], [|j, [a], [h]. Two of the English fricative consonants [1], [3] have two places of

constriction; they are called bicentral. When the size of the constriction is rather wide; the air passing through it

produces a weak friction; so that the musical tone prevails over the noise. Such

constrictive consonants are called constrictive sonorant’s.

54

There are four constrictive sonorant’s in English: [w], [r], [j], [1]. There are eleven constrictive consonant phonemes in Azerbaijanian: [f,

b, s, z, ş, j, y, X, f, h, 1]. Only two of them ([!]), ([j]) are sonorant’s, all the rest are fricative consonants. [c] and [3] have a round constriction; [ş, j] are bicentral, all the others are unicentral. The Azerbaijanian [p] is a rolled sonorant, not a constrictive one as the English [r]. a) Constrictive noises. The phoneme [f] is produced by narrowing the air passage between the

outer part of the lower lip and the edge of the upper teeth. The lip is tense and slightly spread. The constriction is flat the air passes out with friction. The vocal cords do not vibrate, the soft palate is raised.

The English [v] has the same articulation, but the vocal cords are drawn together and vibrate. İt keeps its voice fully or partly in all positions. [f] and |v) are labio-dental, constrictive fricative consonants. Both are unicentral and are pronounced with a slit.

The corresponding Azerbaijanian consonants [f, v] are articulated by narrowing the air-passage between the inner part of the lower lip and the outer part of he upper teeth. The lip is lax and the constriction is not quite so flat as for English [f, v].

English [f, v]; face, fat; far, leaf, wife, pufly, very, vast, leave, love, living.

Azerbaijanian [f, v]; fıl, fit, şərəf, var, alov.

For the phoneme [0] the flat constriction, or

slit, is formed by the tip of the tongue slightly pushed forward between the upper and the lower teeth, the blade is at the edge of the upper teeth. The tongue is relaxed and flat. The vocal cords

do not vibrate, the soft palate is raised.

The phoneme [5] is articulated in the same way, but the vocal cords are drawn together and vibrate.

[0], [8] are forelingual, interdental, apical, constrictive fricative consonants. Both are unicentral and are pronounced with a slit.

Example: thin, thank, theme, breath, worth, flfth, this, that them, then, with.

55

weather, breathe, within. There and no phonemes in Azerbaijanian similar to the English [0, Ə], and

Azerbaijanian learners of English are apt of making mistakes in pro- noLincing them.

These mistakes are mostly of three types: 3) [0] [5] are substituted by [f,v]. İn order to pre^'ent this mistake it is

necessai7 not to let the lower lip touch the upper teelh. İt is possible to hold down the lower lip with the tip of the little fınger so that it should not rise to the teeth, the lips shoııld be spread. The edge of the tongue mııst be between the teeth.

b) [0] [5] are substituted by [s], [z ]. This mistake often occurs in sııch words as “months” [mAıı0s], “si>;th” [siks0j, “is that”

[is’Scfet], is the [İs5ij etc. İn order to prevent and corrrict such mistakes it is necessary to place the flat tip of the tongue well between the te.eth, but not to let the blade rise.

c) [6] [Ə] are substituted by [t], [d ] or even by [1], or Azerbaijanian, [t, d, l,]or [s,z]. İn order to correct such mistakes it is necessary' to place the tongue well between the teeth, but not to press it to the upper teeth.

İt is especially difficult for Azerbaijanian learners of English to pronounce [0] and [Ə] after forelingual consonants which

beccme dental in English before [0] [Ə] as in "eighth”[eit0], “is that” [iz ‘ <?cet], “months” [mAn0s], “tenth” [ten0], what's the [‘wDts 5ij etc.

The tip of the tongue move very quickly from the teeth to the interden- tally position.

The substitution of [0] and [ö] by other consonants is often phonemic:

Think - fıkitləşmək

Thin — nazik Clothe - geyindirmək Thought — fakir sink - batmaq fın-üzgəc Sin - günah

Close — örtmək Fought - döyüşdü

[0irık]

[Əin] [klouc*] [0D:t] [siqk] [fin]

[sin] [klouz,]

[fb;t] [s]-in the pronunciation of [5] the soft palate is raised, the tip and blade of the tongue are held close to the teeth-ridge, while tıe Bides of the blade of the tongue are raised, forming a short and narrow groove-like channel.

Thus, the round narrowing is formed through which the air- passes with friction.

56

: In the pronunciation of [s] the vocal cords are kept apart and do not vi-

Ibrate. { [z] - is articulated in a similar way, but the vocal cords are- drawn together and vibrate.

[s], [z] are forelingual, alveolar, apical, constrictive fricative, consonants. Both are unicentral and pronounced with a round, constriction, or slit.

[is] is voiceless, [z] is voiced.

The phoneme [z] is partly devoiced in word-fmal position. I The corresponding Azerbaijanian phonemes [s] and [z] have a dorsal articulation. They are forelingual, dorsal, constrictive, fricative consonants. The round narrowing is formed by the blade of-the tongue raised close to the alveoli, while the tip of the tongue is lowered. The Azerbaijanian [z] becomes voiceless at the end of polysyllabic words and partially devoiced at

the end of monosyllabic ones. English [sj, [z]: set, seen, less, class, sources, zenith, visit, houses. Azerbaijanian [s]. [z]; saz, səs, ulduz, ciziq, zil. Azerbaijanian learners

of English are apt ol' substituting the apical English [s], [z] by the dorsal s,z].

İt is especially difficult to make [sj and [zj alveolar after

[0], [5]. Care should be taken, not to substitute these phonemes one

another, f. e.; "with sons" [wıSsAnz], "baths" [ba:5z], "clothes" [klou5z].

The phoneme [1] is bicentral. The tip of the tongue, raised in the direction of the alveoli, forms the fırst constriction which is flat. The middle part of the

tongue forms the second flat constriction with the hard palate to which it is raised. The teeth are closed and the lips open and slightly protruded. The vocal cords do not vibrate; the soft palate is raised.

As the middle part of the tongue is raised to the hard palate the English [1]

is slightly palatalized in all positions.

The articulation ol'[3] is the same as that of [/]. Only the vocal cords are

drawn together and vibrate. [3] is a weaker consonant than [j], it is partially

devoiced in word-fınal position.

I [1] and [3] are forelingual, palato-alveolar, apical, constrictive, fricative

consonants. Both are bicentral. The phoneme [1] is voiceless and [3] is loiced..

57

The corresponding Azerbaijanian consonants are [ş], [j]. They are forelinguai, alveolar, velar, constrictive consonants dorsal articulation. One nar-

rowing is formed by the blade of the tongııe which is near the alveoli while the tip is lowered (dorsal articulation), the second narrowing is formed by the back part of the tongue which is raised to the soft palate. When the Azerbaijanian [ş] is used before front vowels it becomes palatalized.

The Azerbaijanian learners of English are apt of making the following mistakes in the articulation of [1], [3]: before and after back vowels [}], [3]

are pronounced quite hard, that is, the second narrowing is formed by the back part of the tongue. Care should be taken not to let any vowels influence the articulation of the English [/], [3],as they are not liable to the adaptation by vowels.

For the phoneme [h] the constriction is formed between the

root of the tongue which moves backwards to the back wall of the pharynx which, is slightly contracted. The passage for the air is rather wide, that is why the friction is weak. The soft palate is raised and the voc-

al cords do not vibrate. The body of the tongue is in the position of the following sound. [h] is a phaıyngal, constrictive fricative consonant; it is uni- Central and

voiceless.

The corresponding Azerbaijanian consonant is [h]; İts articulation is similar to that of the English [h]. It is more stable and is used before, be-

tween and alter vowels and even after consonants. The Azerbaijanian [h] becomes rather voiced in intervocal: position.

English [h]; heat, hot, hurt, perhaps; behind, behold, unhabit. Azerbaijanian [h] : hava, həkim, mahni, aha!

b) Constrictive sonorants.

The English constrictive sonorants may be:

a) medial and b) lateral.

For medial sonorants the air passage is open along the middle of the

tongue, while it is blocked at the sides of the tongue. The English medial

constrictive sonorants are [w], [r], [j].

For the lateral constrictive sonorants the air passage along the middle of the

tongue is blocked by the tip of the tongue pressed against the alveoli while the

sides of the tongue are lowered, leaving the air passage free along them. There is

one lateral sonorant ([!]) in English.

58

j The English [w] is bicentral, the other three constrictive sonorants— un- ic^ntral.

The Azerbaijanian system of consonants has only one medial sonorant (Q]) and one lateral sonorant ([!]).

Azerbaijanian [r] is a rolled sonant. For the phoneme [w] the round aperture is formed between the lips which

are tense, rounded arid a little protruded. The body of the tongue is retracted while its back raised in the direction of the soft palate as high as for [ıı:]; thus forming a second narrowing. That makes [wj sound dark, that is, acoustically hard. The side of the tojıgue are raised leaving the air passage open the tongue

the middle of the tongue. The vocal cords vibrate and the palate is raised. The air passage is rather wide and the muscular tone prevails over the noise. The muscular tension is concentrated in the lips.

[w] is a bilabial, constrictive, medial, sonorant pronounced with a second focus (bicentral).

The sonorant [w] short and weak, it is used only before vowels. The lips

quickly glide to i'be position of the following vowel. Examples: west [west], vvine [wain], what [wDt], word [w3;d], between

[bitwin], sweet [swi;t], quickly ['kwikli], language [leqgwids], quarter ['kwD;tə].

There are no corresponding phonemes in Azerbaijanian and learners of English are apt of replacing it by Azerbaijanian [j].

If [w] is substituted by [v], care should be taken to, round and protrude the lips properly. The tip of the tongue should retracted from the lower tepth. The mistake, of replacing [w] by [v] is phonemic, f e.: weel [wi:l] — ç^x, veal [vi:l]— dana əti, wine [wain] — çaxır, vine [vain] — üzüm təjıəyi.

; İt is aIso advisable to start training [w] before rounded vowels as in "what" [wotj, "wall [wD:l], "wood" [wud], "warn" [wD:m], "wool" [wu:l], "syvoon"

[swu:n]. When [w] in such position has been mastered it is useful to train it before

vowels for which the lips are neutral or spread as in ".why" [wai] "when" [wenj, "wheel"- [wi:l], "work" [w3:k], "word"" [w3:d], etc.. .

; The phoneme [r] is produced by raising the tip of the tongue towards the balck part of the alveoli. The narrowing formed in this way is rather wide. The

middle of the tongue is curved down wards while the sides are raised so that the body of the tongue has the shape of a spoon (cacuminal anicula- tion).

The vocal cords vibrate and the soft palate is raised. As the passage for the air is wide the sound of friction is weak and musical tone predominates over noise. [r] is a fore lingual, post-alveolar, cacuminal constrictive medial

59

sonorant. [r] is pronounced only before vowels, the lips having the position of the following vowel, f. e. "red" [red], "write" [rait], "rather" [ra:Sə], "room" [ru:m].

After consonants [r] becomes slightly devoiced f e.: bright [brait], free

[fri;], "try; [trai].

The Azerbaijanian phoneme [p] is quite different from [r] in the manner of production of noise. The tip of the tongue which is raised to the alveoli vibrates in the stream of air producing a series of tap5 against the alveoli. The number of taps varies depending on the position of [p] in a word. Thus the Azerbaijanian phoneme [p] is a fore lingual, alveolar, apical, rolled, sonorant which is pronounced in all positions, and not a constrictive one as the English [r]. In teaching to pronounce the English constrictive sonorant

[r] it is advisable to start with the constrictive consonant [>K], .and then

curve the tip of the tongue back and away from the alveoli so that the air-

passage becomes wider and the necessary quality of [r] is achieved.

It is especially diffıcult to pronounce [r] after consonants, without making it sound like a rolled [p]. İn order to correct such mistakes it is necessary

to articulate [r] with the precceding consonant almost rt the same time, i.e.: price [prais], brain | [brein], tree [tri;], dry [drai], cry [krai], grain [grein]

All these mistakes are no; phonemic. The phoneme []] is produced by narrowing

the air-passage between the raised middle of the tongue and the hard palate The air-passage is

almost the same as for the \ owel [i], but for the vowel the tension is distributed over the speech organs and not concentrateci in the place of the narrowing as for [j]. The sicies of the tongue are raised and pressed against Ihe teeth closing the side passages and leaving the passage free along

the centre of the tongue. The tip of the tongue is lowered to the lower teeth. The vocal cords vibrate and the soft palate-is raised. /\s the air-passage is wide the sound of friction is weak and the rnusical tone predominates over noise.

Thus []] is a mediolingual, palatal, constrictive medial sonorant. The sonorant, []] is very short and weak. İt is used only before vowels,

between vowels, or between a consonant and a vowel. From the position of [j] the tongue immediately glides to the position of

the following vowel f. e.; yes [jes], yawn [jDm], beauty [bju:ti], beyond

60

[bi'jond] etc.

The corresponding Azerbaijanian constrictive phoneme is [j]. İt is aIso a

mediolingual, palatal, constrictive sonorant, but the middle of the tongue is

raised still higher to the palate than for the English [j], that is why it has

more friction, as the aır-passage is narrower.

The Azerbaijanian [j] may be used before and after vowels, but different variants of [J] are usec. in these positions.

Before vowels it is a mediolingual (palatal) sonorant with more noise in ıt than in the English [j].

At the end of the words the Azerbaijanian [j] becomes a voiceless consonant.

The voiced [yal, yan, ayı, oyar]. The devoiced [iy, ıjey, çay, key], The Azerbaijanian [j] very seldom follows consonants.

J c) Lateral sonorant.

There is one constrictive lateral sono-

rant in English, İt is [1]. For the English [1] the tip of the ton-

gue is pressed against the alveoli closing the air-passage along the middle of the tongue. The sides of the tongue are lowered leaving rather wide passages for

the air. The air passes along them vvithout great friction and musical tone predominates over noise. The vocal cords vibrate and the soft palate is raised.

[1] is a forelingual alveolar, apical, constrictive lateral sonorant. İt is be-

central, because it has a second focus. There are some phonetic variants of [1] in

English. Two of them are the most important. One is called the clear [1]. İt is

used before vowels and before [1]. For the clear [1] the middle part of the tongue

is raised in the direction of the hard palate. That makes [1] somewhat

palatalized, acoustically soft.

The second variant is called the park [1]. For the dark [1] the back part of the tongue is raised in the direction of the soft palate. That “dark” [1] is used before consonants (except [j]) and in the position after vowels.

The difference between the two variants is not phonemic. The English sonorant [1] is syllabii: when it occurs after other consonants at the end of a syllable.

Examples: lean, last, ball, twelve, cattle, light, lot, will, gold, castle, learn, loom, wool, table.

61

Azerbaijanian learners often palatalize [1] in word-fmai position after front vowels. Another common mistake of Azerbaijanian learners is the inserting of a weak neutral vowel between the syilabic "ciark" [i] and the consonant preceding it in such words as "little" [litl], "middle" [rnidi], "table" [teibl], "people" [pi:pl].

İn order to correct such mistakes the consonant preceding [1] must be weaker than the syilabic sonorant, plosives have a lateral plosion in such sequences.

English [I]: leave, loud, look. Azerbaijanian [1]: la’lə, ley’lək, lap, lal.

The English occlusive-constrictive consonant phonemes

(Affricates)

Occlusive-constrictive consonants, or affricates, are plosives with a second (constrictive) element.

İn the production of plosives the complete obstruction is broken up sud-

denly, that is why we hear a kind of explosion. For the occlusive- constrictive consonants the complete obstruction is released gradually and the compressed air escapes through a narrow slit formed between the articulating organs. The two elements blend completely and the result is a consonant with a complex articulation. Though the second element of an affricate is constrictive, it cannot be prolonged. The stream of air (for an affricate) is weaker than for the other

consonants. There are two occlusive-constrictive consonants in English: [tj] and [dal;

both are bicentral. The phoneme [tj] is produced by the tip and the blade of the tongue which

comes into contact with the back of the alveoli for ming a complete obstruction with it. Then the middle part of the tongue rises towards the hard palate as for

[1] and the tip of the tongue moves down from the alveoli

62

fortning a narrow passage for tlıe air which passes through it with friction. The second centre of formation makes [tj] acoustically soft.

The vocal cords do not vibrate and the soft palate is raised. The articulation of [ds] is the same, but the vocal cords are drawn together and vibrate.

[tJ] is voiceless, [da] is voiced, Both are slightly palatalized in all posi- tioııs.

[t|] and [da] are fore lingual, palatoalveolar, apical affricates with a front

secondary focus.

The corresponding Azerbaijanian affricates are [c] and [ç], The Azerbaijanian consonants [c] and [ç] become palatalized in combi-

nations with front vowels. In such cases the second focus is formed between the middle of the tongue and the hard palate. These variants of [c] and [ç] are more palatalized than the English [tj] and [da].

Besides, [c] becomes devoiced in word-fınal position. The English [da] is often devoiced by Azerbaijanian learners in word- fınal

position. Such mistakes are phonemic f e. search [sa:tj] - axtarış surge |s3:da]- dalğa , larch [la.tj]—yarpaqlar large [la:da] - geniş.

English: chess. chat, choose, choice, which, catch, search, march, watch, Jani, Jane, jest, large, George, surge.

Azerbaijanian: çil, çən, çiçək, çöl, gec, cüt, cəm, cib, cins.

63

65

The consonant|bj

The consonant [b] is pronounced in the same way as the consonant [p], but it is pronounced with voice. When you pronounce the consonant [b] your vocal cords must be in vibration.

Exercise 22. Practise the following words minding the consonant [b] Been bird tube

Bit boy Bob

Bell beer ebb

Bad Ben blınch

Buy nib baby

Bought cab beauty

Boat buld tribe

Bal! sob robber

Book tub bank

Bed but butter

With nasal plosion Word-contrast with [p| and|b| Cabman subnormal Pig big

Hobnailed sub-man pat bat

Cob-nut sub noisily peach beach

Submerge rob money pad bad Submarine dab messily pin bin Submit glib manner rip rib tripe tribe cap cab nip nib rapid rabid

66

The consonänt [m|

Close your lips, ııse your voice and pronounce [m] through your nose (see page 56). [m] is a sonorant.

Exercise 23. Draw the schetne of the organs of speech and explain the difference between Azerbaijanian and English [m].

mouth moon time doom meet mood dim aim

map must ham form

man miglıt lamb harm move moist same fame

mile mum plum sm ile mili mere come smart mine mare arm small

mat more bomb smoke may mind seem smell

Syilabic |nı|

realism

prism cytoplasm Communism automatism Gallicism

Socialism cynicism landlordism cubism galvanism

67

Exercise 25, Pronounce the following words minding the quality of the consonant [t].

Alveolar Itl with aspiration

two touch tap let

took part talk get ten root turn faint tool fit turf hot

tooth cat art yet teach dirt foot teem

With no apprecia ble aspirations

step star quality bitter stand matter quantity butter stool utter institute lifter stern attituıie sixtywanted

stable mustard

With nasal plosio n.

mutton not now kitten what now

cotton not next footnote a bit mold button nutmeg liftman that man

The consonant [d|.

The consonant [d] is forrned in the same way as [t], but it is pronounced

with voice.

69

70

Dıy address Dravv adrift

Drudge bedraggled Drink adroit

Dental [d|

Width bad thief Breadth find them

Spendthrift dead thistle Hide this found tliat

Good thoughts said that

The consonant |s|

Touch the upper teeth-ridge with the front part of your tongue and push out

air without voice. It is a hissing sound

Exercise 27. Pronounce the following words

Seal soul sword snake some

sit Soft Swiss smirth sign

set circle snow smaek same

sat cease sleet glass sake

sad seed slit pass sea

sack soon smoke dress slip

71

The consonant |:i|

The consonarıt [z] is pronounced in the same way as the consonant [s], but it is voiced

Exercise 28. Read the following minding the con1ra.st exercises

zoo aroLise tense tens

zebra houses fence fens

amoze to close police please

buzz to ask peace peas

crazy please cease seize

blaze disease lice lies

draze husband face phase

zinc couzin niece k lees

prize raisin trace trays

phrase

gross gl'OWS

72

The consonant [J]

In order to articulate the consonant [1] it is necessary to put the front part of the tongue, behind the upper teethridge (a little push air out through the passage. It is a voiceless consonant. It is a hushing consonant

Exercise 29. Practise the fc llov.'ing words

shoe shook

splash share should special shape shirt fiction shabby shout nation

shadow sure dictation shine cash action

sugar push social shaıp dash station shot fısh passion

short smash mission wash session

Word-contrasts with [s| and ffl.

sop shun sift shift fırst soul shop save shave whist sow shoal sort short crust

see Show sip ship rust seat she ass ash mess seen sheet mass mash Paris sun sheer 1 crass crash toss

fished wished crushed rushed mesh

parish tosh

73

The consonant İs).

Regime plosion occasion Leisure measure rouge İnvasion vision garage Pleasııre decision mirage

The consonant [3] is pronounced in the same way as the consonant [J], but it is articulated with voice, because the vocal cords are in vibration (see page 62),

Exercise 30. Pronounce the following words minding the contrast exercises.

usual collusion

collision

enclosure provision confusion

precision intrıısion Treasure closure conclusion casual

The consonants [tf].

In order to articulate the consonant [tj] fırst practise the sounds [t] and [J]

separately, then pronounce them together, This consonant is an affricate (see

page 67)

74

Exercise 31. Practise the words with the consonant [tj] pronouncing it

with a single effort.

cherry Chain charm chair sketch search

chess chap check chimney which pitch cheese Chat choke beach match coach

chest chalk chance stretch such picture chin choose choice cach watch forture

Word- -contrasts with [Jl and [tjj.

shop chop sheet cheat

sheer cheer shatter chatter

sheep cheap cash catch

shin chin

mash

match ship chip wash watch

share chair wish which

shoe chew marsh march

shoes choose

mush

much

The consonant [da].

The affricate [da] is formed in the same way as the affricate [t|], but it is voiced.

75

76

77

The consonant [vj.

The consonant [v] is formed in the same way as the consonant [f], but it is voiced (see page 60).

Exercise 34. Practice the following.

van verse curve gıve voice vowel pave arrive vice vocal save slave

vine leave cave grave vivid live shave heave veii starve dove develo

p vain love gave vote veal serve

Word — contrasts with [v] and [b].

vain bane very berry van ban vest best

vote bale vet bet

vat bat vie bye veer beer vile bile

vend bend vote boat vent bent vowels bowels

Contrast exercises with [f] and [v|.

feel veal thief thieve fat vat half halve

foal vole few view

feign vane fast vast fail vale fan van life live fıne vine

Icap leave off of

78

The consonant [6].

Put the tip of yoLir tongue between your teeth, then blow air between yoıır tongue and the upper teeth. [6] is a voiceless soıınd (see page 60).

Exercise 35. Read the words minding the interdental character of the

consonants.

[6| initially [ƏJ internally

thin threat anthem cathedral

thanks thought pathos sympathy three threw lengthy breathless

think throat wealthy fılthy thing theatre healthy earthen

thick thigh ether earthy theory thrash arithmetic forthright thrill thunder mathematics worthless

thief thimble Arthur athletic third throne method mythical

10) filially

Word — contrasts with |tj and jƏ]

bath fıfth tin thin

broth moLith tank thank

cloth youth trill thrill hearth lath neat Neath

mirth tenth tick thick

breath wealth pit pith

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worth north tree three

health tooth trice thrice

birth fourth lıeat heath Ruth

Word - contrasts wsth Is| and [0|

sin thin sink think sick thick sank thank

miss myth moss moth

pass path soıt thought force fourth se£:m theme truce truth

The consonant [d[.

The consonant [d'\ is formed in the same way as [0], but it is voiced. (see

page 60). Exercise 36. Read the foüowing words minding the correct pronunciation

of the consonant.

[6] initially \d\ internally

the tiıan father rather

this thither mother beather that thou othcr lather

thus three broiher burther

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then thy heather hither these thine tether sounthem

those though leather heathen their thence gather

1^1 fınally

lathe clothe loathe booth

bathe scytlıe lithe smooth breather tithe seethe to mouth

soothe with

Word — contrasts with [cl] and [d\ Word - contrasts with [z\ and [ö]

den then bays bath eider eithei’ close clothe

udder other whizz with Dan than booze booth Dee thee lies lithe den.se thence lows loathe

die thy lays lathe wordy worthy breeze breathe

dare there rise writhe laid lathe size scythe

The consonant |n|.

Put the tip of your tongue on the upper teeth-ridge, touch your side teeth with

the sides of youı tongue. Use your voice and pronounce [n] through

81

your nose. [n] is a sonorant. (see page 56).

Exercise 37. Transcribe and pronounce the followings minding the syllabic character of the English consonant [n] and compare it with Azerbaija- nian [n].

need not noise pen din

nose nook near pan sun

neat noon nice pin gun

net nerve never pence den

neck nail knock ten tone

nap night nasty tin phone

Syllabic [n|.

bııtton

mutton certain fatten

bitten bacon listen

rotten taken dozen curtain Vision hasten SLidden cotton often

The consonant |||-

The consonant [L] is formed in the same way as [n], but it is pronounced

through the sides of the tongııe in the mouth cavity. [L] is a lateral oral sonorant

(see page 66).

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83

Syllabic [1] With iateral plosion [1]

level It’ll cattle title little customable kettle rattle

unde cuttle little fata!

gentle dabble settle natal bicycle deadal subtie total

sensible darnageable

battle Capital dandle damnable bottle dental dappie fribble

The consoıUBHt |j|.

Raise the back of your tongue to the roof of yo ar mouth, but do not touch the roof of your mouth with the tongue. Push air out vvith voice. [J] is a sonorant (see page 65).

Excrcise 41. Practice the following words.

young you yesterday refuse yellow use beauty reduce yoke un it tube assume yes Union suit million yeli new duty huge

yarn dew rnusic argue yard few onion value

yearn pew excuse youth

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'Word-contrasts with v/orcls begänning with a vowel and others be- ’inning

with [j].

ear year yoke oak

earn yearn your or ate yet

ooze use

east yeast

Word-contrasts with [j| and |d3|.

yet jet jaw your use juice jam yam yak Jack joke yoke

yacht jot jeer year yard Jarred

The consonant [kj.

Touch the back roof of your mouth with the back of your tongue, puslı air forward in your mouth, tlıen move your tongue away.

Exercise 42. Pronounce the following words minding all the variants of the

consonant [k].

85

88

has hands behave hurt him harm boyhood hoof

his heat adhere hunt horrible hit adhesive hood behind hen behalf hop

Word- contrasts with [hj initially and no |h| initially.

eat heat air hair

art heart ey e high arm harm ox hocks eave heave old hold ear here add had

edge hedge

is his

I’honenmes in connected speech.

English consonants in connected speech.

There are some spjcial plıysiological and acoustic phenomena characte- rizing English consonants in connected speech which are quite different from the phenomena occurring in Azerbaijanian consonants in similar conditions. The most important of them are the following:

1. The English word final consonants. The correct pronunciation of Eng- lişh consonants in word final position is extremely important, because there are

numerous pairs of words which differ only by the voiced and voiceless final consonants, f e. leave-leaf, bag-back, dead-debt, advice-advise.

2. The English voi;ed consonants occuring at the beginning of syllables are voiced even if they are followed or preceded by voiceless consonants. Azerbaijanian voiced consonants in the same position have a voiceless beginning (excursion) and a voiced end (recursion). Azerbaijanian consonants

seem to bi fıılly voicec only in intervocal position. 3. Most of the English consonants are equally hard almost in all positions,

before and afte!' front vowels. The English consonants [j], [3], [t|], [da] which have a seccnd front focus are slightly palatalized in all positions.

The lateral sonorant [1] is "clear" before all vowels and before [jj, but "dark"

after all the other consonants. All Azerbaijanian consonants accommodate to

vowels and are pal atalized before and after front vowels. [f they occur between

a front and a back vowel they accomodate to the preceding one. All

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tiıe consonants occurring before, and after back vowels become quite hard. English: sheep, fish, regime, chess, watch, judge, jem, siege, bag, giri, ball,

beli. Azerbaijanian: şivə, şüşə, zaman, zirək, çeşid, cavab, cəm, qabaq.

The junction of speech sounds.

Speech sounds are very seldom pronounced in isolated position. A speech sound coincides with a word as in the case of the personal pronoun 1 [ai], conjunction "or" [D], link verb "are" [a:] or when v/e learn or teach the articulation of phonemes of a foreign language. A speech sound may be joined with other sounds within words and at the junction of-words in connected

speech. Speech Sounds are joined differently in different languages or even in one and the same language.

There are several types of junction, some of which are common in different languages, while others are characteristic of only one language.

For language learners it is necessary to understand, fırst of all, the stages in the articulation of speech sounds in isolated position.

When a speech sound is pronounced in isolated position it has three stages in its articıdation. The fırst stage is called excursion, or on-glide; the second - retention, or stop, or the miedial stage; the third — recurtion, or release, or the off -glide.

The excursion is the beginning of a sound during which the organs of speech begin to move from the State of immobility, to the position necessary for

the articulation of a given vowel or a consonant. During this .stage no sound is produced.

During the retention, or stop-stage, the organs of speech are kept in the position necessary for the pronunciation of the given sound or move from one position to another for complex sounds. such as diphthongs diphthongo- ids or affricates. During this stage the sound becomes audible. During the recursion or

off-glide, the organs of speech move away to the position of immobility and no sound is heard. Plosives however, are an exception: the sound of plosion is heard during the release before vowels and in a word - final position.

Thus a speech sound pronounced in isolation has all the three stages realized co.mpletely.

But if we pronounce several sounds one after another with all the three

stages of articulation, no word will be formed, as the organs of speech, in this case, stop to move at the end of each sound. Words can be formed only when speech sounds are joined together without pauses between them. İn the formation of words a kind of chain of sounds is observed. The junction of sounds takes place not only in words, but aiso in sense-groups and sen-

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tences— at the jııncture of words. Bul the interpenetration of souııds in words is so deep that it is impossible to seperate one sound from another in them.

Conditionally there are two ways of joining sounds together: 1. Merging of stages.

2. interpenetration of stages. English consonants and vowels may be joined together in the following

iways: a) V + C = a vowel is joined to a following consonant, as in the word hn"

[in]. b) C + V = a consonant is Joined to a following vowel, as in the word "do"

[du:]. c) C + C = two consonants are Joined together, as in the word "speak"

[spi:k].

d) V + V = two vowels are Joined together, as in the word "create" [kri:eit].

Merging of stages

When two neigbouring sounds of different nature are Joined together the most common way of achieving it is the merging of stages. The last stage of the preceding sound penetrates into the initial stage of the following one and the two stages are merged and articulated simultaneousiy.

Prof V. A. Vassilyev gives the following graphical representation of merging speech sounds:

c<.a

İl'

6 ̂

"Part"

The last stage of the plosive [p] merges with the first stage of [a:], that is, the obstruction is released together with the lowering of the jaw, while the vocal cords are drawn together and begin to vibrate. Then the end of [a:] merges with the beginning of [t], the back of the tongue is lowered while the tip of the tongue

rises to the alveoli to form the obstruction for [t], and the vocal cords stop vibrating.

Merging of stages usually takes place when sounds of different nature are joined together. The sound sequences may be as following:

a) Articulated by different organs of speech: C + V ( = consonant + vowel) — "port" [p3:t]; C + C (= consonant + consonant) - "speak" [spi:kj;

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"fry" [frai]; V + C (== vowel + consonant) — "art" [a:t], "on' [on]. b) Articiılated by different parts of the tongue: C; + V ( = consonant +

vowel) — "get" [get]; C + C (= consonant + consonant) — "qııite" [kwait]; V + V {= vowel + vowel)—"going" [goıını].

c) Articiılated by different organs of speecrı and ty different parts of the tongue: C + V ( = consonant + vowel) — "we" [wi:], V + C ( = vowel + consonant) — "He was there" [hi: wəz Saə].

Interpenetration of stages.

When consonants of similar nature are joined the end of the fırst sound penetrates into the beginning and fıırther into the middle stage of the second sound, as in the words "fact" [faekt], "begged" [begd].

This interpenetnation of stages is characteristic of the English consonant combinations. Sounds of similar nature are in this cate articiılated by different parts of the tongue. When the sequences of [kt], [gd] are articulated, the organs of speech move away from the position of the firsi sound in the middle stage to take up the position necessary for the pronunciation of the second sound. The organs of speech move in the following vvay. For [k] the back part öf the tongue is raised in the direction of the soft palate, then it is pressed to it to form a complete obstruction. At the same moment the tip of the tongue rises towards the alveoli to form the obstruction for [t]. As soon as the tip of the tongue is pressed against the alveoli, the back part of the tongue is lowered. Thus the flow of air is stopped by the obstruction of [t] and the plosion of [k] is not heard. The air rtıshes out with a plosion only when the obstruction of [t] is remcved. At last the tongue is lowered, the soft palate is lowered too and the organs of speech i:ake up a neutral position. Thus there is

only one plosion for two occlusive-plosives because of interpenetration of stages. This is an incomplele plosion.

The same order of movements takes place for the cluster of [-gd], but it is accompanied by the vibration of the vocal cords.

İn other clusters, such as [-kl], the organs of speech move in the similar way, but as soon as the tip of the tongue touches the alveoli the sides of the

tongue are lowered and the air rushes out along the sides of the tongue with plosion. The vocal cords begin vibrating at the beginning of [1]. This is called a lateral plosion.

Two similar neighbouring consonants may be aıticulated by the same part of the tongue, as m .the clusters [-tn] in "cotton' [kotn], [-dn] in "hid- den” [hidn], [-tl] in "bottle” [botl] and [-dl] in "riddle" [ridl]. Both clusters contain

alveolar consonants with different manner of arodııction of noise. When [-dn] is pronounced, the soft palate is raised during the on-glide of

92

[d] and the tip of the tongue rises in the direction of the alveoli, the vocai cords vibrate. When the tip of the tongue touches the alveoli the stream of air is stopped. During the fast stage of [d] the sofi: palate is lowered and the air rushes out with nasal plosion. This marks the beginning of [n], the tip of the tongue keeps this position for some time, then the tip of the tongue is lowered and the vocai cords stop vibrating.

When [-tn] is proıounced the organs of speech move in a similar way, but the vocai cords are drawn together when the tip of the tongue is already at the alveoli for [t] and they begin vibrating as soon as the soft palate is lowered for [n].

Azerbaijanian learners of English often make mistakes in such clusters inserting a neutral vo^vel between the two consonants.

İn order to correct this rnistake, the tip of the tongue must be pressed against the alveoli tili the end of the articulation of [n].

When the cluster of [-dl] is pronounced the soft palate is raised, the tip of the tongue rises towards the alveoli and the vocai cords vibrate. The stream of air is stopped as soon as the of the tongue touched the alveoli and the complete obstruct on is formed.

The last stage of [d] is marked by the lowering of the sides of the tongue and

by raising the back part of the tongue for [1]. The .

When the cluster [-11] is pronounced the organs of speech move in the same way, but the vocai cords are drawn together as soon as the tip of the tongue is pressed against the alveoli for [tj and begin vibrating when the sides of the

tongue an; lowered for [ 1]. Azerbaijanian learners of English are apt of pronouncing a neutral vowel

between these clusters of consonants.İn order to correct such mistakes it is necessary to keep the tip of the tongue pressed against the alveoli tili the end of [ 1].

Two neighboLiring consonants may be aıficulated with the same part of the

tongue and have the same place of articulation, but their manner of production of noise is different, as in "on the" [ on d\:] , "tenth" [ten 0], "put the” [put 5i:], "will they" [wilƏei].

When clusters [-tıƏ], [ - rı0], [ -t5], and [ -lƏ] are pronounced the organs of speech begin to move to the position of the first sound and, as in such clusters both consonants are dental, they are already prepared for the second

one. As soon ıs the obstruction is formed for the first consonant in [-n5j and [ - nÖ], the soft palate is lowered and the air passes out through the nasal cavity. The end of [-u] is marked by moving the tip of the tongue slightly between the leeth tO' form a flat narrow passage for [-5] and [-0], while the soft palate rises to block the passage into the nasal cavity. As soon

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as the air stream begins to pass through the narrowing, [-Ə] or [-9] is heard. For [9] the vocal cords stop vibrating. |

In all these clusters of consonants the interpenetration of stages is observed.

Two identical sounds mııst be joined in the following way; the second consonant, penetrates into the fırst stage of the preceding one, becaiıse the organs of speech have the same position for both sounds, as in unnecessary [ ‘An'nesəsəri],

" this size" [’öis'saiz], "witlı them" ['wi5 öem], "roonımate" ['rınmmeit] etc. In the cluster [-nn] the beginning of the fırst consonant is ınarked by the

lowering of the soft palate and the movement of the tip of the tongue towards the alveoli.

The vocal cords are drawn together and start vibrating. As soon as the complete obstruction is formed the air passes through the nasal cavity. The tip of the tongue remains at the alveoli for the second sound, as the retention stage of the fırst [n] is directly followed by the retention stage of the second [n] at the end

of which the tongue is lowered and the vocal cords stop vibrating. The two consonants do not blend into one long sound, as there is a de-

crease of tenseness between the retention stage of the first [n] and the retention stage of the second [n].

If any identical consonants are joined the interpenetration is characte- rised by the loss of two stages — the off-glide of the fırst and the on-glide of the

second consonant. There is always a fall of tenseness which marks the end of one consonant and the increase of tenseness which marks the beginning of the second.

In such clusters as [ i!], [ pp], [kk], [dd] etc., there is no plosion of the fırst consonant, as the closure is prolonged for the second one: for example:

Stop please ['stoppliızj That task [ Əaet 'ta:sk] Good day! [gud 'deij Azerbaijanian students of English are apt to pronounce the fırst stop with

plosion, and it is mainly the influence of orthography. Sounds of different nature are Joined together by means of interpenetration

of stages as well. Thus, if the constrictive voiceless consonant [h] is joined to the following vowel the on-glide of the vowel coincides with the on-glide of [h], as the tongue takes the position of the vowel during the articulation of [h], as in "here" [hiə], "he" [hi;], "whose" [hi;zj etc.

94

Assimilation In connected speech phonemes are used in various sequences, and the

organs of speech constantly move from the position of one phoneme to that of another, stopping only for pauses between sentences or sense-groups. In (his constant movement the organs of speech natura lly adapt themselves to a more convenient and easy way of transition from one position to another. As a result of such adaptation phonemes may become changed and we observe combinative sound changes.

Combinative sound changes include; assimilation, dissimilation, reduction, elision, vowel harmony and other changes in phonemes. One of the tnost important of them is assimilation.

In some sound sequences the articulatory work of one phoneme, which |s stronger in the given position, influences the articulation of a neighbouring phoneme and makes it similar to itself This phenomenon is called as- simüation.

The phoneme which is modified under the influence of its neighbour is called the assimilated phoneme; the phoneme which influences the neighbouring one is called the assimilating phoneme.

Assimilation of Consonants. Assimilation may affect consonants arid vowels, but it is consonants which

are mostly changed, in Modern English. Assimilation may affect one or several

characteristic features of a phoneme. İn consonants assimilation may affect: 1) The work of the active organ forming the obstruction or the work of the

acaive organ and the place of obstruction; 2) The manner of formation of obstruction; 3) The work of the vocal cords;

4) The position of the soft palate. 1) All the English forelingual alveolar consonants become dental when

followed by interdental consonant phonemes [0], [ö]. Thus in "tenth" [ten 0] the sonorant [n] becomes dental; in "put that", "did they", "let them", "it's thin", "is this" the alveolar consonants [t, d, s, z] are dental. İn "tree" [tri:] and "dry" [drai] the phonemes [t] and [d] become post - alveolar under the influence of the

post-alveolar [r]. The place of articulation, as well as the work of the active organ, is changed

in such words as: think [0hık], sink [siqk], rank [r$qk], in which the alveolar sonorant [n] is substituted by the back-lingual sonorant [q] under the influence of the following back-lingual consonant [k].

A voiced consonant phoneme may become voiceless under the influence of

its neighbour.

95

Many words have different pronunciations becausı; of assimilation; we say [nju.z] "news", but [njuıspeipə] "newspaper" [faiv] "five", but [’faifpans] "fıvepence".

A voiceless consonant may become voiced undeı the influence of its voiced ııeighbour:

[gu:s] "goose", but ['guzbəri] "gooseberry"; herc! [s] is replaced by voiced [z] under the influence of [b].

The voiceless pharyngal [h] becomes partially voiced between two- vowels, as in: behing [bi'haind], behave [bi'heiv], inhahit [in'hSebit].

The position of the soft palate and at the same time the manner of production of obstruction may be affected when nasal sonorants precede or follow plosive consonants having the same place of articulation. Cp.: [htend] "hand", but "handsome" [.haensəm]" windmill" f'winmil], landscape [laenskeip].

When a plosive is followed by a nasal sonorant the former has no plosion which takes place when the sofi; palate is lowered for the nasal sonorant, thus the plosive has a nasal plosmn, E. g.: written [ritn]. certain [s3:tn], pardon [pa:dn], garden [ga:dn].

Direction of Assimilation İn all cases the direction of assimilation may be different. Assimilation is progressive when the preceding phDneme influences the

following one, that is, when the articulation of the already pronounced pho-

neme, penetrates into the articulation of the phoneme which is being pronounced. Examples of progressive assimilation are numorous in English:

books [buks], maps [mips], works [w3:ks], cuts [kAts],

it's [its], asked [ccskt], stopped [söpt], grandmother ['grsenmAƏə], indi-

vidual [inni'viduol] etc.

Assimilation is regressive when the preceding phoneme is influenced by

the following one. Regressive assimilation often occurs when compound words are formed, e. g. newspaper [T,ju:speipə], gooseoerry ['guzbəri], fıve- pence [faifpəns], horseshoe [hD:|ju:] etc.

We have reciprocal assimilation when two neighbouring phonemes influence each other more or less equaliy. Thus in "pİE.ce" [pleis], "twenty"

[’twenti], "cry" [krai]. The sonorants [1] [w] and [r] become partially devoiced under the

influence of the preceding plosives [p, t, k], but these plosives, in their turn, are not aspirated, as they are influenced by the sonorants. İn "twenty" [t] is labialized, as vrell.

İn many cases, as a result of reciprocal assimilation, both phonemes may

96

1. The assimilated phoneme is in an unstressed syllable: garden ['gd:dn] vision [Visn]

pictLire ['piktjə] social ['soujl]

2. The assimilated phoneme is at the end of the stressed ss llablc wlıere tenseness lalls, e, g.

fivepence [Taifpəns] tenth [tenO] books I buks]

3. There must be similarity in the articulatory work of the phonemes: İn "fivepence" [Taifpəns] [v] is changed into [f]: both of them are labio-

dental, [fj and [p] are both voiceless. 4. There must be similar phonemes in the language. In "nature", "picture"

[tj] could be changed into [tfj as this phoneme is oflen met in English. The same can be said about [sj] changed into [J] as in social, Asia, etc.

Mistakes in Assimilation

The process of assimilation follows its laws in every language; therefore

students of English make numerous mistakes in assimilation. 1 The most common of them are the follovving:

1) Palatalization of consonants before front vowels, before fi:] and [ij, es])ecially, in such words as: tea, seat, leave, near, give.

No accommodation of consonants takes place in English in all such cases.

2) Palatalization of [k] and [g] before and after front vowels and before

arid after [3] in such words as: cat, give, giri, cıırl bag, curve, back, neck, kt’en. ' English [k] and [g] are slightly softened in such positions.

3) Regressive assimilation of consonants in the work of the vocal cords in the middle of words, while no assimilation occurs in English, for example, in such words as: 'medicine, 'absent, 'blackboard, 'obstacle.

4) Palatalization of [1] after front vowels and after [3:] which is the result

of the accommodation of Azerbaijanian [n] to the preceding vowels. English [1]

is dark in such cases. Compare:

English: Azerbaijanian:

beli [ bel] bel’ tili [til] til'

99

Alternalit)!! '■ci'ics in personal, possessive and otliL'r pronouns are aIso

widelv used. For oNainple, "yon" [ju:] has alternatıon series: fıı;-ıı-o-rı|; "them"

[5em] may l avc alrernations [e-ə], witlı zero in the forms [rem]-

irəlııl-irınj-fəm].

llıc use oi'different mernbers of these alternation series mostly depends on

the position of the word:, thus under stress or in isolated position strong forms are used, weak forms appear in unstressed syllables, the shortest forms-- in quick speech.

Plionetic alternat ons of consonants are richly represented in Modern Azerbaijanian. They are mostly caıısed by regressive assimilation in the work of ihe vocal cords, in the place of formation of obstruction, in the manner of

formation of obstruction and in the position of the soft palate. The alternation series cf occlusive consonants with constrictive ones

foLind in get - “go” and kec ’cə - “if he goes"; /MTricates alternate with constrictives in saç "hair" and saçsız "without

hair"; in a'ğac "tree" and ağac'da "on the tree".

[n] alternates witlı [m] in i'nan — "believe" and i'namma — "don't believe".

Plionetic alternations of voiced and voiceless consonants are especially ıu|merous. Thus all the final voiced consonants which become breathed btifore a pause or another voiceless consonant alternate with fully voiced crfnsonants when followed by voiced sounds.

For example: Ki'tab [p] - book kitab'lar [bj - books

Al'maz [sj — diamond alma'za [z] — to the diamond Kənd [t] - village kəndin [d] - of the village

I

Phonetik alternations of phonemes observed in the morphemes do not ange their meaning and do not form alone other parts of speech, though 5y may accompany some grammatikal phenonema.

Phonological Phoneme Alternations İt has already been explained that phonological alternations were origi- ally

the result of pFonetic laws active at an earlier period of development df the language, Alternations of vowels in old English might, for example, Fe caused by the laws of umlaut, by the shift of stress and by adaptation of yowels to consonants. Alternations of consonants were mostly caused by laws of assimilation, bul both were always connected with some seman- 'ic function. İn the later period, when the actual conditions had disappeared, those al- ernations remaining in the language acquired defmite semantic and gram-

101

0. /Mlcmntions are widely ıısed to distinguish words belongiııg to different parts of speech, but etymologically related to the same part ot speech with-different meanings;

feast fes'tivity shade shadow meiT> mirth Sometimcs theıc may be both altemation of consonants and vowels: to describe [dis 'kraib] description [dis'kripjn] to plcasc fpli:z] pleasure [’pleaə] bricf |bıi:f| brevity['breviti] 1. Altemation of consonants may accompaıi)' affıxation: a) in forming plural forms of nouns: mouth [9] mouths[dz]

path [0] paths [dz]

bath [0] baths [özj

house | s] houses[ziz] b) in forming nouns from verbs: to describe description to intend intention c) in forming adjectives from nouns: expediency expedient leniency lenient From the above examples we see that phoneme alternations are widely lised

in English to differentiate the meaning of words. Phonological alternations similar to those characteristic of English are

absent in the Azerbaijanian language because of its agglutinate structure, as alt the grammatical phenomena are expressed in it by means of monose- mantic aflixes both forming new words and changing their meaning or relations between the words.

SYLLABLE

Every sense groups as well as every isolated word, represents a sequence of sounds which are pronounced with a different degree of energy of articulation. This increase and diminution of force devides speech into smaller

phonetic units called syllables. A rise of prominence is clearly heard in evei7 unit and a fall of prominence marks the end of it.

Syllables are fırst of all phonetic units, as they may not coin- cide with morphemes or words which represent semantic units having defmite sound forms.

103

104

stressed syllables; but very seldom—in stressed ones; Alim [a:'limj tə 'nə [tə; 'nə] e'lan [e:'lan] bə'zən [bə:zən] The following are the rules oi syllable division in English: 1. When two vowels follow one another the syllabic division is between

them: Examples: poet [’pou-it] going ['gou — ip] being I'bi:-ip] create [krir'eit] Har ['lai-ə] flower [flau - ə] etc. 2. When a long monophthong or a diphthong is followed by a consonant

and another vowel, the syllabic division is between the fırst vowel and the consonant which begins the syllable. The fırst syllable is open.

Examples: awful [' D: - ful] permit [p3-'mit] easy ['i: - zi] playful ['plei-fbl] corner ['kD:-nə] 3. When two different consonants follow one another between vowels the

syllabic division is between them. Examples: ınoLinCain ['maun-tin] blackboard ['bl»k-bD:d] distant ['dis-tənt] useless ['ju:s-lis] 4. When two similar consonants follow one another the syllabic division

i^ between them. They are geminated consonants. Examples: guileless ['gail-lis] horseshoe ['hD:j-lu:] penknife ['pen-naif] bookcase ['buk-keis] unknown ['An-noun] 5. When a consonant stands between one short stressed and one short

ı^stressed monophtonq the intervocalic consonant belongs to the preceding syllable and closes it.

Examples: funny ['fAn - i] letter ['let — ə] pretty ['pri - i] shabby [ ' jxb - i] appear ['Api:ə]

İn SLich words syllables cannot be prononceııd separately for two reasons the stressed vowel is joined to the vowel is extremely short and the conso- ant is joined to the vowel is quite strong. The syllapic division in reality in ihside the consonant. Special care should be taken not to pronoıınce such vrords in this way:

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[^probəbl] consists of three syllables, but should not be divided into three syllables when we pıonounce it. The word "reading" ['riıdirj] morphologi- cally consists of the root "read" and the sııffıx ing” but phonetically it should be

divided as ['riıdir;] having a long vowel in the fırst syllable. For these and some other reasons teachers'of English are recommended not to allow their pupils to pronounce English words in syllables, but only as one phonetic unit.

İn slow dictation only some compound words consisting of two independent morphemes ,are sometimes read in two syllables. That is done in such cases when the pronunciation of parts isolatedly is the same as in the word.

For example:

textbook ['tekst-br)k] aiTnchair ['äim-tjsə] sometimes [’sAm-taimz]

railway [’reil-wei] indeed [in-'di:d]

blue-eyed [’blu:-aid]

But such compoLinds as:

newspaper ['nju;s- peipə] gooseberry [’guz-bəri]

hcrseshoe ['hDİ:ju:] landscape [’läen-skeip]

have a different pronunciation because of the assimilation taking place between their parts.

The syllable division in Azerbaijanian is based mainly on phonetic principles. There are both closed and open syllables in modern Azerbaijanian. Closed syllables cccur:

3) when two vowtds are separated by two differen consonants: ar - tim, dil - ci, tak - cə, aş - kar. 2) when a vowel is followed by [j]: ay - h, oy - naq, uy - ğun. 3) in afTıxes; - lar, - lər, - mak, - maq, - dan, - dən. More than two consonants never occur at the end of closed syllables if a

third is added. İt alv/ays bdongs to the next vowel and is fınally strong: kənd —kənd — lər; dost— dost-lar.

One consonant separating two vowels belongs to the second vowel re- gardles of the morphological structure of the word: tor - to-ra - to-ru etc.

AH the words in Azerbaijanian may be pronounced or read in syllables according to phonetic rales.

For example: a - bad - laş — dı — rıl - dı.

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WORD STRESS

İn the English langııage eveıy word consisting of two or more syllables has

word stress. The stressed syllable seems to stand out more prominent than the others. This greater prominence may be achieved by different physical means: fırst of all by a greater force of aıticulation of the stressed syllable which is achieved by the greater muscular tension of the articulating organs. This kind of stress is characterized as dynamic stress. English stress is mainly dynamic. Vowels and voiced consonants in stressed syllables are louder, longer and

clearer in their quality than when they are in the same sequences, but in ıınstressed position.

Since phonemes in stressed position are louder and more distinct in their quality than the ıınstressed ones we say that the English stress is aIso qualitative. Generally qualitative stress is a component of the dynamic stress and does not occur by itself English vowels in ıınstressed position may keep their main

characteristics. English vowels may be long and short regardless of stress, so the quan-

titative component of the English word stress is of no great importance; İn every word the sequence of stressed and ıınstressed syllables forms a

certain melodical design. each syllable having its own pitch of tone; we may say that the English word stress is aIso musical.

1. The energy of aıticulation in English words is centred in the stressed syllable, that is why vowels in many words, consisting of several syllables, undergo partial or complete reduction.

For example: conference ['konf (ə) rəns] history ['hist (ə)ri] etc. dictionary [dikj(ə) n (ə)ri]

2. The nature of Azerbaijanian word stress is somewhat different. First of all the energy of aıticulation in Azerbaijanian is not so much centred in the stressed syllable, but more or less equally distributed among the urı- stressed syllables. That is why the Azerbaijanian vowels do not differ much in quality in stressed positions and are never neutralized.

That proves that though the Azerbaijanian stress is aIso dynamic it is

weakly centred and the qualitative component is absent in it. On the other hand, the musical element is stronger in the Azerbaijanian word stress. The quantitative component is aIso present, in emphatic speech-especialiy.

3. From the point of view of its place the English word stress is said to be free. That means that it may practically fali on any syllable in a word, though eveıy word has stress on a certain syllable. Thus in "basket ['bd:skitj, enter

['entə], childhood [’tfaildhud], necessary [’nesəsri] the stress talls on the first syllable in "machine" [məjim], technique [tek'ni:k], indeed

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[ia’cii:d] — on the second; and in "pioneer"' [paiə'niə] — on the third syllable. The place of Azerbaijanian word stress is fixed: it always falls on the last

syllable of the wbrd. At the same time it is moveable, as it always shifts from the beginning to the end of the wöfd.

Words with one stress

As it has already been mentioned, word stress in English may fall on any syllable, but there is a tendency to stress the root syllable of the word. This tendency is called recessive, and that type of stress is termed the recessive stress. The place of stress is aIso connected with the origin of words in English.

Most ofthe English words of Anglo-saxon and Scandinavian origin consisting ot two or three syllables have stress on the first syllable.

For example: 'childhood, 'sometimes, 'something, 'written, 'window, 'ugliness, 'husband, 'woman, 'happiness, 'usually, 'willingly, 'popular etc.

Words with a weak prefix have stress on the second (root) .syllable. For example: in'deed, be'cause, re'peat; for'give, be'lieve, re'turn etc. The great majority of words borrowed from French before the 16"' cen-

tury have stress on the first (root) syllable. For example: 'cloud. 'centre, 'family, 'energy.

Other words of French origin borrowed into English after the I6‘" cen- tury have kept their original stress on the last syllable.

For example: ma'chine, tech'nique, po'lice, Polisyllabic words with sııffıxes "-ise", ize", "-fy", "-ate" have mostly

stress on the third syllable from the end. For example: 'recognize, com'municate, i'dentify, app'reciate.

İn sorne verbs of four syllables with the suffıx ize” stress fails on the first syllable.These verbs are: characterize, 'regularize 'centralize etc.

Nouns ending in "-ion" usually have stress on the syllable preceding the sıifTıx.

For example: o'pinion, di'vision, lo'cation, con'nection. The same rule

appiies to nouns ending in " - ian e, g: mu'sician, phy'sician; Nouns ending; in '-logy', '-logist",'- cracy' have stress on the third syllable

from the end, e. g; bi'ology, psy'chology, pho'nology, ge'ologist, de'mo- cracy. Adjectives ending in "-jous"," ient","-ual", "-ier" and " -ian" aIso have

stress on the syllable praseding the suffıx, e. g.: fıc'titious, er'roneous, effı- cient, con'textual.

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Sııch sııffixes as "-er", or, "-ment","-ly", ”-cy",'- ness, "-fuil", "-less", "-ing", "-ty" and some others do not influence; the place of word stress. Words ending in these suffixes usually have stress on the root syllable, e. g.: writer, conqııeror, government, usually, happening, uselessness, 'beautiful, secrecy, property.

Words with one primary and one secondiary stress.

The everyday English speech abounds in a great uumber of short words

consisting of one, two and sometimes of three s;dlables. Between the stressed words, having their own lexicai ımportance and their own stress, we fınd numerous grammatical elements, such as prepositions, auxiliary verbs, pronouns, conjunctions, partıcles etc. which tne not stressed in the sentence. Thus an alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables is characteristic of Engiish which makes the rhythmic tendency of English stress very strong.

The piace of principal and secondary stresses are determined by several rules:

1. All English words of four or more syllables that end in stiffıxes tion", -ian" have principal stress on the syllable preceding the suffıx, and secondary stress — on the root syllable.

For examplexornpo'sition, demons'tration, adnim.s'tration, exami'nation,

acade'mician, ,prole' tarian, ,contra'diction. 2. In words of above mentioned type both primary and secondary stresses

remain in their places even if they take suffixes ary"; "-ize", ism', "-ence", "-ent", '-ive', ’-er", "-ing','- İy', e- g-: ,revo'lution — revo'lutionary, ad,minis'tration - adminis'trational, investi'gation -investi'gatory.

3. Words of three and more syllables with primary stress on the fırst or

second syllable have no secondary stress. For example: 'necessary, con'tempontry, 'dictionar/. 4. All English words consisting of more th.an thre; syllables and ending in

"-ity" have a primary stress on the syllable prectding the suffıx (third syllable from the end), and a secondary stress — on the root syllable.

For example: .possi'bility, proba'bility, peculi'arity

5. İn all the polysyllabic words with a primary and a secondary stress both of the stresses remain in their places if prefixes ıre added to the original words.

Prefixes in such derivatives may be unstressed if they are not semantically important, as in:

compo'sition —• decompo'sition proba'bility — improba'bilily

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Prefixes in such words may have a second primary' stress if they are semantically important, as in; fa.mili’arity — 'unfamili'arity discrimi'nation - 'indiscrimi'nation

Prefixes having tv/o syllables always take a primary stress. For example;

inter'changea'bility, 'intellectu'ality.

These facts create the rhythmical altemation of stressed and unstressed syllabJes characteristio of English word stress.

V''ords with two primary stresses.

I. English words with prefixes which are semantically important have rv/o primary stresses; one on the root syilable and the other on the prefix.

The following pre:äxes are usually stressed; Negative prefixes. in-, İ1-, im-, ir- . 'inac'cessible, 'incon'venient, il'legible, 'imma'ture,'ir'rational, 'irre'Fgious. Dfs- 'disconnect, '"disailow, 'disapprove. Un- 'unfa'miliar, 'unac'quainted,

'un'do. Non- 'non-observance, 'non-'resident. Re- (meaning "again) 're'write, 'rees'tablish. Ex - (meaning “former”) 'ex'president Under - (meaning lack of smth) 'under'estimate, 'uncier 'under'payment. Sub - (meaning”subordinate”) 'subdi'vide, 'subcom'm'f,-.

'sub'tropical. Pre - (meaning “bsfore”) 'pre'revo'lutionary, ’pre'tonic. İnter - (meaning “among”) 'inter'national, 'inter'mediate Mis - (meaning “wrong”) 'misunder'stand, 'miscon'ception,

'misin'terpret. Over- (meaning ‘'too much”) 'over'estimate, 'over'load, 'over'strung, Out - (meaning “surpass”) 'oufgrow, 'out'strech, 'out'shine. Vice —(meaning “in place of’) 'vice'- admiral, vice'- chaiman. 4rch - (meaning “chief’) 'arch'bishop. Ultra - (meaning ‘ utmosf’) 'ultra'modern, 'ııltra'sonic.

Words with the ahove listed prefixes have no stress on the prefix if they are used as different parts of speech, e. g. "courage" (noun) — dis'courage(verb) 'take (verb l —■ mis'take (noun), or if prefixes lose their semantic

113

iiTiportance e. g. under'starıd, pre'pare, in'flict.

2. Nutnerals from 13 to 19 have two primaty stresses: on the root syllable and on the sufixes, e.g.: 'thir'teen. 'fifteen, 'six'teen.

3. Compound adjectives have tv/o primary stresses; one—on the root syllable of the fırst element, and the second—on the root syllable of the second element, e, g.: 'good-'tempered, 'blue-'eyed, 'olcl-'fashioned.

4. Composite verbs consisting of a verb and a post-position have two primary stresses, e. g.: to 'give 'up, to 'make 'out, to- 'sv^îtch 'off.

Stress in Compound nouns.

1. Compound nouns have usually one primary stress on the fırst element, if they express one new semantic notion, e. g.: 'newspaper, 'blackboard, 'textbook, 'appie-tree ’railv/ay.

2. Compound nouns have a primary stress on the fırst element and a secondary stress on the second element if the fırst element is important semantically, but the second one may be contrasted with some other word, e. g.: 'dinned ,set, 'tea ,set, 'coffee 'sel, 'tea ,kettle.

3. A few compound nouns have stress on the second element e. g. rnan'kind, short'coming.

4. Compound nouns both elements of whifin are semantically important have two primary stresses, e. g.: 'arm'chair, 'sea'side, 'gas-'stove, e'lectric- 'stove, 'lüok-'out.

Word stress in nouns and verbs with the same spelling.

Word stress may be used in English to distinguish nouns and verbs with the same spelling. Thus nouns have stresses on the first syllable and verbs — on the second one.

e. g.: nouns: verbs: record, 'present, 'conduct, 'sub- (to)re'cord, (to) pre'sent, ject. (to) con'duct,(to)süb'ject.

Rhythmic variations of word stress

The rhythmic tendency of alternating stressed and unstressed syllables is sonietimes so strong in English that it may influence the place of word stress.

Thus w'ords with two primary stresses may lose either one of them or one of them may become weaker if such words are immediately preceded or followed by a .stressed syllable, e. g,- 'six'teen, but" 'sixteen thousand"-and

114

21. "a” is read as [D:] before: "11, İd, Ik" (in ”lk" "1" is silent): tall, baid, talk.

22. "a" is read as [ei:] before "nge"; change, strange. 23. "a" is read as [p] after "w, wh, qu"; want, whai; quad. 24. "a" is read as [D:] after "w, wh, qu": warm, wain, whaif, quarter. 25. "i" is read as [ai] before "İd, nd, gh" ("gh" is silent); child, vvild. kind,

high, right. 26. "o" is read as [oo] before "st, II, İd, !t," Ik" (in "Ik" "1" is silent). mo.st,

roll, bold, folk. ' 27. "o" is read as [a:] after "w:" work, world. 28. "u" is read as [u;] after "I, r, j, ch": blue, nıle, .lune, chute.

Reading of Vowel Digraphs

29. "ay, ai, ey, ei" are read as [ei]: pay, paicl, they, beige. 30. "ee, ea, ie" are read as [i:]: see, sea, seige. 31. "ew, ue, ui" are read as [u:] after "I, r, j, ch": blue, chew, faıit.. 32. "oo" is read as [u] before "k": book, lock; as [u:] in all other po.s' tions. 33. "oy, oi" are read [oi]: boy, noise. 34. "oa" is read as [ou]: load, coat, boat. 36.. "ow" is read as [ou]: low, snow, window, narrow or as [au]; now,

brown, town. 37. "ou" is read as [au]: sound, round, pound. 38. "au, aw" are read as [D;]: clause, saw.

Influence of Consonant Graphemes on the Rcadsng of Vowel Dİ- graphs

39. "ai, ei" are read as [eə] before "r"; their, fair. 40. "ea" is read as [e] before "d, t, th"; bread, threat, weathers; as [iə]

before final "r"; ear, hear; as [a;] before "r+ consonant: heard, learn. 41. "ou" is read as [3:] before "r or gh": four, foııght, brought.

Reading of Consonant Graphemes

42. "s" is read as [z] between two vowel letters: please; in the final position after a vowel or a consonant (voiced or sonant): ties, boys, bags, rooms.

As [s] in the initial position; see, steam; between. a vowel and a consonant or between two consonant letters first, mist; in the final position after a voiceless consonant: lips. socks, cuffs ect.

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43. is read as [z]: size. Zoo, zero.

44. "c" is read as [s] before "e, i, y": cell, pencil, cycle. 45. "g" is read as [da] before "e, i, y": gem, gentle, gym. 46. "J" is read as [da]; jam, jet, just, Jack. 47. "y" is read as [j] at the beginning of the words before vowels: yet, yeli,

yard, yacht; like [ai] by, try, type, like "i" in all other positions; myth, baby. 48. "x" is read as [gz] between two vowels (but "h" is not to be taken in- to

accoLint) in the stressed position: exhibit, examine, exhaust; as [ks] in all other positions: box, text,

taxi, six etc.

Readiiıg of Consonant Digraphs

49. "sc" is read as [s] before "e, i, y": scene, scissors, scythe; as [sk] in all other positions: scan, scale, school, scheme. ’

50. "ss" is read as [s]: dress, class. 5 1. "ck" is read as [k] : click, neck, back. 52. "ch, tch" are read as [t]]: each, ditch, teacher, chess. 53. "sh" is read as [j]: shall, shelf, fish.

54. "th" is read as [0] or [5] (between vowels): thin, theme, this, those the,

bathe, clothes.

55. "kn, gn" are read as [nj: knife, gnat.

56. "ph" is read as [f]: photo, graphic. 57. "mb,mp" are read as [m]: comb, prompt., limbs; "nd, dn" are read as

[n] in disyllabic words: handsome, sandwich, landscape, kindness. 58. "qu" is read as [kw]: quick, quest. 59. "nk" is read as [qk]: think, thank. 60. "ng" is read as [rj] in the final position: thing, song, bringing; as [qg]

before "1, r": English, angry. 61. "wh" is read as [h] before "o": who, whose, whom; as [wj in all other

positions: white, why, whether, when. 62. "wr" is read as [r]: write. wrong, wretched.

Rcading of Letters in Unstressed Syllables of Disyllabic Words

63. "e, i, y" and their digraphs ".ei, ey, ai, ay" are read as [i] : e'lect, di'rect,

'active, 'baby, 'Egypt, 'volley. 'Sunday, 'portrait.

64. "a, o, u" are read as [ə]: a'way, 'oral, 'conduca, 'handsom, 'purpose,

su'spect, 'August.

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Notes: "a" as [i] in a final, historically open, syllable: 'compade [id],

'village [ids], 'climate [it],' 'palace [is]: "o" is

(and its digraphs "oa, ow") as [ou] in final syllable. 'hero, 'cocoa, 'fellow. "u" is often read as [ju:] in the initial open syllable preceding the stressed one: mu'seum, du'ration.

"u, ue, ui", are read [ju:] in the final, histor cally open, syllable: 'costume, 'rescue, 'suit.

65. "a, o, i" before the final " 1" and "o, e, ai" befo'e the final "n" are not pronounced at all (in case when "1" and "n" become syllabic); The same letters are read as [a]: 'oval, 'symbol, 'evil, 'oxen, 'button, 'listen; but: 'children [n]» 'London [dən], 'seldom [dəm].

66. "are, or, er, re, a" are read as [ə] in the word-final position: 'grammar, 'doctor, 'teacher, 'figure, 'centre.

LIST OF FÜLL AND REDUCED FORMS

I 1. Articles:

the [5i:] before vowels in fiıll form, [öə] before coasonants, but [öi, 5ı] before vowels in reduced forms a [ei] in full form,

[ə] in reduced form. an [än] in full form, [ən] in reduced forms.

2. Prepositions:

at [eet] in full form, [ət] in reduced form. for [fo] before consonants, [fə] before consonants. [ft:r] before vowels, [fər] before vowels. from. [fıiDm] in full, [frəm] in reduced form. of [pv] — fiıll, [əv] — reduced. into [’intu:] — fûll before vowels,' ['intu] — reduced before vowels [intə]—reduced before. consonants. to [tu:], [tu] before vowels; [tə] before consonants. through [öru:] and [önı].

3. Verbs:

can [kaen]—full, [kən, kn, krj] —reduced. must [mAst] —full, [məst] — reduced.. shall [lael] — full, sh’ll [Jl], '11 [1] — reduced.

118

120

Part 11.

THE ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH INTONATION

FUNCTIONS OF ENGLISH İNTONATION

1. The Coinniunicative Function ofi ntona t i o n

, İntonaVon determines whether the given utterance in the given situation ts a statement, a question of any kind, a request, an order or an exclamatory' sentence. It determines the grammatical types of sentences which may he;

1. İmperative (orders, requcsts, warnings etc.). 2. Declarative (statements, of all kinds).

İnterrogative (û^ctiono: general, specıal, disjnnctive. a!ternati'^'"'-> re peated questions, etc ).

4. Exelamatory (exelamations and ejaculations of all kinds).

II. Syntactical Function

Intonation determines whether the utterance is a simple. a complex or a iompoLind sentence. It aIso determines parts of the sentence and parts of speech. It indicates if there are homogenious members in the sentence, pa- lenthetic words or phrases, distinguishes direct speech from authors words, ?nd so on.

III. Modal Function

By means of intonation the speaker's attitude to the given utterance is (ixpressed, as well as his or her state of mind and attitude to the listener or 4udience.

IV. Logical Function

İntonation points out where the logical centre of the givet utterance lies. l*t may shift the logical centre from a notional word to any other word, usLially insignificant, thus making it weighty as a logical predicate.

All these funetions are realized by various intonation patterns which may be united into intonation types, or intonemes, if they all form certain communicative types of utterances which differ in modality only. İn such cases the third and the fourth funetions of intonation are different, but the

121

fırst and the second are the same. All intonation pattems which end in the same nuıdear tone form certain

communicative types.

INTONATION AND İTS COMPOl'fENTS

intonation is defıned as a complex unity of all orosodic, or supraseg- mental elements of speech. The essential prosodib elements are aIso called the components of intonation. The main components of intonation are the following: speech melody, sentence stress, speech tempo and voice tamber.

İntonation enables the speaker to express the meaning of the sentence, his attitude to its content and aIso his emotions. intonation plays a very important role in the structure and formation of different types and kinds of sentences. We cannot imagine a sentence without iı:s concretç intonation. Thus intonation is an indlspensible element of a sentence. Each component of intination (melody, stress, tempo, tamber), has certain fıınctions in utter- ing a sentence.

Speech melody is the pitch component of intonation. It. is the musical arrangement of sounds and wards in connected speech. When a person speaks, his voice is not monotonous. The pitch of it keeps alv^âys changing. The pitch falls and rises, drawing a certain melodic line in a sense-group or in a sentence. If the pitch did not change in this way, any spoken, utterance would sound monotonous and one's speech would l)e deprived of an important means of expression.

Sentence stress is the relative degree of prominence with which more significant words in a sentence are uttered at regular intervals. The dififer- ence in the length of stressed and unstressed syllables and aIso the distribution of stresses in a sense-group play an important role in forming the rhythmical structure of it. The shift of stress may alter the meaning and implication of a sentence. In fact, stress and pitch are closely connected with each other to give any sentence its special emphasis and implication. Sentence stress has the function of singling out words in the sentence according to their relative semantic importance.

As a rule, the more important the word is, the stronger is its stress. Sentence stress serves as the basis for the rhythmical stnicture of the sentence. In other words, the rhythrn of English speech is formtd by the recurrence of stressed syllables at more or less regular intervals of time and by the alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables.

Tempo of speech is the rate at which a sentence or a part of it is pronounced. The rhythrn is closely connected with the

tempo of speech. It is understood as the regular raovement utterance in

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which stressed syllables occur at defmite intervals.

Voice tamber is tle qua'itative cornponent of intonation. It gives emotional colouring to speech in pronouncing differenl sense-groups and sentences. It is an acoustic impression of different sound qualities in the process, of speech. T le voice tamber helps the speaker to express his emotions, such as joy, sadness, anger, fear, disappointment etc. The tamber aIso, to a certain extent, irıcludes the loudness of the voice. By tamber one can distinguish the

voices of different persons. For practical purposes intonation is divided into two forms: emphatic

(emotional) intonation and unemphatic (ordinary) intonation. . İn actual speech the components of intonation form a ıınity in expressing

an idea. They always function all together and cannot be separated from one another. Especially close is the connection between speech melody and sen-

tence stress—the primarily important elements of English intonation.

METHODS OF INDICATİNG İNTONATİON

1. The upper anr[ the lower limits of the range in a sense-group are represented by tr\'o horizontal parallel lines:

__________________ the upper limit of the range. the lower limit of the range.

2. Types of pauses between sense-groups and sentences are

marked in the folbwing ways:

the shortest, or the optional, pause.

________ coordiınating or subordinating pause.

_ _________ c)

_____________________ a full pause used between independent sen-

tences.

3. Stressed syllables are represented by dashes, drawn in various forms,

and directions: a) ________________

— __________ the initial stressed syllable with a high level tone.

________________

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the final stressed syllable with: 1) low fall 2) low rise 3)low level tone.

the stressed syllable with the rising level tone

_Ç] _______________

the stressed syllable with a high-falling

^ __________________

e) the stressed syllable with the rising-falling tone (rise-fall)

f) the stressed syllable with the falling - rising tone (fall - rice)

_______________ ^

g) the stressed syllable with the rising-falling - rising tone (rise-fall rice)

4. Unstressed syllables are represented by dots. The initial ıınstressed s) llables fornı the pre-head, the first prominent word starts the head, and the most prominent word - the nucleus. The initial unstressed syllables are, called the tail. F-ôr example “1 have 'no time", he told me. _______________

5. The falling tone, or the falling conclusion, is represented by a falling

arch [ ]. This kind of conclusion usually expresses completeness, certainty, fnality of thought and is used in categorik statement, commands, exclamations etc.

__ For example: You have 'done 'this 'exercise 'very 'well._____

have 'got some 'books 'from 'Public 'Library. 124

'Don't 'waste 'time. 'Go there im'mediately.

What a'nice 'suit you 'have 'on!

6. The rising tone is marked in two ways according to the number of syl-

lables in the final stıcsscd W'urcl ofT tho £^roup. İt tlıc flnul otı'CSSCCİ

Word is a monosyllabic one, the rising tone is marked with a rising curve; for ex.:

'Was the 'day fine? ‘Are you‘going 'home?

If the fmal stressed syllable is followed Iby some unstressed ones, the stressed syllable is marked with a dash on 'the lowest pitch, and the dots that represent the unstressed syllables show the rise of tone. For ex.:

'Was the 'film 'interesting?

This kind of rise is called low-rise ending. The rising conclusion expresses incompleteness, uncertainty, non- finali-

ty ofthought and is usually used in non-fınal sense-groups, in general questions etc. For ex.:

'Do you 'take 'much 'sugar in your ‘tea?

'Will you 'take 'this 'letter to the post for me?

125

He is 'neither a student, 'not a teacher.

In unemphatic English speech the rise usuaüy begıns at the lowest pitch of the voice.

7. The rising-falling tone refers to the category of the falling conclusion. This kind of tone is used to emphasize the stressed syüable which indicates the falling conclusion. For ex.:

'Don't 'go 'there now.

İt was in the 'after'noon.

8. The falling-rising tone refers to tlıe category of ı:he rising

conclusion. This kind of tone is used to emphasize ihe stressed syllable

which indicates the rising conclusion. The falling element here emphasizes

a word and the rising conclusion expresses some implication.

The fall - rise is represented in the fbllowing: ways:

a) the fall-rise may be compressed in one syllable:

---------- : ------- zz: ------------- T It was 'not

I. (It was some other

person).

I 'didn't 'mean that. (I meant something else).

b) the fall - rise may be spread over two syllables: 'Here 'fruits 'ripen | not 'only in 'au'tumn.

c) the fall - rise may aIso be spread over three or mcre syllables:

126

It's 'out of 'fashion 'nowa,days.

9) The rising leve' tone is usuaity used to emphasize the fırst stressed syllable in the sense - group, which is semantically veı-y important. For ex.:

'Thank you 'veı-y 'nıııch.

This kind of tone is aIso used in the rniddle of a sentence—in forming the broken descending scale. For ex.:

'That v/as 'one of tiıe 'most en'joyable 'evenings for all of us.

Note; The broken descending scale is formed by a special rise of the emphatic syllable in the rniddle of the sense-group. İts pitch is higher than that

of the preceding syllabies, but not higher of the fırst stressed syllable of the sense-group.

10. Intersyntagmal pauses are of the rniddle duration. In the tonogram they are represented by vertical lines. For ex.:

'After 'tea we 'sit and talk or 'listen to the wireless or read.

The full pause is used between separate sentences; it is longer than the

intersyntagmal pause and is marked by a double vertical line at the end of the

sentence. For ex.:

Mr. 'Brown's study. His telephone is 'ringing. He is 'out.

The intersyntagmal pause, which is only felt, is represented by a vertical

wavy line. For ex.:

127

'This is a 'picture 'painted by an 'ancient artist.

2. The level conclusion emphasizes the last semantically important word of the sense-group and expresses the absence of communicative direction of the sense-group. This kind of conclusion is devoid of any peculiarities of the rising or falling tone; it only gives the sense-group a contemplative character. The final level stress is mostly observed in poetic speech. It is also Lised in all those cases when the speaker doesn't care hovv his words will be perceived.

Sense-groups vvith the level conclusion are-aIso used in prosaic speech for expressing contrast when the author's words precede the direct speech. For ex.:

“You may go,” he said then, “'Wait a minute”.

12. Sense-groups containing one main clause and a short parenthesis are usually said in one breath.

For ex.: “'How did you come here?” he asked.

May 1 smoke?’" he asked.

A long parenthesis, having more or less semantic weight, is pronounced as a separate sense-group and in a narrow range. For ex.: That is the time”

said .Mr. Pickwick, 'getting ' eautiously on his feet. _________

13. In order to express different shades of emotion the range of voice may become wider or narrower than in ordinary speech. A wider range is abie to express great excitement, anger, joy, admiration etc. A narrow range

128

usııally expresses great passion, hatred, sadness or any shade of emotion of

latent and reserved character. For ex.:

'shouldn't have 'thought of it. 'awfully tired.

wide narrow

14. The initial and final unstressed syllables in a rising-failing scale are marked in the following way: the initial unstressed syllables may have either a

low level tone (a low prehead) or a rise of tone in the direction of the fırst stressed syllable (rising prehead) of the sense-group; the final unstressed syllables are marked on the lowest level of pitch after the falling stressed syllable of the sense-group (low tail). For ex.: He is our minister.

STRESSED AND UNSTRESSED ELEMENTS OF

ENGLISH SPEECH

To know the distribution of stress in English speech is very important for the learners of the English language. In connected speech the word stress and the sentence stress are closely related to each other. As a rule, one of the word stresses assume the function of the sentence stress.

However, the distribution of stress in a sentence is often conditioned by

semantic and syntactic factors. The stressed elements in English sentences are usually the significant

words. The significant words are such words which carry some semantic information. They are: nouns, adjectives, adverbs, principal verbs, numerals, demonstrative and interrogative pronouns.

The non - significant words in an English sentence are the following:

personal, possessive, objective, relative and indefinite pronouns, auxiliary and modal verbs, prepositions, conjunctions, articles and particles. They are the syntactic means of connecting the significant words in a sentence. Al- ternation of stressed and unstressed elements provides a basis for the rhythmical structııre of the sentence in English. In pronouncing a sentence we observe that the unstressed elements are attached to the stressed ones in the form of the so-called

prociitics (initial unstressed syllables) and enclitifs (final unstressed syllables). Sush small groupings of stressed and unstressed elements form rhytmical groups. The following sentence can be taken as an

129

example, which contains five rhythmic groups:

We 'went for a 'walk in the forest [ in'spite of the ra in.

12 3 45 The vowels in non-significant words are uaually reduced to their weakest

forms in connected speech, up to the neutral vowcl. However, there are some exceptions when non-signifıcant words lıave their fiıll forms of pronunciation both in stressed and unstressed positions. This can be observed in the following cases;

1. The prepositions "at, to, from, for" are said in their fiıll forms at the end of the sense-group:

'What are you looking at? 'Whom were you talking to?

'What place are you from?

— 1 . . .

What is it for?

1 . . .

11. Some prepositions and conjunctions become str£:ssed

a) at the beginning of a sentence:

'When he ,comes, I'll 'teli him everything. ____________

'As 1 'told you yesterday, it 'started 'just in time.

'For the 'sake of a 'good knowledge he 'gave us 'many exercises.

'On his ’ way to school he 'met his friend.

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b) at tlıe end of tho sentence before an objective pronoun; They di'vided the 'appies between the two.

They 'all were 'rurning after him

I 'saw him 'standirig be fore her.

111. Auxiliary and modal verbs become stressed: a) when they intrcduce a question: Compare: He has 'got a book.

. — .1

'Has he 'got a boo,<?

He can 'go there. 'Can he 'go ,there?

You should ask him. 'Sihould you ask him?

b) when they are used in short answers to general qııestions; 'Yes, he have.

'Yes, I have. 'Yes, you can.

'Yes, vve are. 'Yes, she mu.st. 'Yes, they should.

131

INTONATION OF DECLARATİVE SENTENCES

Simple sentences

A simple declarative sentence States a fact in the affırmative or negative form. Such sentences are generally pronounced with a facing conclusion. They may consist of one, as well as of several sense-groups. Usually, long sentences are divided into several sense-groups. The number of the sense- groups in a sentence depends on its syntactical meaning, grammatical structure and styIe of utterance. İn fluent speech the number of sense-groups is reduced and in slow careful speech this number increases:

I. Simple sentences in affırmative or negative forms, forming one sense- group, have the -falling conclusion.

For ex.; i am 'twenty 'years old. The 'lesson is over.

1 do 'not 'know 'English xwell.

2. Simple sentences containing some attributive subject groups, adverbial modifıres of time and place, some syntactical phrases and constructions are said in the following ways:

a) a long subject group having several attributes is usually pronounced with the rising intonation, but the conclusion is fallling. For ex.;

A 'well-'built 'handsome 'young 'fellow in a 'brown suit| 'came to 'open the door.

b) An adverbial modifıre of time or place, standing at the beginning of the sentence, is said with the rising intonation, but the conclusion is falling. For ex.:

On 'Monday morning [ I 'saw him 'going towards the river.

132

By 'this ,ti.me|he was 'doing his 'morning exercises.

İn tlıe 'sLimmer of‘ i955| 1 'went to the Cri.mea,

İn the 'corner of the rooml there was a sofa.

c) Participle and gerundival constructions, standing at the beginning or in the middle of the sentence, are usually said with the rising intonation:

‘Having 'finished his 'work, he 'went to the library.

'Passing throught the 'front door, he 'ran 'up the stairs.

While ’reading an article, 1 'came across an 'interesting idea.

Mothers, 'slowly 'fanning their faces 'watched their children.

The 'weather 'being ,nasty, we 'couldn't 'go for an outing.

Note: The part of the main sentence, preceding the participle constrııc-

133

tion, is aIso said with the rising intonation. For ex.; The 'fair-'haired 'yoııng,girl, 'speaking in a 'trembling voice, was

the 'chairman of a collective-farm.

3. Simple sentences, having several hornogenious members, are said in the following way: each member which is rıon-fınal is pronounced with the rising tone, and the final member is proflounced w'ith the falling tone. Sometimes the member, preceding the final one, is said with a level tone and is immediately followed by the final, fall.

For ex.: There were knives, 'forks, 'plates and 'cups on the table.

or There were ,knives, forks, 'plates and 'cups on the tab e.

Note: İn some cases the enumerated parts rnay be pronounced with the falling tone. This is usually observed in sentences exspressing a special prominence. For ex.; He could 'imitate 'other 'people's speech, their vaccent,

their 'mannerisms, their tones.

4. In sentences containing loose or detached appositions we can have several equally important sense-groups. The apposition may stand e'ither in the middle or at the end of the sinipie senteace, having its own stress and rnelody.

The apposition standing in the middle is said with the rising, but at the end with the falling intonation. For ex.: Dr. Winchcliffe, my predeces- sor, was a 'classmate of my father.

— -- ■ . . ________ . . . 1 .

We ar'rived in Moscow, the 'capital of the 'Soviet Union.

■ — ■ —

134

'This is Mr. ‘Arnold, tlıe dentist.

'That is Mr. ‘Seabridge, oıır 'tutor.

Complex sentenccs

A complex sentence consists of a principal clause and one or more subordinate claıises. A subordinate clause may follow, precede or interrupt the

Principal clause. I) As a rule, the first part of a cornplex declarative sentence (no matter

whether it is a principal or a subordinate clause) is pronounced with the rising intonation and the second part — with the iälling intonation. For ex.:

'What vvas ,done|could 'not be un ,done.

He ,said | that he woııld come in ,time.

It’s a 'grand thing | to 'see the 'working 'class in ,action.

‘When the ‘teacher ‘comes ,in, we ‘alt stand up.

'Sojhard did he ,work j that he vvas ‘quite ,worn.

2) (n some cases the principal clause, preceding the subordinate, is pro-

135

nounced with tlıe falling intonation. Such sense-groups are of great semantic importance and they are perceived as independent ideas, and they are often termed afterthoughts. For ex.:

We can walk there, if the ‘weather is ,fıne.

should ‘like to ,read it, when you’ve finished with it.

We have 'many ‘windy ,days, as we 'live on the ,Caspian shore. _ 1

Note: Sometimes a subordinate clause, preceding the principal clause, is aIso pronounced with the falling intonation. This may be observed in complex sentenses, expressing categoric statements. For ex.:

'If you 'don't hurry ,up, you'll be'l'ate.

'When he ‘cornes, I’ll ‘teli him.

1

3) An attributive relative clause giving some additional Information and standing in the middle of the principal clause is usually said with a rising intonation. Such clauses make separate sense-groups in the sentence. For ex.:

Mr., Prusty, who 'kept ’no as ,sistant, 'slowly 'got 'off his stool.

İn ‘this ,room, which was ‘never ,used, a ‘light was ‘always burning.

136

The ,castle, which ‘stood on the ,hill, was ‘built of limestone,

Compound sentences.

A compound sentence is a sentence which consists of two or more clauses coordinated with each other. As a mle, each clause of a compound Sentence, to a certain degree, States an independent idea or a complete thought. and is said with the falling intonation. For ex.:

İt was 'raining softly, the 'houses were quiet.

The 'rnonth was July, the 'morning was fıne, the 'glass 'door 'stood a jar, 'through it 'played a 'fresh breeze.

!n eases when the idea of the fırst clause is closely connected with the second one, the former is said with the rising intonation. The second clause in such sentences usually complete the whole, meaning of the sentence. For ex.;

The ,refe'ree 'blew his ,whistle, and the 'fıght started.

The 'beli rang and he 'went to 'open the door.

İNTONATİON OF INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES

An interrogative sentence asks a question, İt is mostly formed by means öf inversion (the change in the order of words in the sentence) and intonation.

There are four kinds of interrogative sentences. They are: 1. The General Question; 2. The Special Question; 3. The Alternative

Question; 4. The Disjunctive Question.

137

İntonation of general questions.

A general question which requires the answers YES or NO is said with the rising intonation. !t is formed by placing part of the predicate (the auxiliary or modal verb, standing afler the subject) before the sııbject of the sentence. This auxiliary or modal verb, standing at the beginning of a general question, receives stress and is said on the highest pitch of the voice. If the last word of a general question is the final stressed syllable of the sentence, it is pronounced with a rise of tone which begins at a low pitch of voice (low - rise). For.ex.: 'Has your 'key been found?

— -------------------------

'Did you 'go there 'last ,night?

— — —-

If the last stressed syllable is followed by some unstressed ones, the stressed syllable is pronounced on the lowest level of the pitch and the rise takes place in the unstressed syllables (low-rising tail ). For ex.;

'Can 1 help you, madam? 'May 1 ,smoke here, sir?

'Haven't you, seen him yet?

General questions are sometimes of rhetoric charicter, vhen they do not

require any answer. İn this case they are pronounced with the falling intonation,

expressing some kind of emotion. For ex.: 'İsn't it a pity?

'Could I 'do for him 'anything like that?

138

Intonation of special quesdons

A special question begins with an interrogative pronoun and is said with the falling intonation. The or<ier of words in special questions is the same as in general questions. but the interrogative pronoun precedes the auxiliaıy verb and carries stress. For ex.:

'Who is 'there in the room? 'Where have you 'been 'all 'this, time?

'What did you teli liim about it? 'What's the matter with you?__________

intonation of alte rnative questionti.

Alternative questic'ns usually consist of two parts and said in two sense- groLips. In such sentences two general questions are coordinated by the con-

junction OR and the second part is usually shortened. An alternative question expresses a choice of tvt'o alternatives. The fırst part of an alternative qiiestion is pronounced with the rising and the second part-with the falling intonation. For ex.: 'W ill you ’go to the .cinema or to the library?

'Did you 'live in ,town or in the,country?

'Can you 'do 'this trans'lation alone | or 'shall I help, you?

intonation of disjunctive questions

Disjunctive questions require the answer YES or NO and consist of two

parts. Each part of a disjunctive question makes a separate sense-group. If the fırst part is an affirmative statemen.t, it is followed by a negative ques-

tion; if the first part is a negative, statement, it is followed by an affirmative question. The fırst pat of a disjunctive question is said with the fal ling intonation and the second part with the rising intonation. For ex.;

They will 'join us later won’t they?

— . ■n

He 'didn't 'go there yesterday ,did he?

'This 'book is yours isn't it?

Note; Very often both parts, of the disjunctive questions are said with the falling tone. In this case the listener perceives that the speaker doesn't doubt the correctness of his idea. In other words, the speaker does not ex- pect an answer to that formal question. For ex.:

YOLI will 'bring it 'back ,soon, won't you?

— —

They are 'very 'nice people aren't they?

İntonation of complex interrogative sentences

intonation of complex general questions

Like a simple general question, a complex general question aIso begins with an inversion. The auxiliary or modal verb, which stands at the beginning of the sentence, is the fırst stressed syllable in it. The complex general questions have the same melodic conclusion as the simple ones. But there is some

difference in their melodic-rhythmic structure.

140

Complex general questions are ıisually divided into two sense- groups, the fırst of which is said with the low level conclusion and the second— \yith the rising conclusion. The pause which is used at the junction of the two

sense-groups is very short and is more felt than heard. The main difference between the principal and subordinate clauses is in

their tempo of utterance and the range of the voice. The principal clause is said with a normal tempo and with a wide range, while the subordinate clause is pronounced in a very quick manner and with a narrow range and aIso on a higher general note. For ex.:

'Did you |think I was chaffing her?

'Did you teli him Mr. 'Worthing was in 'town?

'Will you wait if l 'change my clothes?

In cases of emphasizing the principal verb or the predicative of the

principal clause, we use an emphatic fall-rise in it. It is characteristic of sen-

tences of cross-examining type. For ex.;

'Are you 'quite sure that it was on 'Wednesday?

'Could you 'swear that it was 'March the '21-st?

But in rapid colloqual conversational speech complex general questions are

often said in one sense-group and have the same melodic structure as the simple

general que.stions. For ex.;

'Do you 'know it is 'nearly seven?

141

'Do you 'mean to 'say it was ,1?

J

Note: It is quite a frequent case vvhen we come across complex general qııestions consisting of more than two sense-groups. Sııch sentences are mostly used in fıction literature and offıcial papers. For ex.: 'Do you think that 'what I have 'seen of,you and 'this 'little 'creature tonight must have an 'interest 'not 'wholly 'free from ,pain?

I n t u n a t i o n o f complex spedal q ue s t i on s.

Complex special qııestions, like the simple ones, are said vith the falling concİLision, In Modern English there is a tendency to pronounce the last stressed syllable of the fırst sense-group vith a level tone, using a short pause after it. But this pause happens to be a little İon ger than that used, in complex general questions. For ex.: "tVho could 'want to 'bum the 'bones of a 'man, who has been 'dead a 'thousand years? __________________________

'How could 1 'wake you when you 'didn't wake me?

In the above sentences both clauses are said in a ft 11 range cf the voice, as they are contradictory in meaning. But in colloqual conversational speech we use lots of complex special questions which are said in one sense-group as the

simple ones. For ex.: 'What do you 'think I was playing?

'What is it you 'know about me?

142

'Who are the 'peo jle yoıı are 'waitiııg for?

INTONATION OF İMPERATİVE SENTENCES

An imperative se;ıtence serves to induce a person to do sonıething and it expresses a comnıand, a vvaiming, a request, an invitation etc.

1, A command or an order, forming one sense-group, is usually pronounced with the falling intonation. For ex.:

'Stop that noise! ‘Open the ,door! 'Don't inter rupt me!

'Teli them to ‘go a’way at once!

2. imperative sertences, expressing waming, are said with the falling intonation. For ex.;

‘Be carefiıll ‘Lookout! ‘Mind you‘don’t‘fall!

3. İmperative

sentences, expressing request or invitation, are said with the rising intonation. For ex.:

'Never,mind! 'Do'come,on! 'Please,'hurry,ııp!

'Come to o ur

'place tonight! Now 'do be ,reasonable!

intonation of ccınplex imperative sentences

A complex imperative sentence containing more than one sense-group is

pronoLinced in diffetent ways. By such sentences the speaker can express an 143

insistence or a non-obligatory command: a) Insistence: such sentences cotı- tain an adverbial clause of purpose or caııse. For ex.:

Con’sLilt the reference-book, ‘so as to be ,sııre of it.

— . - . — ■ ■ ■ ■ ' ■

‘Copy ‘this ‘text out while I am ‘looking though other books

— . — — "n ... — . . . .

b) Non-obligatory command; it is ıısually expressed by sentences in the imperative mood, having a question tag "will you", "won't you" etc. Such sentences are ıised as a kind of softened command to remind the person addressed, about the speakers wish.

Pre'pare your 'home-work ,now, will you? _______________

At’tend to your ‘business at ,once, will you?

Intonation of exclamatory sentences.

An exclamatory sentence expresses some kind of emotion or feeling. It often begins with the word "what” and "how". The other part of the exclamatory sentence is always in the declarative form, that is to say, no inversion takes place. Exclamatory sentences are usually pronounced with falling intonation (İn details sea ""Intonation of Emphatic Speech"). For ex.:

How sur ,prising! What an ‘interesting re,port.

What a ‘diffıcult.problem it is! How ‘wonderfully she ,sings.

144

Note: Exclamatoıy sentences, like other lypes of sentences, may aIso

consist of more than one sense-group. For ex.:

'How they 'dreaded to be'captured by the .fascists | and 'sent 'back to the

'death camp a ,gain!

What a ter'rific 'noise vve’ ,heard | when the 'bomb 'reached the ground!

As we see, in tb.e given examples the fırst part is pronounced v/ith a wider range of voice than the second one.

Intonation of sentences containing parenthesis.

İn colloquial speech very often we use some parenthetical words and

phrases, inserting them in the main communicative part of the sentences. Şuch parentheses have no direct grammatical connections with the main sentence, thus producing no change in the meaning of it. İt only adds some attitudinal information to the main idea. Because of that the parentheses lıave no independent melody. They usually follow the nıelody of the main sentence. The parentlıeses may stand at the beginning, in the middle and at the end of the main

sentence. They may be long and short.

The nıelody of short parenthesis standing at the beginning of the

sentence.

Short parentheses like "1 suppose, however, as far as I know, please, to my mind, as to me, to teli the truth, I presume, no doubt" etc., standing at the beginning of the sentence, are usually, stressed and may be pronounced ^s

separate sense-groups with their own melody and stress. The melody of s.uch parentheses may be falling or rising according to their meanings. Pa- lentheses, standing at the beginning of the sentence, may aIso be treated as the fırst stressed element in the sentence, which has usually the highest pitch of voice. For ex,:

1 sup'pose, I he is a 'teacher of ,histoıy'.

145

How'ever, he was ‘not a ‘man to be re.iied ,on.

'As to ,me, 11 am ‘not ,sufe of it.

The melocly of short parenthesis standing in the nıiddle of the sentence.

A short parenthesis standing in tlıe middle of the äentence divides it into two parts. The fırst part of the main sentence may be aronounced either with faiüng or with rising meiody according to the meaning or grammatical character of it. The parenthesis in this case belongs to the fırst part of the main sentence. İt is attached to the main sentence and fcllows its meiody. The second part of the main sentence has its own intonaticm. For ex.:

You are ‘right, I see, | the ‘shoes are ,pretty.

The ,man, l presume, 1 is a re’tired ‘colonel.

The meiody of short parenthesis standing at tho end of the sentence.

A short parenthesis like “1 think, I suppose, pleEse, 1 confess” etc. can be used at the end of the sentence or sense-group. It may aIso be an address. In this case the parentheses are unstressed or half-strcssed and are treated as words or phrases enclitically pronounced together with the main sentence.

If the main sentence is said with the failing meiody, the parenthesis is aIso said with the same meiody. If the main sentence is said with the rising meiody, the parenthesis continues this meiody. For ex.:

They have been ‘sitting here, I think.

146

He will be our ‘lecturer , I suppose.

İt is tny ‘faiılt, I confess.

Intonation of sentences containing autlıor’s words.

.ike parenthetical words and phrases, the so-called "author's words" du^ng direct speech are used in any position in a sentence: at the beginning, in the middle and at :he end. But unlilce parenthesis, which mostly express attiludinal relations with the main sentence, author's words have certain explanatory function. Authoı-'s words have no independent melody.

The melody of the anther's words at the beginning of the sentence.

Author's words lixe "He explained", "The boy said", "The teache ans- wejred" etc., introducting the direct speech, are ordinarily stressed and have thd falling intonation. Sııch phrases are said in a lower general note than the

diıject speeeh following therr. For ex: 1

J The 'teacher ,asked: "'Have you 'learned your ,lesson?"

The 'student .answered; "Certainly, 1 'have.

The melody of author's words in the middle of the sentence

Like short parenthesis, the author's words, which interrupt the main sentence, rhythmically divide it into two sense-groups. In this case the author’s words belong, to the part of the main sentence preceding it. It follows the melody of the part of :he sentence, to which it belongs. For ex.;

"We have ‘never feen 'so ,closer, "he ,remarked, | "than we 'are to day"

147

As I have ,told you,"he said, | “I’ITI 'not ‘qııite ,sure of it."

The melody of author's words at the end of the sentence.

Short author's words like ",she said", "he murmured", "he replied" etc., standing at the end of the sentence, are pronounced either with a weak stress or with no stress at all. They are pronounced in one sense-group with the main part of the sentence and follow its melody. For e.x.;

"'Come ‘here!" he said ,angrily.

‘I am a teacher,” she, ,answered.

"’Please 'take ,one," he said in,vitingly.

Note; Very often we use long author's words at the end of the sentence, which may consist of several sense-groups. Such author's words are used to give a detailed explanation of the action or situation. Long author'* words cannot be all pronounced without stress; so they are divided into two or more sense-groups. The fırst part of long author's words has no stress and is pronounced together with the main sentence and follows its melody, but the rest

of long author's words is weakly stressed and repeats the melody of the main sentence. For ex.:

“'Will you ‘come to the ,dancing party?” he asked, hoping for an affırmative answer.

“’Good ,bye,” she answered softly, without ,raising her ,eyes.

148

“’How do you do, Mr. Weller?” said Mr. John Smaııker, .raising his ,hat ,gracefully with ,one hand, while he ,geıttly .waved tlıe ,other in a condes, Cending ,manner.

Intonation of emphntic speech (enıphasis).

Emphasis is the total sum of the most expressive means of prominence. It is used to emphasize words, classes of words and sentences. In living speech emphasis has an important logical and emotional function. Tlıe meaning of one or several words in a sentence or the rneaning of the whole sentence may be emphasized by making the stress stronger than in ordinary normal speech. Any sentence muj- bc m.nde emphatic by the modifıcation of all the iııtoriation components.

For ex.: We 'heard a ter’rific ,sound.

During emphasizing a sentence or a syntagm the scale may be widened or narrowed and the pitch ievels of the sense-groups may be higher or lower.

Widening is achieved by raising the pitch level of all stressed syllables and by using an extra-strong stress on each of them in a sense-group.

Narrowing is achieved by lowering the pitch level and using an extra - strong stress on each stressed syllable of the sentence.

Thus both widened and narrowed scales are used to express different shades of emotion. But the main difference between them is in the size of . intervals between stressed syllables of the sense - group. İn narrowed scale the intervals between stressed syllables are greater than in widened one (the

temporal intervals). We use the following main types of tones in emphatic speech: 1. The emphatic failing tone (the high fall) — [‘]. 2. The emphatic rising tone (the low sudden rise) — [,]

'fhe faliing-rising tone (the fall-rise) - v [v]

3.

3. The rising-faliing tone (the rise-fall) — [^] 4. The rising-falling-rising tone (the rise-fall-rise) — /V[n]

□ 149

The emphatic stress may fall on any word in a sentence. It may be used even on those words which are usually unstressed in ordinary situation. Thus by emphatic stress the aıixiliary words and mcrphemes may become semaritically important. For ex.:

He has 'broken your .pen. ‘He has 'broken your pen.

(ordinary speech) (logical emphasis)

İn the fırat case the personal pronoun "be" is unstressed, as usual; and is pronounced in its weak and reduced form. But in the second case "he" becomes sernantically important and is said with an fixtra-strong stress and with a great prominence. It is aIso necessary to mention that words that are usually-stressed may lose their stresses in emphatic speech when some other words become more important in the sense-group. Tiıe weak forms of "broken" and "pen" in the second example are the results of concentration of the whole articulatory ehergy on the pronoun "he". İn scme special cases even the word stress may be shifled in emphatic speech. For example, unstressed weak prefixes may receive even an emphatic stress, according to the situation:

The 'fırst 'phase of articu'lation is 'termed excursion, not recursion.

İn this sentense the words “excursion” and “recursion” have weak prefixes

“ex” and “re”, and in ordinary speech they are always unstressed and weak (ex’cursion, re’cursion).But in the above example they are pronounced stronger to form contrast ernphasis.

İn emphatic speech vowels and voiced consonants usually become longer and more tense than in unemphatic speech. There are two kinds of emphasis: intensity ernphasis and contrast ernphasis. İn ectual speech these two kinds are mutually dependent.

intensity ernphasis.

The emphasising of one or several words in a sen:ence in order to inten- sily the meaning is called i n t e n s i t y ernphasi s. The meaning of the

whole sentence is usually emphasized by making all the stressed syllables stronger than in ordinary unemphatic speech. Roughly saying, the meaning

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of tlıe sentence is not changed in emphatic speech, il is only intensified in the given situation. İn this cg.se the dislribution of stress in the sentence or sense-group remains the same, but the stressed syllables become much stronger.

Intensity emphasis is very ofien used with the vvords expressing special qualities and ıneasurable quantities:

1. With the following qualitative adjectives: gigantic, huge, enormous, tremendous, wonderfiıl, splendid, excellent, brilliant, appaling, awful, tyny, absurd, killing, brakirg, deafening, marvellous, lovely, hateftıl, disgusting etc.

2. With the following adverbs: particularly, extremely, hopelessly, badly, passionately, awfully etc.

3. With the follow ng plural nouns: quantities, masses, heaps, tons, hun- dreds, thousands, millions etc.

4. With the following verbs: rush, squeeze, hate, despise, adore, smash, crash etc.

At the same time clifferent phonetic means are used for emphasi.zing the meaning of the sentem.'e.

İn living speech the rnost commonly used phonetic means for intensifying the meaning are the following:

1. Widening of the range. 2. Narrowing of tli2 range. 3. Increase of stress.

I The modifıcation of these three pho.aetic means may result in expressing

diitferent shades of emotion.

Widening of the range.

In widening the range of a sense-group the pitch levei of every- stressed

syllable is raised, the intervals between the stressed syllables become greater and the fall or rise of the final stressed syllable assumes a wider range than in ordinary speech. Thus we get a wider scale of a sense-group in a sentence. By widening of the range we may use sentences expressing such kiııds of emotion as joy, pleaısant surprise, admiration, anger, irritation etc.

For-ex.: What a 'marvelous 'theatre! (admiration).

'Awfully 'glad, to 'see you! (pleasant surprise).

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'Are you blind? Don't yousee?! (anger).

I 'mean 'this 'quite 'seriosiyl (implication of insistance). ____

Narrowing o f the range.

İn narrowing the range of a sense-group the pitch level of every stressed syllable is lowered, the intervals between them becorne shorter and the fail or rise of the final stressed, syllable assumes a narrower range than in ordinary speech. Thus we get a narrower scale of a sense-group in a sentence. Such kind of speech produces an impression of a strong emotional whisper as the stress is still stronger than in ordinary speech. This kind of emphasis is usually used to express sorrow, disappointment, hopelessness, hatred, exhaustion etc. It may sometimes express great admiration and passion, too. This kind of emphasis is very expresşive when a speaker addresses a person and does not want to be overheard by other people.

For ex.: How dis.gusting! (disgust).

He is an awful liar! (indignation),

am ,dead ,tired! (exhaustion).

He will never come back a gain! (sorrow).

Thus by narrowing the range one can express supressed and joyless

emotions.

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lııcrease of stress.

The meaning of the whole sentence may be emphasized by increasing the sentence stress as well. At this moment each normaily stressed syllable is uttered with an extra effort which produces a strong acoustic impression, resulting in some kind of emotion; but the melody of the sense-group remains

unchanged. This kind of emphasis is used to express different shades bf emotion. as well. For ex.:

He 'did it all for nothing! (disapproval).

I 'can't ex'cuse his keeping me waiting! (indignation).

__ T

'Can you i'magin hovv jhappy I am?! (joy).

- • • - _____________ : ___

'Is it really ,necessary?! (amazement).

1;

Increase of stress in broken descending scale i

The ordinaiy descending scale of a sense-group in a sentence is some-

times broken by pushing up the pitch of an important word. The pitch level which is gradually lowered on normaily stressed syllables is suddenly raised on the necessary word of the given sense-group. The rest of the sense-group is lowered from that point in an ordinary way again. The emphatic word is said with an extra strong stress and has a great prominence in the sentence. One or

more words of a sentence may be emphasized by braking the ordinary descending scale.

For ex.: The 'snow 'kept 'falling '['all 'day 'long!

'People havet never 'seen 'such a jbeautiful 'picture in 'this ‘gallery.

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Contrast emphasis

Contrast emphasis is closely connected with iniensity emphasis: it is used to contrast a word to some other word or idea pi'eviously mentioned or easily implied. It is aIso used when the speaker expresses a contradiction.

Contrast emphasis is often termed by non-phoneticiaris as "logical stress" or "logical emphasis". In fact, contrast emphasis has a wider meaning than logical stress; logical, stress can be treated as one of the elements of conrtast emphasis.

Any word in a sentence can be emphasized by contrast emphasis, even those which are usually used in unstressed positions.

Contrast emphasis may be used with one or several words in a sentence. The contrasted word may stand in any position of a sentence: at the beginning, in the middle and at the end. This kind of emphasis carı be used both in sentences with tbe falling and rising conclusions.

Contrast emphasis in sentences with the falling conclusion (Contrast Emphasis with the High-Fall)

Contrast emphasis is used in the following cases in the form of a high- falling tone:

1. İn sentences pronounced with the falling intonation the last stressed word may be emphasized by a sudden fall of the pitch from a higher level than in ordinary speech. AH the words that come after the emphatic fall are treated as unstressed syllables and are said on a lovi' pitch level. The emphatic word in such cases is contrasted to some other word or idea which is implied.

For ex.: ! 'thought you were a student, (but it tı.rns out that you are a teacher)

The as'sistant will test the device. (not the professor)

He 'works in the 'day time. (not in the night shift).

2. Any word in a sentence can assume contrast emphasis according to

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the intention of the speaker, In that case ail the other words of the sentence are said without any stress as all the expiratory and acoustic energy is given to the emphatic syllable of the contrasted word. The emphatic syllable of the contrasted word is pronounced with a high-falling tone. Therefore al! the other words in the sentence sıre treated as proclitics (low unstressed head) or enclitics (unstressed tail). For ex.:

I must be 'there 'to'nıorrow 'morning.

I must be 'there to'morrovkf morning.

I must be 'there tomorrow morning. ... "n ..................

I must 'be there tomorrow morning . n ..............

I must be 'there tomorrow morning. n ....................

As we see here, the role of the contrast emphasis is very great in a sentence. One and the same sentence can assume different semantical meanings by replacing the logical emphasis in it.

3. Sometiınes set eral words in a sentence can be contrasted, each of them being pronounced with a high fall on the stressed syllable; but one of the emphatic syllables may have a higher level of fall according to its importance. The other words are treated as unstressed syllables. For ex.: i 'didn’t ask him to ‘come. (1 only made him aware of the fact).

so). You 'told me not :o o’bey him! (though you knew it was not polite to act

4. The meaning of the whole sentence may aIso be contrasted to some idea

which is implied. This kind of contrast is achieved by using the intensity emphasis, that is to say, by widening the range of the scale and by using a high fall on the fmal stressed syllable of the sentence. There is no change in the melody of the sentence. For ex.: "Forty" times have I "told you" not to do that!

(but you seem noı to understand it).

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Contrast emphasis in sentences with the risiııg conclıısion.

(Contrast Emphasis with the Fal! - Rise)

Contrast emphasis may often result in rising conclıısion to express doubt, persuasion, warning, threat, implication, contradiction etc. This kind of intonation is rather a modifıcation of the rising tone. In this case the emphasized word is pronounced with a high- fall to a low pitch level and this fall is directly followed by a rise of pitch.

Such a combination of two tones in one word, sense-groiıp or sentence is called the fall-rise.

The fall-rise may be compressed into one syllable and may be spread over two, three or more syllables in a word, in a sense- group and in a sentence, as well.

Contrast emphasis with the fall-rise is ıised in the following cases 1. When long monophthongs and diphthongs stand at the end of the em-

phatic syllable, they become longer and more tense and the fall-rise takes place in thcm. For ex.:

He should be 'here ‘now. (Why hasn't he come yet?)

________ ^^ _______ r: ____ ^ _____________________

1 'thought yoıı had al'ready 'looked it ''through. (I was wrong).

2. The nasal sonorants [m, n, p] and the lateral sonorant [L] aIso become longer and are pronounced with a rise of pitch when they take the final position

in the emphatic syllable, that is, the fall takes place in the vowel and the rise in the sonorant. For ex.:

İt 'isn't 'mine. (May be it is hers)

'thought you were ''wrong. (Then 1 believed you were right).

do 'not 'feel 'quite 'well. (But l'll do this work somhow).

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3. When a short vowel is foilowed by a voiced consor.ant in emphatic

syllable, Ihe rise takes place during the articuiation of the voiced consonant; but the fall precedes it in the short vowel.

For ex.: 1 'wanted 'only 'ten. (But he offered more)

But when a short vowel is foilowed by a voiceless consonant in an emphatic syllable, the fail-rise is compressed in the vowel. İn this case the rise

iSjVery short and hardly heard; but it can be perceived only by trained and attentive ears. For ex.:

'Anyone can 'do 'fhat. (but you are not sure to succeed it).

It can be 'done on the ''spot. (thought you thought it impossible).

I 4. In the following examples the fall-rise is spread over two or three syllables when the emphatic syllable is in a polysyllabic word. For ex.:

I It’s 'quite ''easy. (If you have gol a good knowledge).

It's 'very 'difficult. (but we must do it)

! 5. The contrasted word, standing at the beginning or in the middle of the

şentence, is said with a high-failing tone and the rest of the sentence has a Soft

gliding rise of pitch. So the fall-ris is spread over the whole sentence. For ex.:

I 1 'never ,thought of ,falling ,ill. (but it happened so unexpectedly).

' . . — . — . ^

We ‘didn't think the ope’ration would be ,so ,painful. (but it was pain-

ful).

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As we see, in both upper-given examples the scale ıs formed by rise-fall- rise,

Intonation of emphatic questions

General, special, disjunctive and alternative questions may be emphasized in

particular cases. Besides, there are some exclamations which have aIso

inteiTogative characters.

Emphatic special q u e s t i o n s

Special questions are emphasized in the following cases: a) when the listener repeats the question asked by the speaker; b) when the listener expresses his amazement (in case if the speaker's

narration seems to him improbable);

In this case the pitch falls within the interrogative pronoun introducing the question, and thus emphasizing the whoie questior:.. All the other words are said without stress and they have a rising tone whi;h begins immediate- !y after

the fal!. Thus emphatie special questions are said with the fall-rise. The stress on the emphatic syllable is veıy strong. Corrpare:

'What has he done? (in ordinary speech). ________

'’What has he done? (in emphatic speech).

Emphatic general questions

Emphatic general questions are pronounced in the same way as the special ones. The pitch falls within the auxiliary or modal verb in the general question and the unstressed syllables start rising immcdiately after the fall. Compare:

'Did he like it? (ordinary)

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'’Did lıe like it? (emphatic, expressing, amazement).

Note: Emphatic special and general qııestions concentrate the attention to one special point. T lis is achieved by lowering Ihe pitch in the inteiTOga- tive

pronoun or in the auxiliary verb. All the other words are treated as enclitics which are proncunced on a low pitch level. The stress on the emphatic syllable is very strorıg.

Compare: J,When chd he say it? (emphatic).

'When did he say it? (unernphatic).

Emphatic disjunctive questions

' Disjunctive questions arc emphasized in cases when the speaker expresses some insistence or waerı he is at an emotional State of feeling. The d^ference between the emphatic and unernphatic disjunctive questions is in the size of the voice range. In emphatic speech it is wider than in unemphat- iC'One. For ex.:

She is a 'nice giri, ,isn't she? (unernphatic).

He is a "great "talker," ,isn't he? (emphatic)

— 1

Emphatic alternative questions

j Alternative questions are usually emphasized when there is a logical

contradiction between the two alternatives,

j ‘Did it ‘happen on “,Sunday | or on” ,Monday?!

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I

‘İt ‘this a ,”pencil [ or a” ,pen?!

The emphasis here is achieved by widening the range of the emphasized word.

Emphatic rhetoric questions

As it has been mentioned, general and special questions are sometimes of rhetorical character, when they do not require any answer. In this case they are pronounced with the falling conclusion and rnostly express emphasis for contrast. For ex.;

'Why 'not 'hire a ,"taxi? (It is reasonable to hire one).

‘Could I ‘go and ,”help him? (Of course, I couldn’t).

The scale in rhetoric questions is wider than in categoric statements.

Some cxclamations of interrogative a character.

Exclamations of interrogative character usually express astonishment or indignation. Such sentences are pronounced with the falling - rising tone. İt shoııld be mentioned that the range of the rising conclusion in exclamations of interrogative character is greater than in ıınemphatic general questions. For ex.:

'Til go home tomorrow." "'You will ‘go 'home to’morrow!?" (implying "You can't do that").

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The same sentence may be substituted by: ''What!';

"1 have lost the money'’. "’You have 'lost the money!?" (astonishment).

Intonation of short answers to general questions.

Short answers YES and NO + any kind of verb corresponding to the tense form of the question are usually said with the falling tone. In this case they usually mean simple agreement, promise or negation of the fact. For ex.;

Can yoLi do it well? ‘Yes, I ‘can.

Has he already come? ‘Yes, he ‘has.

But if the answer is contradictory to the expected one, it is said with the fall-rise and this fall-rise may be compressed in the last stressed syllable or it is spread over two syllables. For ex.:

"Do you like it so much?" '"Yes, I ‘do."

"Can you do it so well?" "'Yes, I ‘can."

"Did you know about it?" "'No, I ‘didn't.’

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Note: The fall-rise is aIso used in fall an5,wers to general questions, if they express some contradiction. For ex.:

"Do yoıı like it so much?"

“’Yes, ‘I ‘do ,lii<e it ,very,much!" _____________________

Sequences of melodic patterns.

Every melodic pattern consists of its nııcleus, possible head and tail. A section of speech pronounced with a simple tone is known as a melodic pattern. A melodic pattern usually corresponds to the natural division of the sentence into sense-groııps, according to its meaning. The number of melodic patterns mostly depends on the tempo orspeech. The faster we speak, the longer the melodic patterns we use. In slow speech there are more pauses and more sense-groups than in rapid speech. For inttance, in rapid speech the sentence “AH they do is to sit back and listen” can be easily said with one long falling melodic pattern.

'AH they 'do is to 'sit 'back and ‘listen. _________

It starts here with a high head on "AH" and falls on "listen". İn slower speech one can divide the same sentence into three sense-groups and pro- noiince each of them with a defınite melodic pattern;

'AH they do is 'sit back and listen.

How can we distinguish between different melcdic patterns, if a sentence is divided into several sense-groups? To answer this question it is necessary to distinguish between two principles of joining the adjacent sense-groups according to the principles of coordination and subordination.

PRİNCIPLE OF COORDİNATİON; When two sense-groups are felt to be of equal weight and value, they are said to be coordinated, and this is represented by the same form of the melodic pattern. For ex.;

1 have 'just 'seen Mr. 'Brown, the 'doctor.

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'Have you 'seen Mr. .Bi’own, the doctor?

İn the given examples, which are complete in themselves, another sense- gıoııp is added to the main thought. Such sense- groups are termed afterthoughts and have the character of parenthetical vvords or phrases. Like parentheses, they aIso re peat the melody of the main sentence.

Coordinating pitciı-patterns are used in the following cases, too: ,One,

,tw'o, ,three, ,four, ,fıve, 'six.

(the conclusion is falling)

Occasionally a number of falling nıelodic patterns may be used in enu-

merations:

‘One, ‘two. ‘three, ‘foıır, ‘five, ‘sixl a 1

. . . n

(both the non-fmal and final are failing)

İn that case each part is treated as if it were the last, and the next one is added.

It expresses some emotional State of the speaker.

The coordinating melodic patterns may be of different types. If two pa-

rallel parts of a sentence are contrasted, then we may use the follov/ing

modifications of it:

‘Monday, ‘not, .Tuesday, (fall-fall-rise).

‘Monday, ‘not ‘Tııesday. (fall-fall-fäll-rise).

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‘Monday, ,not ‘Tuesday. (fall fall).

'Not,Tuesday. ‘Monday. (rise-fall).

‘Not .Tuesday, ‘Monday. (fall-rise-fall).

Principle of subordination: This way of connecting the parts of sentences is characteristic of complex sentences and of sentences containing participle and gerundival constructions. Such sentences are usuaüy divided into two or three sense-groups. (or clauses). The fırst sense-group (clause) is said with

rising conclusion and the .second one—with falling conclusion. The rising melodic pattern indicates that the fırst part of the sentence expresses an incomplete idea and serves to link the two parts.

The falling melodic pattern in the second part of the sentence expresses

fınality or completeness of thought. Thus the fırst part (clause) of the sentence is

subordinate to the second one. For ex.:

'When he ,saw us, \ he 'ran a way.

‘So ‘hard did he ,work | that he was ‘quite ‘warn ‘out.

— T

‘Crowds of‘people ‘gathered in the ,Street, ‘shouting.

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!n the last e.xample the subordination of the fırst part of the sentence to the second one is not so distinct as in the preceding examples. The first part of the last sentence can easily stand alone as a separate utterance and may be said with

falling melodic pattern, and the second part can be said as an afterthought, thus being coordinated to the fırst one. So we see that the sequence of two melodic patterns can be characterized by two closely linkel sense-groups which express a whole idea.

Ways of some everyday expressions.

There are some everyday expressions which can be pronounced with different melodic patterns according to the meaning the assume in the context. One and the same expression can expreşs different shades of emotion if it is said with different melodic patterns:

1. As a rule, the expressions of parting "Good bye", "Good night" are said with the risino melodic pattern to mean -a parting for tı shnrl tim.e. For ex.:

,Good ,bye. jGood ,night. ,So dong.

When "Good bye" is pronounced with the falling melodic pattern it means

a parting for a long time:

,Good ‘bye.

If "Good-bye" is said with the emphatic fall-rise, it means a parting in an

emotional State of feeiing;

‘Good-,bye!

_l_i_

In case of a falling melodic pattern "Good night" will mean impoliteness (meaning "1 am fed of you, goto bed).

2. The expressions of greeting "Good morning" (Morningl). "Good af-

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ternoon (Afternoon!), "Good evening" (Evening!) and aIso "Hallo" are usually said with the falling melodic pattem when pec ple meet or encounter

accordingly;

Good 'morning! 'Morning!

Good 'after'noon! 'After'noon!

— 1

Good 'evening! 'Evening! Hal'lo!

And the same expressions will mean parting for a short time when they are

pronounced with the rising melodic pattern (in the meaning of "Good- bye" or

“See you soon").

Good,morning! Good ,after ,noon!

Morning! 'Afternoon!

Good evening! Evening! Hallo!

Note: "Hallo (Hullo)" will mean a pleasani surpri.ae if it is said with the emphatic falling tone:

3. The expressions "Sorry!", "Pardonl", "Excuse me!" are said with the rising tone when the listener cannot follow the speech or doesn't catch the

166

meaning of it. In that oase these expresaions mean: "Please, repeat what you said."

Sorry? Pardorı? Excu.se me?

But the same expıession'i will msan an apology for some act impoliteness if they are said with the falling melodic pattern:

'Sorry! 'Pardon! Ex'cuse me!

The expres.sion.'j "All right (Right)", "O. k" are said with the rising melodic pattern when they mean a question-request or an agreement on the part of the speaker. For ex.; Come to the evening party. All right? ( Right? or 'Ö.,K?) (A question-request).

'All right. (Right. 'O.K.) (An agreement).

The same express ons may express either a promise or a forced agreement when they are said with the failing pitch.

'All 'right. '0?K.

c: Almost the same thing can be said about the expressions "A.greed?, Set-

tled? or the agreements "A'greed. 'Settled".

But these expressions may mean a kind of threat if they are said with an

emphatic fall-rise;

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'AII right! (implying "You will see what I shall do!)

5. The interrogative pronoun "What" may express different kinds of

emotions by changing the melodic patterns. It is often used with the rise to cali for repetition. In such cases the full question is substituted by the interrogative pronoun "What?" only.

For ex.: '"What is your ’trade?" "1 am a 'turner." "„What?"

"A 'turner."

"What" is said with the falling melodic pattern when it is used for clear- ing up an ulterior motive. For ex.:

"I have got something interesting in my bag." " 'What?" implying "What namely").

But the expression "What" expresses great surprise or even astonishment if

it is said with the emphatic fall-rise. For ex.:

"Your husband has been taken to the hospital after a road crash." "''What?!”

6. The expression "Really" will mean an assertion of the fact if it is said

with the failing melodic pattern. For ex.:

“He is inclined to think that we don't care of anything."

" 'Really, he 'is."

"Really" will mean doubt or surprise if it is said with the rising melody. For

ex.: "1 think that even the weakest students can achieve desirable level

168

by the general effort of the vvhole class."

“Really?" (implying "Can it be so?")

"He is already back from his business trip." “Really?" (İmplying "İsn't it earlier for him to return?")

If "Really" is pronounced vvith an emphatic fall-rise, it expresses either astonishment or irony. For ex.:

"Do you know that Mike's father has died in a road crash? "''Really?" Cmplying "It's shocking to hear that!")

T X

7. The expression "Thank you" usually means gratitude tor a common Service when it is said vvith the rising melodic pattern." For ex.: "Pass me that book, please."

“Here you are”. “Thank vou”.

"Thank you " expresses gratitude for a very kind and special Service if it

is.pronounced vvith a high-failng tone. For ex.: I

It is very kind of you. 'Thank you!

Sometimes "Thank you" is said vvith an emphatic fall-rise, when it

expresses irony or indignation to an unwise suggestion or impolite action: 'Thank you!

169

There are many other expressions which can express different shades of emotions by changing the melodic patterns, that is, by alternating them in the sense-groups, and that depends on the situation or on the attitude of the speaker to what he says. For ex.: Yes, No, Good, Rather, Well, True, I see, etc.

THE RHYTHMICAL STRUCTURE OF ENGLISH SPEECH

The connected speech is not a monotonous llow of sounds; it consists of different distinctive phonetic ıınits: from the phoneme np to the sentence.

In actual speech every sentence is more or less divisible from the rhythmical point of view. It is usuaüy divided into rhythmioal groups and sense- groups or the so-called syntagms.

I. RHYTHM[C GROUPS. Rhythmic groups are distinguished by more or less equal alternation of quickening up and slowing down the tempo, by intensifying and weakening the stress, by prolonging and shortening certaifi syllables in connected speech. In every rhythnic group all the syllables are United by one stress, and the peak of prominence in every rhythmic group is in the stressed syllable. For ex.:

'Bob has 'quite a 'lot of'new 'friends is in 'Moscow.

There are six stressed syllables in the given sentence, and they represent the peaks of prominence of six rhythmic groups. The unstressed syllables preceding

or following each rhythmic group are treated as proclitics and enclitics. İn other words, a proclitic is an unstre.3sed head and an enclitic — an unstressed tail of the rhythmic group.

2. SENSE-GROUPS (SYNTAGMS) All the words in a sense-group are joined together both by sense and intonation. Sense- groups may be distinguished in connected speech even when no actual pauses are made

between them. But if the tempo of speech is slow, the following sense-group begins with a new intake of breath.

A sense-group may consist of one rhythmic group or of a number of such, groups. Any sense-group is usually distinguished by strengthening the final stressed syllable and by typical melodic pattem.

A sentence may consist of one or more sense-groups:

İt is 'raining heavily. (One sense-group).

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It 'rained 'all the morning, but 'cleared 'up in the 'afternoon.

(Two sense-groLips).

'One day when he was 'walking about in tlıe park, he 'saw a 'new 'sort of pine-tree.

(Three sense-groups).

Communicative types of sentcnces for trarıscribing and intoning

Non - C a te g o I' i C sta tements

The problem is not quite new. It is not ver)' easy to be solved. ! don't quite mean that.

The material is not very large That place is not very far. I knowe somethiıg about him. The idea is not bad. 1 am not a skilful driver. 1 can't teli you anything as yet.

Simple statemeııts

1 wrote her a letter last week. She was there last month. I have already visited that place. He answered all the questions. Tommy has beer playing tennis. The boys sailed ıtp their girl-friends.

They all like to go sightseing. They are going far an outing. We ran out of sugar today. They went to look after their children.

171

General questions.

Will you give me your address? Coııld you go there straight nowd Are you glad to see her? Coıdd you show me some tweed suits? Could jfou lend me ten shilings for a few days? Did you keep him waiting long? Have you ever been to London? Do you attend lectures on philosophy? May I ask you for a sheet of paper? Are you still busy with it?

Polite requests

Could 1 troLible you for a moment?

Could you do me a favour? Do you mind not speaking quite so loudo Would you mind shutting the door? Would you kindly pass me the sait? May I ask you to hang this portrait on the wall? Would you be so good as to take my suit-case?

May 1 troLible you for a few seconds? Can you spare me a few minutes? Will you be so kind as to switch off the radio?

Complex general questions.

Do you know where thepupils are? Willhe come if I ask him?

Can you teli me who they are? Could you go to the concert if I offered a ticket? Did you know that I was there too? Did they ask you where the boy was going? Do you know that he is a talented actor? Would you mind ef 1 asked your advice on something?

Will you come to an evening party if I give you an invitation? Does she know that we are going to stage this story?

Special questions

What's the matter with you? Who has taken my pen? How much does it cost?

172

When did you find it out?

What do you say to a cup of tea? Why didn't you go there? VVhich of them is the best? How long have you been waiting? Whose harıdvvriting is beautiful? Who is behind the door?

Alternath e questions

Wal it a warm day or a cold day? Are you drinking tea or coffee? Will you get off next stop or go farther? Did you go to the cinema or theatre last Sunday? Do you vvork at a factory or at a mili? Does he teach history or geography? Shall we go for an outing or stay nome? Was he a football-player of was he a far? Is he going to the concert or for a walk? Was the uuest fronı Britain or from America?

Disjunctive questions

The weather is fıne, isn't it? He knows this subject perfectly well, doesn't he? The report was veıy interesting, wasn't it? This doesn't affect the substance, does it? He has no idea of it, has he?

You must be a good skater, mustn't you? They ought to put up at this hotel, oughtn't they? You would like to have a cup of coffee, wouldn't you? We can do this quite easily, can't we?

Commands

Attend to your work at once!

Express the idea in simple terms! Make a list of newcomers! Pick it up from the floor! Don't troLible the birds! Prepare the report in time! Consult the refer acne book regularly!

Bring me that dictionary! Don't switch on the wireless yet!

173

Don't sit far into the night!

Exclarnations

What large crow of people! What a splendid sight! How sweet the song is! What nonsense! What a lovely day for a picnic! How awful! What a pity! What a marvelous theatre! How ııtteriy uaromantic you are! What a grange coincidence!

Exclamations expressing surprise

It is really snowing?! You can’t do that?! He is still a confirmed bachelor?! You can't fınd the book on that shelf?! She has already grown into a young lady?! The missing soldiers have really turned up?! You couldn't fınd him in the room?! He was such a timid mouce?! You mean it quite seriously?!

Simple statements containing participle phrases:

Arriving at the station, she found the six hour train gone. Being tired, 1 rested for an hour. Looking at the bili, I was surprised at the expense. Thinking back to my childhood, 1 remembered my friend. Having climbed

the mountain, we had a wonderful view.

Having spent all the money, he had to lend some more. Having worked all day long, I went to bed earlier.

Sitting up in his bed, he thought for a while. Looking through the magazine, I came across an ir teresting article.

Compound sentences consisting of two clauses

John wasn't a good student, but he studied carefully.

1 didn't go, but I wish I had. 1 want to go to the cinema, but I don't have any time. He advised me to go to the dentist, but 1 hesitated.

174

The fırst question was easy, but he couldn't answer it. He was a young teacher, but she was experienced' enough. ' We are fond of

going on a picnic, aut the weather is bad. 1 am a good swimmer, but the doctor doesn't allow me to bathe. The sun was shining brightly, but the air was frösty.

Complex categoric statements

The pen that I bought at the store is expensive. ’ ‘ ■ The Street where I live isn't far ffom here. The pilis that 1 hatê aren't bitter. The six eggs that [ bought were bad. The two men that I met vi'ere Cubans. The fırst house th;.ıt 1 saw was brown. The main point that you should study is this. The book that I bought yesterday is interesting. The next lesson ttiat we studied was diffıcult.

Otlıer types of csıtegoric complex statements

The SLiit fıtted so badly tliat 1 had to take it back. The road was so slippy that we could hardly move along. The air was so stuffy that one could hardly breathe. The air was so frcsty that the stems of trees burst. The box was so heavy that I couldn't lift it.

The book was so interesting that I couldn't put it away. The knife was so sharp that one could shave with it. İt is so easy that any child can do it. The question was so difficult that v/e could hardly solve it. The sight was so attractive that anyone stopped for a moment.

As John was working w'ithout a break, he finished first.

When I looked at the picture, 1 was surprised.

As I didn't find him at home. 1 went away. .

"While Paul was iistening to the music, he feli asicep.

While they were waiting for the train, they got tired.

As i hoped to see her, 1 came a little earlier.

When he sav/ us, he lowered fıis head.

When she was Crossing the Street, she was knocked down by a car.

75

We went to the theatre so that we could see a performance. Hold on tight to him so that he cannot run away.

ru buy two bicycles so that each child can have one. They hid me carefully so that no one should fınd me. I gave him my address so that he could write me. I am going to İndia so that 1 could study its ancient culture. He oflen

vvorked late at night so he could concentrate. They ran away quickly so that I could not see them. 1 spoke slowly so that she could understand me.

If you phoned him, he would come. If it doesn't rain, l'll go for a walk. If you tried again, you might succeed. If you cut the grass, the lawn will look better.

If she were here, it would be very fme. If we had more rain, the flowers would grow better. If he went home, he would let me know. If you didn't pay in advance, you woııldn't get it.

He laughs best that laughs last. He that comes fırst to the hili may sit where he will. He that goes avborrowing, goes a-sorrowing.

He that knows little, soon repends it. He that knows nothing, doubts nothing. He that will eat the kernel, must crack the nut.. ' - They who only seek for faults fınd nothing else. Those who do nothing generally take to shouting. Those who live in glass houses should not throw stones.

What can't be cured must be endured. What cost nothing is worth nothing. What's done can't be undone. What is learnt in the cradle lasts to the tomb.

What is worth doing at all is worth doing well. What man has done man can do. What the eye does not admire the heart does not desire. When in Rome do as Romans do. When the cat is away the mice will play.

176

Sentences with parenthetical phrases

By the way, the story was very interesting. Roughly saying, it is not a matter of diffıculty. As far as I know, he is a teacher. To teli the truth, I was interested in her. To my opinion, he is not very clever. Ofcourse, the professor deüvered an interesting lecture. Concerning his attitude, it's very tender.

Sentences interrupted by author's words

"Well”, said Mr. Picwick, "what do you think?" "Why", said they, "did you not gather grain in summer?" "AJı", said Mr.

Samuel, "that's very self-denying of you." "1 am very sorry", said Sam, "but I "can't go to bed". "Really", said the

newcoıner, "it's a good thing for both of us" "Nobody knows", replied the man, "that he has got a car".

"I see", said tlıc doctor to the patient, "that you know more than I" "Yes," said Jack biting his !ips,’it's very Important."

Author's words at the end of the sentence

"I don't know," he said. "Come here," he ordered in a sharp voice. "Not for sale," proclaimed the note in the window. "Please, take one," she said invitingly. "İs this for me?" he asked with surprise. "Pray, sit down," said the host.

"I payed his expenses", said Mr. Tupman, jumping up frantically”.

177

Part m

PHONETIC READER

EVENING by F'ercy Busshe Shelly

The 'sun is set; II the 'swallows are a sleep; II The 'bats are 'flitting fast in the 'gray air; II The 'slow 'soft ,toads 'out of'damp corners ,creep, I And 'evening's ,breath ,'wandering 'here and there, 1 'Over the 'quivering sıırface of the' ,streem, I Wakes 'not 'one 'rippie from its 'silent dream. II There are 'no 'dews on the 'dry grass to night, I Nor 'damp wit ,hin the 'shadow of the strees II The 'wind is inter mitting | 'dry and light; 11 And in the in 'constant 'motion of the ,breeze I The 'dust and straws | are driven up and down, I And 'whirled about the 'pävement of the town. II

THE MASQUE OF ANARCHY

Song to the Men of England |

By Percy Bysshe Shelly |

'Men of England, 'heirs of ,Glory, f ,j 'Heroes of'un ‘written ,story, | 'Nurslings of'one 'mighty ,Mother, | 'Hopes of her, | and 'one a ,nother; | 'Rise like 'lions after ,slumber | In un'vanquishable ,number,|

'Shake your 'chains to 'earth like ,dew | Which in ,sleep | had 'fallen on ,you—• | 'Ye are many | 'they are ,few.

‘What is ,Freedom?- ye can ,tell That which 'slavery is, | too ,well — For its 'veıy 'name has ,grown To an 'echo of your

,own. 'Rise like 'lions after ,slıımber İn un'vanquishable ,nunıber,

178

'Shake your 'chains to 'earth like ,dew Which in'sleep lıad 'fallen on ,you— 'Ye are ,many | —'they are few.

AN 'EXTRACT FROM "THE ‘CLOUD".

By ‘Percy ‘Bysshe Shelly.

I ‘bring ‘fresb 'showers for the j thirsling ,flowers, | From tne 'seas and the ‘streams; 1| 1 'bear ‘light ,shade far tlıe Jeaves | when ‘laid In their 'noonday ‘dreams. || From my 'wings are ‘shaken | the dews that 'waken The'sweet ,buds | 'every ,one, |

When 'rocked to ,rest | on their 'Mother's ,brest, | As she 'dances about the 'sun. || I 'wieid the 'flail of the | lashing ,hail, | And 'whiten the | green ’plains under; || And 'then a'gain ! dis | solve it in ‘rain, || And 'laugh as 1 'pass ;n ‘ thunder. |j

MY ‘SOlJL IS ‘DARK |A ‘HEBREVf MELODY

By ‘George ‘Gordon ‘Byron.

My 'soLil is 'dark | — ‘Oh! [ ‘quickly ‘string The 'harp I yet can | hrook to ‘hear; || And ‘let thy 'gentle 'fingers 'fling

Its I melting 'murmurs, o'er rnine ‘ear. 1| If'in this 'heart a 1 hope be.,dear, | That 'sound shall 'cherm it | forth a’gain; || If'in these 'eyes there | lurk a ,tear, | ‘I will ‘flow, and 'cesse to | burn my ‘brain. || But 'bid the 'strain bc | wild and ‘deep, ||

Nor ‘let thy 'notes of | joy be 'first; |j ! 'teli thee, minstrel | ,1 must 'weep, |i Or 'else this 'heayy | lıeart will ‘burst; || For it hath been by ' äorrow nursed, | And ‘ach’d in ‘sleepless ‘silence ‘long;||

And ‘now’t is ‘doom’d to | know the | worst,| And I break at ‘once | - or ‘yield to 'song. ||

179

Twilight

by ‘George, ,Gordon Byron.

İt ,is the ,hour | when ,from the ,boughs | The 'nigntingale's | high note is heard; | It ,is the ,hour | when Tovers' ,vows | Seem ‘sweet in ,every ,whispered ,word; | And 'gentle ,winds | and 'waters ,near, | Make hmtsic to the 'lonely ,ear. | 'Each 'fiower the | dews have 'lightly swet, | And ,in the sky the | stars are ,met, | And ,on the 'wave is | deeper ,blue, | And ,on the ‘leaf a | browner ,hııe, | And ,in the ,heaven | that 'clear obs,cure, | So 'softly ,dark, | and 'darkly ,pure, | Which 'follows the de|cline of,day, | As ‘twilight ,melts be,neath the | moon a ,way.

THE 'ARROW AND THE ,SÖNG

'by H. Longfellow.

1 'shot an 'arrow into the air, | İt 'feli to,earth, | I 'knew 'not ,where; |

For, 'so 'swiftly it ,flew, | the 'sight Could 'not 'follow it in its ,flight. | 1 'breathed a 'song into the ,air, İt 'feli to ,earth |, I 'knew 'not ,where, | For 'who has 'sight so | keen and ,strong, | That it can 'follow the 'flight of a ,song'

'Long, 'long ,afterwards | in an ,oak | 1 'foıınd the ,arrow | still un ,broke | And the ,song | from be'ginning to ,end 1 'foıınd a,gain in the | heart of a ,friend, |

180

’EXTRACT FROM "| HAMLET, 'PRINCE ‘OF ‘DENMARK"

By ‘William ‘Shakespeare.

'HAMLET'S ‘MONOLOGUE To ,be, I or ‘not to ,be, | ‘that is ihe ‘question: || 'Whether 'tis 'nobler in tlıe ,mind, | to 'suffer The 'slings and 'arrovvs of out | rageous .fortune, | Or to 'take 'arms against a 'sea of droubles; | And by op’posing ‘end them? | To ‘die, I — to ‘sleep, |! 'No ‘more; |1 and, by a .sleep, | to 'say we 'end The ,heart-ache,! and the 'thousand 'natural 'shocks . That I flesh is ‘heir to, || —'tis a ,consum,mation | De'voutly to be ‘wish'd. || To ‘die, | —to ‘sleep; —1| To "sleep | | per’chanoc fo ‘dream: | — ay, 'there's the ‘rub;l! For 'in that’sleep of ,death | 'what 'areams may como, ||

When we have 'shuffled 'off this | mortal ,coil, | Must 'give us ‘pause: || 'there's the 'respect, That 'makes ca’lamity of 'so 'long ‘life, || For 'who would 'bear the [ whips and 'scorns of ,time, | The op’pressor's ‘wrong, | the 'proud ‘'man's ‘contumely, | The 'pangs of

des'pis'd ‘love, |the ‘law's de ‘lay, 1

The 'İnsolence of‘offlce, | and the ‘spurns That 'patient 'rnerit of the un'worthy .takes, | When 'he him'self might his qui|etus ,make | With a'bare ‘bodkin? ||'Who would|fardels bear, |1 To 'grunt and 'sweat under a | weary ‘life; t| 'But that the 'dread of | something 'after ,death, |

The 'undis'cover'd 'country, from whose 'bourn |No 'traveller re ,turns 1 ,'puzzles the ‘ will; 1| And 'makes us 'rather 'bear | those 'ills we ,have, ] Than 'fly to .others j that we 'know 'not ‘ot? || ‘Thus 'conscience 'does make 'cowards of us ‘all; || And 'thus the 'native 'hue of resolution |

Is 'sicklied ,o'er | with the 'pale 'cast of "thought; || And 'enter'prises of | great 'pith and moment, | With 'this regard, | their 'currents 'turn aw 'ry, | And 'lose the 'name of'action, II

181

DAFFODİLS

By William Wordsworth. I 'wander'd 'lonely as a ,cloud | That 'floats 'on high | o'er 'vales and 'hilis, ] When 'all at „once | I saw a "crowd, | A 'host of'golden daffodils; | Be'side the "lake, | be'neath the "trees, | 'Fluttering and 'dancing in the "breeze. | Continuous as the 'stars that shine . And 'twinkle on the 'Milky „Way, | They 'stretch'd in 'never-'ending line | Along the 'margin of a "bay. | 'Then thousand saw 11 at a 'glance, | 'Tossing their 'heads in sprightly "dance, | The 'waves bevside them danced, [ but they Outdid the 'sparkling 'waves in "glee; |

A 'poet 'could not but be "gay, | In 'sııch a 'jocund "coınpany. | 1 'gazed — and '’gazed — | but 'little 'thought What 'wealth the 'show to me had "brought; | For

'oft, when on ıny 'couch I ,lie İn 'vacant or in 'pensive mood, | They 'flash upon that 'inward ,eye | Which is the 'bliss of "solitude; | And 'then my 'heart with 'pleasure "fılls. | And 'dances with the 'daffodils. |

THE 'SLAVE İN THE 'DISMAL "SWAMP

By H.W. Longfellow.

İn 'dark 'fens of the Dismal „Swamp |

The 'hunted 'Negro "lay; | He 'saw the 'Tire of the midnight „camp, | And 'heard at 'times a horse's tramp, | And a 'bloodhound's 'distant bay. | Where 'will-o'-the-wisps and 'glowworms shine, In 'bulrush and in brake; |

Where 'waving 'mosses 'shroud the „pine, |

182

They 'cannot | hear the | banners ‘swept | Thro",continents | where "centuries ‘slept | Nor „hear, | within their 'hushed ret,reat, | The "march of'multi-milüon „feet | 'Rippie to,river, | 'river to ,sea, | 'On to the ,ocean, | hu ‘manity. | A 'thousand 'faiths with a'common "dream [ A 'thousand "tongues with a 'common "theme | A 'thousand ‘thoughts. | with a 'single ' plan: | 'Peace on ‘earth | and 'good ‘will to "man. |

'EXTRACT FROM "’ROBINSON ‘CRUSOE"

By 'Daniel De’foe.

He was a 'comely, 'handsome ,fellow, | 'perfectly 'well ,made, | with 'stfaight, 'strong ,limbs, | 'not ,too darge, | 'tall and 'well ,shaped; [ and as ,I ,reckon, | about 'twenty-‘six ,years of ,age.

He had a 'very 'good ,countenance, | es'pecially ,when he ‘smiled. His 'hair was Mong and ,black, \ 'not 'curled like ‘wool; his 'forehead | very

'high and large; | and a 'great vi'vacity and

I sparkling 'sharpness in his ,eyes. The 'colour of his 'skin was not ,quite ,black, I but 'very ,tawny. His 'face was 'round and plump; | his 'nose ,small, I a 'very ,good ,mouth, | 'thin ,lips, | and his 'fıne 'teeth well ,set, | and as.'white as ivory.

EXTRACT FROM "THE AD’VENTURES OF I TOM SAWYER"

by ‘Mark ‘Twain ";Tom!" No answer.. | "Tom!" I

'No answer |. "'What's 'gone with the boy, 1 wonder? | You; | ‘Tom!" | The 'old lady

‘pulled her ,spectacles down 1 and 'looked ,over them | a,bout the room, | 'then she put them up | and 'looked out ‘under them. [She seldom or ‘never. looked through ,thenı | for so 'small a tilling; as a ‘boy, | for they were her ‘State ,pair, the 'pride of her ‘ heart | and were 'built for "styIes", [ 'not -Service;' she could

have 'seen through a 'pair of stove lids as ,well. She 'went to the 'open ,door | and 'looked out. 'No Tom. [ So she 'lifted ,up her ,voice | at an ,angle | 'calculated for a .distance, | and shouted: "T-o-o-m!"

184

“’Beg your ,pardon, sir”, said Wükins, | “but - “ “But ‘what?| ,Elı? Roared the Capitain; and 'following the ‘timid ‘glance of

Wilkins, |his 'eyes en’countered the ‘ wheelbarrow, and 't' Mr. ‘Pickwick.||

‘THREE ‘MEN IN A ‘BOAT

By JeTome K: Je’rome We ‘found ourselves ‘short of ,water | at ‘Hamtıledon ‘lock; [ so we ‘took

our jar |and ‘went ‘up to the I' lockkeeper’s house | to ‘beg for some.| ‘George was our ‘spokesman. He ‘put ‘on a winning ,smile, | and ‘said;| “Oh, please, [ ‘could you ‘spare us a little , water?”| “Certainly,” repliied the old gentleman; | “ ‘take as much as,you ‘want,|

and’ leave the ‘rest.”| “Thank you so| much,” murmured, George , looking a bout him, [ “just be

“hind “you.”| “I don’t ‘see it,” said George, ,tuming , round.| “Why, I ‘bless us,| ‘where’s your eyes?” was the rr.an’s comment, | as he ,

twisted, George ,round | and .pointed ,up and , dow the stream. | “There’s e’nough of it to see, | ‘ain’t ,there?”

“Oh!” ex’clamed George, | ,graspingthc I,dea; | “but we ‘can’t drink the ‘river, you know!”|

“No;l but you can drink ‘some of it,” replied the old fellow.j “ It,s what ‘l’ve drunk for the last fifteen years.”

‘George ,told him| that his ap’pearance, | ‘after the ,course, | did ‘not ‘seem a suf't'fıciently ‘good ad’veı1i.sement for the ‘brand;| and that ‘he would prefer it out of‘pump.|

We ‘got ‘some from a cottage | a ‘little ‘ higher up.| I ‘dare ‘say ‘that was ‘only river water, | if we had ,known, But we did ‘not ‘know, | ‘so it was ‘all ‘right. | ‘What the ‘eye does ‘not ,see.J the ‘stomach does ‘not’ get up ‘set ‘over.|

A SKETCH

By ‘John ‘Galsworthy. İn the ‘hall of the ‘high ,house | the ‘sun ‘dances through the chinks of the

‘blinds; in that ‘dancing, ‘shadowy ,light, | ‘people ‘glide, and whisper, and ‘smile.

‘Up ,stairs,| where ‘everything is cool, | a ‘new ‘mother ‘lies in her ‘white bed. By her ‘feel the ‘nurse ‘stands, | with the ‘new ‘baby in her

186

‘ärms, l’fat, ‘steek, -t' cowled like ‘bishop;| ‘round him are ‘faces, \ ‘awed aiıd de’lighted, | ‘wordering at this ‘snug atom j in his ‘speckless ‘wool and ‘dimity.

; A ‘sound; | ‘all tremblel The 'clock ‘ticks, | the nurse’s 'shoes ‘patter, | the ‘hum of worship ‘ris- ei.

With the 'evening ‘drifts Mn the ^ scent of limes; | and on the ‘pillows of her‘white ,bed I the‘mother is smiling. no.

* * * i . . •

‘London ‘sun has d' robbed the ‘leaves of ‘freshness. ‘No ‘watercart ‘passes. My ‘dog ‘paıts with the heat, | his ‘tongue ‘lolling from his ‘drip- ping ‘mouth. ‘TNo ‘traffıc in this 'l' quiet ‘backw'ater, j w'ith its ‘steep as cent, I jts studios, I its stables, | its ‘trees.

İn the ‘road ‘befare a high ,house, |stands a ^ flushed and ‘ragged ,woman | 'clutching some ‘sprigs of ‘lavender, | and on the ‘curbstone ‘sits a’nother. ‘Out of her ‘dirty ‘rag of ,shawl | 'peeps the 't' weazencd ‘little ‘face of a baby, | ‘sucking at the ‘twisted, 't' ragged ,rubber | of an ‘un’clean ‘empty ‘bottle. This ‘baby is ‘staring ‘out at the vvorld | ‘so ‘vast, | ‘so ‘fldl of‘heat and d' dust and hunger | with ‘eyes that ‘seem 't' fuH of‘knowlege.

This ‘baby has ‘fcund ‘out T- all there is to know, İts ‘eyes ‘aIso are ‘pa- tilent, I ‘clüse to the ‘İcan ,breast of her | whose ‘eyes ‘aIso are ‘patient.

“My ‘sister —poor thing ■■ | and her ‘little ‘baby. Her ‘husband’s ‘left her. We've ‘walked from Brightom. Sir, | ‘buy a ‘sprig of‘lavender!”

‘Two ‘feet from the ‘Street d' dust and ‘dirt, | the ‘mother and the ‘baby di'

look ‘up.

“’Sir! I ‘buy a sprig of‘lavender!” I Of‘lavender!..

WHOISCOMİNG?

I ‘One ,morning | ‘Grandrnother ‘got up ‘early in the morning, | because ‘Şomeone was ,coming today | and she had a ‘lot to do. || She ‘called to ,<prandmother said, | “Now, Grandfather, | ‘please go to the ,shop. ‘Get spme ,ham, | and some chops. Because-you know ,who’s coming ,today.”

“How about po'tatoes? ,E.aid, Grandfather. ' “Oh, we ‘don’t ,v'ant ‘that” , said Grandrnother. “But we ‘want a T' lot of

ba’nanas, and ,apples, some ,rmts and some ,sw'eets.” I ‘Grandfather ‘went a way. ‘Grandrnother ‘took the ,butter, eggs and sugar.

She ‘mixed them to,gether.

187

‘LITTLE ‘FERRY-BOAT AND THE KING

,Once there was a 'Little “Ferry-Boat who ‘wanted to ‘Tneet a ,king, ‘Little ‘Ferry - Boat ‘carried many ‘people across the river. He ‘carried

,lorries. He had a captain with ‘gold buttons. But he had ‘never ‘met a ,king. ‘There ‘people and ,lorries and ,things are all ,right,” ‘Little ‘Ferıy - Boat

said. “ — They are all right. But I ‘want to ‘meet a ,king.” He said, | “Kings ‘fly in airplanes. They ‘travel on ‘big ,ships. But ‘kings do

not ‘ride on ‘little ferry-boafs.” ‘Little ‘Ferry-Boat ‘throught ,sadly about,kings. Then he said, | “1 must be

,ready to ‘meet a ,king.” So he ‘practised to ‘go ‘to the ‘shore without ‘bump on his ,side or his

,nose.

SOME ‘ENGLFSH ‘CUSTOMS

{‘‘Christmas in an ‘English Family)

“’Don’t for’get to hang ‘up your ‘stocking to-night, ,Johnny.”,smiled Mrs. ‘Gordon ,kissing her ,son good-night. | “Santa Claus will ,fıll it with .presents .while you are a sleep”.

The ‘thought of Christmas ,presents ‘pleased ‘Johnny ‘so ,much that he ‘went to ‘bed wi,thout a ,word.

About an ‘hour ‘later the ‘rest of the ,family said good-,night and ,went to

bed. Mrs. ‘Gordon was the ‘iast as ‘usual. Be’fore she ‘went into her ‘bed- roonı

I she ‘went up to 't' Johnny’s bed | and ‘fılled his ,stocking | with a ‘few ‘oranges, | ‘nuts and , sweets. | Then she quickly ‘laid the ‘table | for breakfast | ‘putting her 't' presents for the ‘family | in ‘front of their ‘plates.

“How ‘diffıcult it is ‘nowadays | to ‘save a 't' tew ‘shillings for ,Christmas,

| “ she thought. | “1 hope they’Ml be ‘pleased with their ,presents.” At ‘İast I she ‘went to ‘bed. ‘Christmas ‘Day ‘came. | ‘Breakfast was ‘over, | and ‘everybody was

‘pleased with his .present. | Mr. ‘Gordon and ‘Johnny | ‘want to ‘bring Grandma and ‘Grandpa | to ‘have ‘Christmas ,dinner with them. | ‘Now ‘Mrs. .Gordon | was bı.ısy in the ,kitchen.

“Oh 1 ,there are so many ‘things to ‘do yet”, she said. l’m a’fraid I shall ‘not be ‘abie to pre’pare ‘dinner in ‘time.

‘Just ,then | ‘Mary ‘came into the ‘kitchen. | “Be a ‘good ‘giri , Mai7 ,dear, | and ‘help Ma with the pudding. | I have a 't' lot of‘work to do”.

“’All ‘right, ,mum,” ,answered .Mary.

188

HOB: ‘Jan must be a ,good player. OLAF: - He ,is; you have to be a good player to tıe ,captain of,London

,team. LUCILLE: If‘Jan is ‘chosen for the inter’national ,match | will he have to

‘give up his .studies | and ‘go info , training? FRIEDA: He mustn’t ,do , that. He must ‘go on with his , studies. They are

,more im,portant |than ,football. MR.PRIESTLEY: He ,needn’t ,give up his ,studies, He has been ‘playing

‘footbali ,regulary | and is in ,good form. OLAF: You ‘needn’t ‘worry about ,Jan .Frieda. He knows he has to ‘work

to ‘make his ,living \ and he’ll ‘do it, MR.PRIESTLEY: Fm ‘sure he ,will. HOB: “Jan’s ‘iost the toss | and the ,Oxford ,captain | has de’cided to ‘play

with the ,wind. OLAF: Oh ,weli, | they’ll have to ‘play again.st the ,wind | in the ,second

half I see ‘jan is ‘playing ,centre , forward. He’s Just ‘getting ‘ready to ‘kick ,off. ‘There they ,go.

HOB: ,Come on, “London,

AT THE GROCER’S

Salesman: ‘ What can 1 ,do for you, madam? Lady customcr:! ‘want some ,tea, | some ,sugar | and some ,butter. A

‘quarter of a ‘pound of ,tea, | ‘two ‘pounds of ,sugar | and ‘half a ,pound of

jbutter, Salesman: ,Yes ,madam,..? Customer: -Oh, 1 ‘wanted a ‘little ‘cheese ,too, Salesman: ‘Here is some ‘good ,Stilton (stilten). Customer: ‘Give me a ‘quarter of a ,pound, please. Salesman: ‘Don’t you ‘want any ,coffee, madam?

Customer: No, ‘not to ,day. 1 have e’nough ,coffee for this ,week, ‘That is ,all for to ,day.

Salesman: ‘Very ,good, madam, ,Here is ycur ,bill. ‘Pay at the ,cashdesk, please.

IN A DEPARTMENT STORE

At the ‘Children’s ‘Clolhing De,partment. Lady customer; 1 ‘want a ‘summer ‘frock for a ‘little ‘giri of ,fıve.

Salesgirl. ‘Here is a ,pink one. İt only ‘costs e’ltwen (shilings) and ,six (pence).

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Custorner ; But it has long ,sleeves (sli:vz). ! ‘want ‘one with ,short ,sleeves I or ,no sleeves at ,all.

Salesgirl: ‘Here i;; a ‘prelty (priti) ,blue one. İt has ,no sleeves | and it on^y ‘costs ‘ten (shilir.gs) and e.leven (pence).

i Custorner : It is ‘very ‘pretty, and ! ‘think it is the ,right ,size (saiz)for my daughter. Yes, | w’rap that one ,up for me, please.

Salesgirl: If it is '’oo ,lagre | or doo ,small | you can ‘bring it 'black and change it. But ‘bring the ,bill.

Custorner ; ‘Please ,tell rne how to ‘go to the ‘ladies ,slıoe department. Salesgirl: The ‘ladies shoe de,partrnent | is on tlıe ,third floor. You can ‘go

‘up (gou Ap) on the .escalator. Custorner : ‘Thank you ‘very much.

THE ‘PATH OF .THUNDER

An extract “’Why did you ‘come ‘back ‘here? she asked in a low, husky voice. “’Why do you ask?” “ Because I ‘wan: to knovv. ‘What do you ‘want here? ‘What do you ‘want

to ‘do to ‘these ‘people?” “ I ‘want to ‘help them.’' ■“’Why?” “Because they are ‘my ‘people, ‘too.” “But ‘what will ycu ‘get out of it? ‘What do you ‘want from them?” “I want ‘nothing from them, Fieta. 1 ‘want to ‘help them. 1 ‘want to

‘ecLicate them. ‘That's ‘all I ‘want. ‘Nothing ‘else.” They have ‘no ‘money, Lanny Swartz.” “ I ‘know”. “ They have ‘noth .ng you can ‘take from them.” “I’ve told you 11 ‘rion’t ‘want to ‘take ‘anything from them.” :“rve ‘met ‘educated ‘me.n be’fore, Lanny Swartz.”

“I’ve ‘told you trııtlı. ‘Can't you under,stand | that ‘one ‘wants to ‘do ‘things for people | because thev are ,your people? They are ‘my ‘people, Fidta.”

A LOOK AT THE SOVIET EXHIBITION

Professor S. M. ‘White from Cali,fornia | ‘toured the ‘Soviet jExhi’bition at

the ‘New ‘York ,Coliseum | and on ‘leaving he ‘paused at the ‘mödel of the

‘Lunnik ‘rocked ‘sent by the ‘Russians into .space. He ‘saiu to a visitor ,next to

him.

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PROFESSOR: 1 was ‘qııite a’mazed with elect’ronics ,exibits. VISITOR: I was im’pressed with the a’tomic ,ice-breaker, ] that’s ‘what

they ııse a’tomic ,energy for. P. ,Exhibition pr’oduces a su,per dis,play of ‘brilliant a’chievements in the

U’S’S’R, I ,doesn’t it? V. Oh, yes, | it ,does. It ‘shows many ‘gains in re’serch, | hospital | and

‘treatment, ,too. P. The ‘Soviet ‘Union has ‘reason to be ‘proud of its ‘record in im’proving

the ‘health of its ,people. ,Health gains are a’pparent in ‘many ,categories. V. The ‘Russians are es't'pecially ,proud | that their ‘budget for ‘public

‘health and physical .culture | has in’creased ‘seventy-fıve-‘fold in the ‘last ‘thirty ‘years.

P. And ‘all ‘medical ‘Service is ‘free in the ,Soviet,Union.

V. The ‘show ‘aims at more ‘trade as well as ‘better understanting. P. ,That’s ,right, | it is a re’markable exhi’bition, in ,deed. V. l’m ‘interested in ,science. 1 was ‘quite a,mazed with ‘models of

,sputniks I and elec’tronics e,xhibits. The ‘Russian ‘regıılar ‘radio ,sets | the ‘quite like ,Western models | and ,seem to have re’ception of e’qual ,quality.

P. 1 ‘like the ‘bronze ‘statue of ,Vuchetich, | ,showing a ,man , beating a ,sword into a ploughshare. ‘Isn’t that ,lovely? The i’dea of‘making .peace. Mag,nifıcent.

A TALK ABOUT SPORT

A. 1 ,say, 1 ‘have you the ,time on you?

B. I ‘make it ‘twenty to ,three, | but l’m about ‘five ‘minutes ,fast, 1 ,think. A. ‘İs it as ,late as all that? How ‘time does ‘fly. I ‘promised to be down at

‘john’s by ,four for ,tennis. 1 shall have to ‘hurry a ,long, | or 1 shall be ,late. B. l’m ‘going ‘that ,way, too, | so we may as ‘well ‘go to ,gether. A. That’s ,good. 1 ‘think there’s ‘time to ,walk. B. So you’re quite an ‘expert ,tennis player.

A. 1 ‘shouldn’t like to ‘say ,that. - 1 ‘knovv how to ,play | and an oc'casional ‘game ‘does me ,good, [ e’specially as 1 ‘don’t ‘take ‘any ‘other ‘sort of ,exercise.

B. You ‘say you’re ‘playing with John. ‘Is he a good player? A. Yes, I he is pretty good; | ‘very ‘quick on his feet | and has a ‘good ,eve. B. Why do they‘use Soft balls , here?

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A. 1 ‘can’t ‘quite ,say | but I sup’pose it’s on ac’count of the ‘hard courts, İn ,England | we ‘usually 'play on grass lawns.

B. ‘What is ,golf? l’ve ‘often ,heard of it, | but I ‘don’t ‘know ‘how it’s

,played. - ‘Is it ‘anything like ,tennis? A. ‘Not in the ,least. ,Well | the ‘game consists es’sentially of ‘hitting a

‘hard ‘littie ,ball | with a ,stick | and ,then | ‘walking ,after it. B. ,\Vell, I ‘that ‘doesn’t ,sound ‘very e,xciting. A. To be ,more e,xact, | there are ‘nine or ‘eighteen ‘holes ‘made in the

‘ground about a ‘hundred ‘yards a ‘part from ‘each other, A’round ‘each ,hole|

there’s a ‘smooth ‘flat ,lawn, You ‘hit the ‘ball from Jıole | to lıole | and the ‘player | who ‘reaches the ‘last ,hole with the 'fewest ,stokes | ‘wins the ,game.

B. Have ‘you ever ,played? A. ,Yes, I ,frequentiy. It,s ‘really an't'awfully ex,citing game, |and re’quires

‘great ,skill. Some people 'get so enth’usiastic about ,golf B. ‘What’s ,polo?

A. ‘Polo’s ‘quite .different. It’s like ‘football in a ,way, | because ‘each ‘side has to ‘drive the ,ball | into the ‘enemy’s ,goal. But the ‘players are on ,horseback, ] and they ‘hit the ‘ball with ‘long ,clubs | which ‘look like .hammers, ‘Hockey’s | a ,notherv,game of the ,same typ^^'

B, ‘What’s the ,differen('p | botwecn ,hockey, | ,polo | and ,football? A. ‘Hockey's ‘played on ,foot | and ‘not on ,horseback. | and the shape of

the ‘club’s ,different. B. The ‘English are ‘very ‘fond of ,sports, | ,aren’t they? A. ,Yes, ,very. But ‘people seem to be ‘getting ‘frond of ,sports | ‘all ‘over

the ,world. 1 was in ‘N. the other ,day |and was ‘shown over a ‘rubber ,factory. 1 ‘saw them ‘making the ‘inncr ballons of ,footballs. ‘Do you ‘play ,football?

B. ,Yes, I Tm ‘very .fond of it.

A. ‘More than ,baseball? B. Yes, I 1 ‘don’t ‘know ‘much about basebali. A. ‘People are ‘very ‘interested in ‘football in ,England. But it ,seems too I

that it’s ‘played ‘mostly by pro,fessional players,people | who have ‘made a pro.fession of it.

B. 1 ,thoLight I that ‘cricked was the ‘national ‘game in England.

A. ‘So it ,is. But they ‘only ‘play ‘cricket ‘during the ,summer. B. İt has ‘always ,seemed to me [ ‘rather a compli’cated game. ‘How is it,played? A. It’s ‘rather ,diffıcult to des ,cribe. İn ‘fact it’s ‘too, diffıcult for me to des

,cribe; | you have to ‘see it ,played. ‘Oh ,game \ may ‘last ‘two ,days. B. ‘Two ,days? That mu.st be ‘very ,tiring.

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A. ,01ı. The ‘players 'clon't 'all 'play at the ,same time; ] and there are 'always ‘nine 'players waiting for their 'turn to ,play. There are e'leven

'players on ,each side | and the 'players on one ,side | 'go and 'play in ,pairs, |

vvhile e'leven on the 'other side are 'tıy'ing to ,beat them. It's e'leven against ,two

all the ,time. B. 'That 'sounds 'rather un,fair. A. ,No, 1 it .isn't un ,fair. 'Cricket's su'pposed to te the 'fairest .ganıe in the

,World. The 'players rnust 'never 'lose their ,tempeı-1 or com'plain even if there has been a mi'stake which is 'not to their favour. 'Cricket's a 'good 'game for 'training 'people in ,’courteous be.havioıır; | it 'teaches them how to ‘lose a 'game without ‘losing their ,temper, | and to a'void ‘selfısh ,actions I or 'mean .tricks. İfa man 'does 'something that is not ,fair | we 'often ,say of him I "He 'isn't 'playing ,cricket”.

B, That's ‘very ,interesting. A. ,Well, I 'here we are at ,John's. 1 shall have to ,lt;ave you ,now, 1 'hope 1 Ihaven't 'brought you offyour ,way. B. ,No,| 'not at ,all. 1 'generally 'go 'home ,this vvay|,-good-,bye A, -Good-bye.

'AFTER THE MEETING

Mr. 'Nelson 'met Mr, 'Rice after the meeting. .Mr. RİCE. He,llo, Mr. Nelson. | l'm ,sorry | 1 'missed this ,session | and I

would 'like to ,know about it.

Mr. Nelson. ,Well, | I'll ,tell yotı. The 'chairman of the 'meeting, was Mr.,Cook. His intro'ductoıy 'speech 'created a ,pleasant atmosphere. There were 'only 'two 'items on the a ,genda.

Mr. R. And 'what about the reso.lution? Mr. N. 'Oh. the resolution was the 'matter of arguing. İt was 'met with

oppo’sition, I and 'rnany a'mendments were pro.posed. A com'mittee were

e'lected to 'work out a reso,lution | con’cerning the criticism of the ‘draft reso,lution.

Mr. R. Did the'meeting ‘last ,long? Mr. N. ,Yes, | it was a djourned. Mr. R. And ,when did ,meeting be,gin? Mr.N. We were in 'session at '12 ;30. 'Final 'vote was 'taken on the

a'mended reso’lution. İt was 'carried by 'overwhelming ma'jority with only 'two ab,staining.

Mr. R. By the ,way, [ you 'going to a'ttend the 'conference at the Univer- sity?

194

19;5

ARRİVAL AT MRS. ROGER’S HOUSE

‘”Here we ,are. I'll 'introdiıce you to yoıır Jandlaciy". "... I ex'pect you're 'ready for some ‘dinner. I'm 'sure you must ,want

,something. We could 'have it a 'little ‘earlier if you like". "Oh, ‘no. 'Not on 'my ac.count, please." "Then 'shall we say 'punctually at ,seven? You'll be 'glad of a 'cup of‘tea

now, .though„won't you?" ,”Well, i fit 'isn't ‘givingyou ‘too much ,trouble." “’Won't you 'hang 'up your 'hat and 'coat in the ,passage?... 'Shall I 'show

you 'up to your ,room?... 'Let ‘Mary ,help you ,take your ,trunk ,up.... 'Can you ,manage it? Oh, 'mind that ‘stair-rod: I 'must have it seen to, or 'somebody may go 'tumbling ,over it... . It's a 'nice ,sunny room: you ‘get a 'good jVİew, ,don't you?"

"'Oh, ,yes, it'll ‘do .capitally. It's 'very ,cosy," It's ‘just :been 'done ,up: we had the ,painters ‘on only ‘last week. The

‘smell of ,paint'll ‘soon go ,off.. . 'Shall 'Mary 'bring you 'up some 'hot .water? .. The 'water in the 'bathroom's 'nice and "hot: it's at the 'end of the ,landing."

"(To ,Freeman) İt ‘won't ,take me ,long to have a ,wash and ,get my things un .packed... . I'll 'come-round to ‘your place after dinner and we can 'have a ,chat."

"Well, Tll be getting on. Good-‘bye for the 'present,,Martin." "Good-‘bye;'see you ,later.". '"Can you 'get 'over by ,eight, d'you ,think?" “'Yes ,somewhere about then, I ex,pect."

SHE WALKS IN BEAUTY

(by Lord Byron.) She'walks in ,beauty,'like the ,night Of'cloudless ,climes and 'starry skies; And 'all that's ,best of ,dark and ,bright jMeet in her 'aspect and her eyes; Thus ,mellowed to that 'tender ,light

Which ‘heaven to 'gaudy 'day de ,nies. One shade the ,more, one ,ray the ,less, Had 'half im'paired the .nameless ,grace Which ,waves in 'every 'raven ,tress Or 'sofily ,lightens, o'er her ,face; Where ‘thoughts se 'reııely 'sweet ex,press

196

How ,pure, how ,dear their', dwelling ,place. And ,on that ,cheek and o'er that ‘brovv So ,soft, so, calm, yet .eloqııent, The ,smiles that ,win, the ,tints that ,giow But ‘teli of ,days in 'goodness ,spent, - A mind at .peace with aü be ,low, A ,heart whose ‘love is ‘innocent.

JULIUS CAESAR

(W, Shakespeare.) (Act III, Scene II)

‘Mark ,Antony. ,Friends, ,Romans, ,counti7men, ‘lend me your ,ears, I 'come to ,bui'y ,Caesar, ‘not to ,praise him; The ‘evil that ,men ,do 'lives ,after ,them; The ‘good is ‘oft in ,terred with their bones; ‘So ‘let it ‘be with Caesar. The ‘noble ,Brutus Hath

,told you 'Caesar was am ,bitious. If it were ‘so, it was a ‘grievous fault, And .grievously hath ‘Caesar answer'd it. ,Here, under 'leave of ,Brutus and the ,rest, — For ,Brutus is an honourable ,man; So are they ,all, ,all honourable ,men,—

Come ‘I to ,speak in ,Caesar's ,funeral. He ‘was my friend .faithful and just to me: But jBrutus jSays he was am’bitious; And ,Brutus is an ,honourable man. He ‘hath brought 'many ‘captives ,home to ,Rome, Whose 'ransoms ‘did the ‘general ‘coffers, fıll Did ,this in ‘Caesar seem am'bitious?

When that the ‘poor have ,cried, ‘Caesar hath ,wept: Am'bition should be ‘made of sterner ,stuff:

,Yet Brutus .says he was am’bitious; And Brutus is an ,honourable ,man.

You ‘all did ,see that on the Lupercao 1 'thrice pre,sented him a 'kingly

,crown,

Which 'he did ‘thrice re,fuse: was ,this ambition? ,Yet,Brutus ,says he was

am,bitious?

197

‘And, ‘sLire he ‘is an ,honourable ,man. 1 ‘speak ‘not to dis,prove what ,Brutus ,spok;, But ‘here l am to ,speak wliat '1 do ,krıow. You ‘all did love ,once, not wit,hout, cause; What 'cause with 'holds you, then to rnourn for him? 0 'judgement. Thou art 'fled to 'brutish ‘beasts. And 'men have 'lost their 'reason. 'Bear with ,me; My 'heart is in the 'coffin .there with ‘Caesar, And I must ,pause tili it coıne ‘back to me.

THE SONG OF HIAWATHA

(by Longfellow.) 'Should you 'ask me, 'whence these ,stories? 'Whence these 'legends and traditions. With the 'odours of the ,forest, With the 'dew and 'damp of ,nıeadow's, With the 'cLirling 'smoke of ,wigwams, With the 'rushing of't' great ,rivers, With their 'frequent ,repetitions. And their 't' wild.re, verbe.rations. As of'thunder in the ,mountains? 'I should 'answer, I should ‘teli you, "From the 'forests and the ‘prairies, From the’great 'lakes of the ‘Northland, From the 'land of the O 'jibways, From the 'land of the Da ‘cotahs, From the ‘mountains, ‘moors and ‘fenlands, Where the 'heron, the 'Shuh ,shuh-gah, 'Feeds among the ,reeds and ‘rushes 1 re'peat them as 1 'heard them. From the ‘lips of'Nawa ‘daha The mu ‘sician, | the 'sweet 'singer."

THE TWILIGHT

(by H. W. Longfellow;) The 'twilight is ,sad and ,cloudy, The 'wind 'blows wild and ,free," And 'like the 'wings of sea-birds "Flash the 'white ‘caps of the ‘sea.

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199

DIAL0GUE2. S. May 1 trouble you for a moment? 1 should very nuıch like, you to listen to my reading, and correct me, if you

have a few minutes to spare. 1 have to recite a poem at our concert, but Fro not quite sure of my intonation.

A. O, certainly, I'm always ready to help. Will half an hour is enough for you? 1 can spare you half an hour.

S. O, yes, quite enough, thank you. Would you like to have a look at my transcription fırst? I have made up a tonograrn as well.

A. Show it to me, please. S. Here it is.

DIALOGUE3. N. Are you going home? P. No, I have to go to the reading-hall. I rnust look up the pro-nunciation of

some words in the dictionary. N. How long will you stay there? P. No less than an hour, probably. Will you come too? N. All right, l'll join you. We can work there for a couple of hours and then

we'll go home together. Only let's have dinner fırst. I'm farnishing. P.All right'. Let's be quick. It's getting late!

ENGLİSH LİNGAPHONE COURSE

My famüy

]|‘This is my .family: | my ,wife,| my ,son,|my ‘daughter, and ,1. || ‘I am Mr. ,Black. |1 My ‘wife is .Mrs. Black. || 1 am-‘Mrs. ‘Black's ,husband. || 1 am a ,man. || My 'wife -is a ,woman. |1 We have ,two .children, | a ,boy | and a ,girl.||

The ‘boy's ‘name is ,John. || He's ‘twelve ,years ,old. || The ,girl's ,name | is Mary. || She's ‘still ‘quite young. || She's ‘only eight. || She's ‘four years ‘younger than ,John, | and ‘John is ‘four years ,older | than she is.

‘Mary is the ,youngest in the ,family |and ‘I am the ,oldest. || ‘John, is ‘Mary's ,brother. Mary is | ‘John's .sister. || ,John is my ,son. || 1 am his ,father. || My ‘wife is his ,mother. ||

‘Mary is my ,daughter. || 1 am her ,father. || My 'wife is her ,mother. || ‘John and ,Mary | are our ,children. || ‘1 am their ,father, | my ‘wife is their ,mother; | 'we are their ,parents.|| We love our ,children. ||

My 'wife is 'sitting in an 'arm,chair, | 'reading a ,book. || I am 'standig by the ,window, (‘smoking a ,pipe. ||

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'Mary is 'writing a ,!etter. || ‘Join is ‘kneeling on the ,floor || and ‘play- iılg with his ,train. || The ‘dog and the 'cat are ‘lying ,under the ,table. ||

, 'OUR HOUSE j

I 'Many famüies in ,London | live in ‘flats, | but 'most ,people| ,live in t$eir 'own ‘houses | in ‘the 'suburbs.|i

We ,too I have a ,house | in a' 'London ,suburb. 1| 1 'bought it about l'fıfteen 'years a,go, | ,when '1 got ,married. || Like 'most of 'London’s su,burban ,houses, | it con'sists of ,only ,two ,floors,| the ,ground ,floor | and the ,fırst ,floor. ||

On the ground-floor | there's the ,dining-room | the ,lounge | or ,sitting- room, I the kitchen, | and the ,hall. || 'İn the ,hall | we 'see a ,stand | for ,hats, | ,coats I and um.brellas. |1 A ‘staircase 'leads from the ,hall | to the 'landing on the 'fırst ,floor. || On ,this ,fIoor j there are 'four ,bedrooms, | a ,bathroom and a ‘lavatory. || On 'top of the ,roof I there are 'three ,chimneys. ||

İn 'front of the ,house | we have a 'small ,garden,| in which we ,grow ,flowers: ] roses. ! .tnl'p^ı I so on. || At the ‘buck, uf the ,house ! there's » 'much 'larger ,garden | 'with a 'lawn | and some ,fruttrees.l| Tlıcıc's ,also a .vegetable ,garden | where we ,’grow 4' all 'kinds of'vegcta- bles, I such as po,tatoes, | ,cabbages | ,cauliflowers, | .onions | and to.matoes.il

An the 'side of the .house | is a .garage, [ where 1 'keep my ,car. || The 'garden is en'closed by a fence, | with a ,gate in it.||

OUR SITTING-ROOM

'Lef s ,have a 'look at this 'picture of our .sitting-room. || As you 'come into the ,room,| you 'notice a .piano, | with a 'low .music-stool | in front of it. II 'Next to the .piano | is a 'tall bookcase, | 'standing a.gainst the ,wall. || ,0n the ,left |-is a ‘large .window. || 'Under the .window | there's .radiator, 1 but you 'can't ,see it, |

be.cause it's be'hind the set.tee. || 'On the set.tee | there are 'two .cushions. || The fıreplace | is at the 'other end of the .roorn. |1 Oh 'each ,side of the

.fire.place | there's an ‘arm’chair. || An 'old ,lady | is 'sitting in 'one of the .chairs, | but ‘nobody’s ‘sitting in the .other ,one; | it's .empty. || İn the centre of the .mantel.piece | there's a .clock, | and a ,bove it | an 'oval .mirror, || On the .right | you can ,see a 'Standard .larnp. || 'Opposite the .fireplace | you can 'see a | small

.table | with an ,ash-tray j and some .newspapers ,on it. 1| 'By the ,table | there's a 'small .chair. || On the ex.treme .right, | there's a .radiogram. ||

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The 'floor is ,covered | with a | 'beautiful ,thick ,carpet. |1 An ellectric ,light | is .hanging l'rom the | ‘middle of the .ceiling. || At ,night, I vvhen it ‘gets ,dark, | we ‘switch on the üght | and ‘draw the ,curtains. || ‘During the ,day, | the ‘light ‘comes ,in through the ,window. ||

COM PARISONS

Now ‘let’s com’pare ,our sitting -,room | with the ,33kers. || The ,Bakers are ,friends of ours. || They ‘live ,next ,door to us. || Our .room | is a Tittle ,larger than ,theirs | and it tias ,more ,fumitııre in it. II

As you ,see, | there is no ‘wireless set in Mr. ,Baker’s ,room. || There ‘isn’t a ‘bookcase | ,either. || ‘Mine is in my ,sitting-room, | but ‘his is in his ,study.|i

My ‘wife ‘keeps her ,music | in the music-stool. | but ‘Mrs. ‘Baker , keeps hers | in a ‘separate ,cabinet | ,near the piano. ||

You can ,also ,see | that their | a ,grand ,piano, 1 whereas ours | is an ,upright. II Both ,my ,wife and Mrs. ,Baker | are ,very .fond of ,music | and ‘both ‘play the ,piano | ‘very ‘well. || But my 'v/ife ‘dcesn’t ,play as ‘well as Mrs. ,Baker. || 'Mrs. 'Baker | ‘not only ,plays ‘much ,better than my ,wife ,does, I but she’s the ‘best ,pianist in the district. || ‘1 ,don’t play the ,pia,no, | but I ,play the vio,lin. II

There’s ‘no se,ttee in the ,Baker’s ,sitting-room, [ and there are ‘no ‘small ,chairs. || ,How ,ever, | they have ‘three easy chairs | whereas ‘we have ,only ‘two. || İn ,their ,room | they have an ‘electric ,fıre, | but ‘we, | like ‘most .English ,people, | have a ,coal-fıre. || ‘Sometimes | we ,burn | ‘logs of ,wood I ins,tead of ,coal. || Tlıe ‘Bakers have ‘two ‘vases on ,their ,mantel ,piece, | as ,well as a ,clock, | and over the ,maıtel ,piece they’ve got a ‘beautiful ‘picture, | ‘painted by a ‘famous ,artist. ||

VISITORS

It’s ‘Saturday ,after,noon. || There’s a ‘knock at the ,door. || Our ‘neigh- bours, I ‘Mr. and ,Mrs. White have a,rrived. ||

The ‘maid ‘opens the ,door, | and ‘let’s them ,in. |1 She N ‘shuts the door, I and ‘shows them ,into the ,lounge. 1| ,We greeı; them, | ‘shake hands ,with them, 1 and ‘ask them to ‘sit ,down. 11

A few minutes ,later | we ‘hear a ‘ring at che ,door. || It’s ‘Betty ,Smith I my ,wife’s ,niece.|| She’s ‘just a’rrived from the ,courıtry, | and she’s ,going to ,stay with us | ,over the ,week,end. || She ‘kisses her ,aunt, [ who intro’duses her to the ,Whites, | and we ‘all ,sit ,down.||

The ‘ladies ‘talk about the .weather | and the ‘latesl ,fashions.|| ‘We ,men

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I dis.cuss ,politics, | and the ‘Satest .fashions. || ‘We ,men | 'dis’cuss ,politics, I ,)Diısiness 1 and the ‘latest ,news || ‘Presently the ‘rnaid ‘brings ,in the ,tea | oıi a trolley: | a ‘pot of ,tea, | ' cııps and ,saucers, | ‘hot ,water, a ‘jug of ,milk, I and ,sugar; | ,also ,sandwiches, ] ‘bread and ,butter, | jam ,and ,cakes. i| ,My ‘wife ‘pours ,out the ,te&. || 'I ,hand it round. |l My ‘niece passes ,round

I the ‘sandwiches and ,cakes. |1 We ‘all enjoy the ‘tea ,very' mııch,||

,AFTER’NOON ,TEA.

Good ‘after’rıoon, Mrs. ,White, | 'hov/ are 'you ||? ' Very well in 'deed, | 'thank you, | and 'how are 'you||?

^ Quite,well, | ,thank you. || ‘Won’t you ‘sit ,dovvn. | ...Excuse nıe, please.l ‘I ,think ‘that’ä my ‘riece at the ,door. ||...

Ha’llo, ,Bettj' dear. | l’m so glad to ,see you. || You 'do look ,\vell. II I don’t think you’ve ‘met each ,other be,fore. || ‘Let me intro’duce you. Ij 'This is my ‘niece. | .Miss ,Smith. | ,Mrs. 'White, | ‘Mr.White.||

‘How do you .do ...i|

‘How do you ,do ... il And ‘now | let’s ‘have some ‘tea. 1| 'How do you ‘iike your ,tea,

Mrs. ‘White, | strong or ‘weak ||? Not ‘too ‘strong ,please, | and ‘one ‘lump of ,sugar. || ‘I iike my ,tea

,rather ‘sweet, | but my ‘husband pre’fers ,his | without sugar. || Well, II ‘whal’s the ,news, Mr.,White? || ‘How’s ,business? ||

‘Pretty ,good, |,thank you. | And ‘how are ,things with ,you?|| ,Well, I ‘not ,too ,good, l’m a,fraid, | and ‘going from ,bad

to ,worse.

In .fact, I it’s the ‘worst ,year | we’ve had for a long ,time.|| l’m 'sorr>'

to 'hear ‘that. || 1 ‘hope ‘things will ,soon im,prove.|| ‘Yes, I 'let’s hope for the

‘best, || And ‘how’s your ,nephew 'Ri- chard ‘getting ,on?||

Oh, he’s ,getting ,on | ‘quite ,well, | thank you. || He’s 'staying in the

country just ,now [ with his ,Uncle ,William | and his counsis. ||

‘How ‘long I is he ,going to ,stay there || ?

1 ‘don’t .kno’.v e,xact,ly, 1 but he’s ,having a ‘very ‘pleasant ,time |

and it’s 'doing him a ‘lot of,good, | so the longer he stays, | the ‘better. || 1

DINNER - TA8LE TALK

- Good ,evenmg,| l’m ‘so glad you were abie to ,come || ‘Dinner’s ,ready.|l ‘Let’s go into the' ,dining-room. || Mrs. ,Thompson, | will 'you sit heıje on my ,left, and you, Mr. ,Thompson, ,there. || N How long have you

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been in London ||? - ‘Oh,'| only a ,few ,days;| since' ‘last Monday, to be ,exact I and l'nı ,sorry to say | we have to re’turn | to,morrow ,week.||

‘Is this your .first ,visit? II it's my ‘wife's ,first ,visit, | but ,I’ve been ,here l'several .tirnes

be’fore, || l ,have to come ,over at least l’once a ,year | on ,business, | and 1 ,feel quite at ’honie in , London. |1

- And ‘what do 'you think of,London, Mrs. ,Thompson?|| - Er I ■— i ‘beg your ,pardon, | I 'didn't quite | catch what you 'said. || - I was 'asking ,what you 'thought of London.'|1 -Oh, I ,think it’s a ‘wonderfull ,place.|| 'There 'aways ,seems to be some-

thing interesting to do. || -And 'how do you ,like our weather ||? - Well,|| İt's 'rather changeable, | ,isn't.it || ? - "Yes, I it ,is -but 'on the ,whole | it's 't' not so ,bad. | once you get ,used to

it. ||...'Will you ,have some more ,chicken || ? - 'No, I ,thank you. || - 'What about ,you, Mr,,Thompson ||? - ,Yes , please, | 'just a ,little. | it’s de,Iicious.|| - I’m so glad you ,like it. || ... And ,now 'what sweet will you ,have. Mrs.

,Thompson? || There's 'appie ‘tart and ,cream, | or 'chocolate ,trifle.|| -Er - ‘trifle for me,,please.|| -And 'you, Mr.,Thompson ||? - 'Trifle for me, ,too, ,please||

AT THE RESTAURANT

İn ‘all ‘large ,towns | there are 'plenty of restaurants, | ,cafes, |tearooms, |

and inns | or 'public-houses. || All the ,large ho,tels have ,dinning-rooms'| or ,restaurants, ||'Each. ,little ‘party of ,guests | have their' ,own ,table | and every ,table, as you ,see, | has its ,own ,lamp. || ‘Many of the ,guests-are in 'evening ,dress, | which is usual at 'fashionable ,restaurants. || At ,some it's compulsory,||

You can see 'several ,couples | 'dancing at the 'far end of roomy | 'near the

,orchestra. || 'One of the , waiters | is 'standing | near the ,buffet, | where there are 'cold ,dishes of 'various ,kinds; | a'nother's 'carrying a tray, with a 'bottle of ,wine | and 'two wine ,glasses ,on it. || He'll 'put the 'bottle, of'wine into ice ,bucket | to 'keep it ,cold. ||

'Meals in ,England | are 'much the ,same as in ,other ,countries,| with the ex'ception of breakfast. |1 I ex'pect you've ,hear all about the 'English ,breakfast,

| with its ,porridge or ,cereal, | 'bacon and ,eggs, ,toasts, |

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,marmalade, [ and ,tea | or ,coffee.|| 'Very ,few people ,like ,chocolate | or ,cocoa for ,breakfast. || -İn the 'after,noon, | about | four o'cIock | or 'half- ,past, I ,nearly every,body | has ,tea. || The 'two .rnain .meals of the ,day, 1 'kınch and ,din,ner | are ,both 'more or ,less a like. || 'Most 'people have 'lunch aboııt 'one o'cIock, | and .dinner : at 'half-past ,seven, | or ,later.||

’ORDERING A MEAT

have 'just been re'served’ by

‘Still, it ,does

—^'Is this'table ,free, ,waiter? || , - Tm jSorry, ,sir, | these 'two',tables

,telephone, | but 'that one over here free.

- 'What a ,pity || We 'wanted to be near the ,dance-floor. not ,matter, | we'll ,take it.| The ,menu, |, please.||

—,Here you are ,sir. |] 'Will you order ,carte | or 'take the 'table ,d'hote? || —,WelI, 'lefs ,see. || What do ,you think ,darling || ? - ‘Oh, I 'don't want ,much to eat, | I’aı not verj/ jumgry.|... 'I think

ril,have | — er — somc ‘oxtail ,soupe | and .fried plaice 'wittı ,chip3. !j - Hm, Tm rather ,hungry..|| I'll 'start with some 'hors d'oe ,uvre.|| - And to 'follow? || —A 'grilled ,steak |'with 'baked po'tates and ,peas. || - 'V'/ill you have anything to ,drink, sir ||? - Well, 'I am rather ,thirsty.|,Bring me 'half a ,pint of ,bitter|| ,What about

,ypu, dariing? || - Well, 1 ,don't care for ,beer, | -but I | will have a ,glass of ,sherry. || -‘Very ,good. ... 'What ,sweet would you ,like ||? - I’ll have 'fruit ,salad. || - 'So will I. II And we'll have two coffees, Iplease. || -,Black I or ,white? || - ,White, I please. 1| -Oh, and 'two 'liqueur brandies. || - 'What a 'lovely ,waltz they're ‘playing || 'Shall we ,dance? || - Yes, I Td love to || ... -, Waiter. | The ‘bili,,please. || - ,Ve!y good, sir. || - .Here you ,are. || - 'Thank ,you 'very ,much, sir. ||

NUMERALS: |,TIMES | AND DATES.

'If 1 'want to 'know the ,time | I 'look at ıny ,watch. || I’ve ‘got a 'gold 'wrist-watch with a 'leather .strap. || İt 'keeps ‘fairly ,good time,| but ot^.casiorıally | it 'goes ,wrong, || When it ,does .that 1 'take it to a

205

,watchmaker,| and have it re,paired,; ,cleaned | and ,regulated. || - 1 'don't think yon'll find it 'very ‘diffıcult to teli ihe ‘time in ,English. ||

'First of ,all, | 'let's deal with the hours; | we ‘say, il's 'one o',clock, | ,two o'cIock, I ,three o'cIock, | and so ,or. ||

II Twelve o'cIock | may re'fer to ,midnight, | or to ,midday.|l ||Then for the ,quarters,| we say, for |instance,| it's a ‘quarter past ,eight, | ,half-past eight, [ a 'quarter, to nine. Sometimes | 'people just 'say 'eight-fıf,teen,| 'instead of a quarter past,eight, | and 'eight-,thirty, [ instead of'hall-pant eight.|| We 'say 'other times as follows: |'fıve 'minutes past ..eight, [ or ,simply,.'fıve past ,eightl| ,’Similarly, | 'ten past,eight, | ‘twenty past,eight, | 'twenty-'fıve past l,eight; I ‘twenty-'fıve to ,nine, | ten to ,nine,| 'five to ,ı:ine. ||

Re’ferring to 'dates, we ,say, for ;instance; | 'Henry 'VIII (the eight) was 'born on the ‘twenty-eighth of ,January, 'fıfteen ‘forty ,seven. ||

28th June, 1491. 28th January. |&4 Be 'careful to pro’nounce dis’tinctiy thir,teen, thirty; | 'four, teen, | ,forty;|

'fıf,teen, | fıfty; [ 'six,teen, | sixty; | and so on.| | Then ,learn; | a 'hundred, a 'hundred and ‘one | ‘two 'hundred and 'seventy- six, | a ,thousand, | ‘three thousand, | ‘three 'hundred and 'eighty-.seven. ||

13 -30 14 -40 15 - 50 16 - 60 100 101 276 1,000 3,387

ENGLISH MONEY.

'If you're 'going to ,England | you’ll natıırally j'want to ‘know 't' something about 'English ,ınoney. || I ex'pect you've been used to the 'decimal',System, | so ,English ,money | will 'probabIy seem 'very 'strange to you at ,fırst, | -but you'll 'soon get used to it.||

There are ‘three 'copper ,coins,| the ,penny, | the ,halfpenny, ( and the

farthing. || Then | there's the 'three-penıay ,bit. || The ‘other ‘coins are the ,sixpence,| the ,shilling,l the two-'shilling ,piece, | and the ‘half-Crown, 1 which is 'worth 'two ,shillings | ,sixpence ||-or as we say, 'two and six, 1| Then there's a 'ten shilling ,note [ and a 'pound note in-common use, | and for 'larger ‘sums there are 'five-pound ,note's, | 'ten-pound ,notes, | and so on.II There's 'no ,gold in ,circulation, | so you 'hardly ever ‘see a ,sovereign. II You may often 'hear the

'term "guinea", \ which ‘;;tands for 'twenty-'one shillings, ,although, | there's 'no actual coin this ,valııe. |1

There are 'four ,farthings | in a penny, | 'bvelve ,pence | in a ,shilling | and 'twenty ,shillings | in a ,pound. || If the 'price of a reel of cotton is ,four- pence, | you 'hand over 'four pennies for it.|| Similarly, | you 'say ,two-pence, I I ,threepence, |and ,so on. |1 If a ‘stamp ‘costs three- halfpence, | you 'hand the

'clerk a ,penny and a ,halfpenny | or 'three ,half-pennies, | and he 'gives

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yoLi a ‘three-lıalfpenny stamp.||

AT THE BANK

‘Can you 'change me some .money, ,please? ||

,Certanly.il 'V/hat is it you 'wish to ,change? ,Here it ,is: | some 'French ,1'rancs, | Svviss francs, | 'American

^dollars | and a 'few 'Dutch ,guildens.||You'd better ,count them.|| If you'll’ wai :'a ,moment | I'll 'fmd out the 'rates of ex.clıang||

Here we ,are. | 'Let me ,see| —er — that'll make &41. 12. 6. (forty

one ,poıınds, | tweive ,shillings | and .sixpence) all togetlıer. ’Hovv would vou ,like it?||

Would you 'please 'give me 'seven 'fıve-pound ,notes, | 'four pound ,notes I and 'four ,ten-shilling ,notes, | and the 'rest, in ‘small ,change. || Certainiy. ||'Here you ,are. ||'Will ‘that ,do?||

Er—'\vould,)Ou 'mind. 'giving, me the '.sixpence in ‘coppers?|| I

want to 'make a ,phonD-call | and 1 'haven't any ,change. || Thank you. || ... By the ,way, |'can ! open an accounl ,here?||

You'll have to 'see the ,Manager about ,that. || If you'll ‘kindly 'go through that ,door | ’marked ‘"Private" |he'll at ,tend to you.

- Good after,noon, sir. | My jıame is ,Anderson.|| I should ‘like to 'open an ac,count with'you ||

- A de,posit I or cıırrent account? || - ,Well, I I 'want tc be abie to 'pay for 'things by ,cheque. || - - Then you

'want a current account. 1| How 'much ‘money do you 'want 'placed to,your credit? ||

- 'Here's &200 ('tv/o hundred ,pcunds) || 1 , think that ought to ,Iast me for some ,time. 1|

- i 'take it you can sup'ply references. || - ‘Certainiy. || - ,Right. II 'Here's a cheque book. || When you ‘send a ‘cheque by 'post be

'careful to ,cross it, | but if you 'wish to ‘cash a ‘cheque your,self, | you must 'leave it “open”.||

AT THE POST OFFICE

- Ex’cııse me, | car you 'teli me where the ‘nearest ‘Post Office ,is? |1

- l'm 'soriw, 1 ,can't. || I'm a .stranger here my,self|| Perhaps that 'gentleman

,over there | 1 will be abie to ,help you. ||

—,Thank you. || ... !’m ‘sorry to .trcuble you, | but can you 'direct me to the

'nearest ,Post Office? ||

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- Yes, I it's in the ,High Street. || As a 'matter of ,fact Pm 'going in tlıe ,same direction my,se!f, | so ifyou ,come with me, | I'Il .showyoıı. 1|

- 'That's 'very ‘kind of you || - ,There it',is, | that building over there. || - 'Thanks very much.|| - Don't ,mentio it. | - I 'want to 'send ,telegramm. |1 'Where can 1 'get a form? || - You'll 'fınd some over ,more. |1... Will you 'put your name | and

'addressee on the papper 'That will be 3/6 ('three and six).|| - 'Do you 'mind helping me | where I can 'get ,stamp | and a'registered

,envelope. - At the ,next conner. || - A 'fıve-shilling ‘book of stamps, please, [ and a 'large ‘registered

,envelope. || - Will ,this'size,do? || - ,Yes, I ,thank you, | 'that's just ,wright. ... 'Would you 'mind telling me I

what the 'postage on this 'letter ,will be? || - 'Threepence by 'ordinary 'post, or ‘sixpence, if you 'want to ,register it.

AT THE STATION

,Porter, | 'will you 'see to my ,luggage, please? || ,Where for, ,sir?||

- I'm 'going by the '10 o'cIock 'train to ,Glasgow. || 'Will you 'have this 'trunk 'labelled and but in the ,luggage-van. || 'suitcase and ,bag | can 'go on the ,luggage-rack. ||

- Right, sir. 'What ,class?|| ..

- ,First.|| ‘Try and 'fınd me a 'corner seat in a ,smoker,| 'facing the ,engine, If you can.||

- ‘Have you 'got your ,ticket yet, ,sir? || - Not ,yet. I 'Where's the .booking-office? || - ‘Come a ,long with ,me | and l'll ,show you. || ,Here it ,is.|| l’ll meet you on

the ,platform. ||

- ,Which platform is it? || - No, ,8.1 over ,there.| - ‘One fırstto ,Glasgow, ,please.|| - ,Single I or re,turn? || - ,Single. II 'Do 1 have to ,change anywhere? || - No, I no change, | it's a , ‘through ,train. ||

- ,Thank you. || - Here you ,are, sir. || I've ‘found you a 'corner 'seat next to the ,corridor.

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II Your 'carriage is 'near the ,dining-car, | and you can 'order ,lunch | when the flight a'te'ndant ,comes along. ||

- What ,time do we 'get to Glasgow?|| - You’re due to a'rrive at 6:15. || - Thank you. ,Here you ,are. | - ,Thaıık you, ,sir. || 1 hope you’ 1 have a 'comfortable ,jouney. || - ,Well, I l've 'still 'got a few minutes to ,spare, | so I'll 'go and 'get my- self

a novel i or a detective ,story | to while the time during the journey.l - Mind you 'don't miss tiıen than sir. || - That’s all ,right, j The plane doesn’t 'leave for another 'ten minutes, | and

'it 'won't take me ,more than 'fıve minutes to 'get a book. ||

ASKING THE WAY

Ex,cuse me, | 'can'you 'teli me the way to Tra’falgar, Square? || Certainly. || 'Go down 'Regent Street to 'Piccadilly ,Circus, | and then 'go dawn the ,Haymarket. || 'Turn to the 'left at the bottom | and in lesf than a ,minute |

you'H he in Tra'falgm-,Squaic.il ~ ‘Thank you ’very ,much.|| How 'far is it from ,here? || - If you ,walk, | it'll 'take you 'ten ,minutes | or a 'quarter of an hour. || - İs there a ,bus? || - There's ,sure to be. || But you’d ‘better 'ask the po,liceman over there. -

He'll 'give you -1^ all the infor'mation you ,want.||

-,Thank, you.|| - Ex,cuse me, ,officer, | 'is there a 'bus from here to Tra’falgar,Square? || - ,Yes, ,sir, | ,any bus'll .take you; || There's a 'busstop 'just over ,there. ||

‘/^sk the con’ductor to ‘put you down at Tra’falgar ,Sqııare. || Thank you. ||

- 'Does this 'bus 'go to Tra’falgar,Square? ||

- ,Yes, ,sir. | 'Come a,long, hurry up. | 'No room on ,top, 1 ,inside ,only. | 'no standing on the ,platform'. | .. ‘pass down the bus, please, | .. ,Sorry, |

‘full up.|.. 'Sorry, ,sir | you 'can't 'smoke in,side, | you'll have to wait until there's ‘room up,stairs ... | 'Fares, | please.

- Tra’falgar Square, .please. | ... and 'will you ‘teli me — when we 'get ,there? ||...

! - Tra’falgar ‘Square. || 'This is where you 'get ,off, sir.|| -,Thank you. ||

A VISIT TO LONDON

If you can ,stay only a ^ few days in London, | you ‘won’t have .nuıch

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,time I for your ‘sightseeing; | and ‘how to 'spend ycıır ’time | to the 'best advantage | is 'rather a ,problem. |{ If ‘1 were ,you, | ^ should 'make up my ,mind, I be ‘forehand. || İt 'all depends on your ‘tastes. || You, .may, for instance | be 'interested in ,shops. | or in ,art-galleries, | or in mu'seums, | or you might prefer to ,start | with the ‘principal his’torical ,buildings | and ‘monuments, ||

In 'that ,case, | you 'might begin in the 'T' West ,End | and ‘see the i' Houses of .Parliament, | 'Westminster ,Abbey; | ‘White,hail, all and ‘Nel- son’s ‘Column. || From ,there | you 'go along tlıe ,Wall to | ’Buckingham .Palace | and ,have a 'look at 'Queen Vic’toria's Memorial,| ‘facing the ,Palace. || 'Then | 'stroll up i' Constitution ,HiJl |. to 'Hyde ‘Park .Corner | and 'take a ,walk 'through the ,Park | and ‘Kensington (jardens to the 'Albert Me'morial, | which ,faces the ‘Albert ‘Hall. |1 'Thal's ,really 'more than ,enough | for 'one ,day, | but ,still, | if you 'warıt to ,se;e more, | you ‘might get on ‘top of a ,bus | 'going ,towards the ‘City. 1|

The 'bus 'goes a’long ‘Piccadilly | to 'Piccadilly, ,Circus | and ‘Charing ,Cross, I ‘then along the ,Strand | and ,Fleet Street | to 'Ludgate ‘Circus. || 'There | you 'might as..well get 'off \ and ' ,walk up to St. 'T' Paııl's Ca’thedral. ||

,After''that, | you could ,go ‘further ,east, | to the ‘Royal Ex’change, | and ‘then,| if-you'had ‘time and .weren't' too tired, | you could go to the ,East End I and 'see the 'T Tower of,London, | 'Tower 'Bridge over the ,Thames, | the 'Mint | and the ‘Monument.||

SIGHTSEENG

- ‘Is it 'possible to 'see anything of'London in 'one or 'two ,days?|| - ,Well, ,yes, 1 but, of ,course, | 'not 'half e’nough.|l - What do you 'think I ought to 'see ,fırst? ||

- ,Well I ‘if you're 'interested in ,churches | and his’torical ,places 1 you should'go to 'Westminster ,Abbey, | the 'Houses of ,Parliment, | St. ,Paul's | and the ,Tower. || 'Do you 'like 'art ,galleries? ||

- Rather... - Then 'why not 'go to the .National .Gallery | and the Tate? || - l'm told 'one ought to 'see the 'British Mu.seum. || Do you ,think I shall

have ,time for ,that? || - ,Well, I you ,mighf, | but if'I were ,you, | 1 should 'leave that for some

,other day. || You could 'spend a ‘whole ,day there. || Ifs ‘much too ‘big to be seen in an ‘hour or so.||

-1 SLip'pose it ,is. il What about 'going to the ,2'oo? |i - 'That's not a bad i.dea. || You could 'spend a 'couple of ,hours ,there |

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‘comfortable, | or ‘even a 'whole afte,rııoon, | 'watching the ‘wild ,animals, | ,birds I and ,reptiles. || You could have "tea there ’too. ||

- ril do ,that, then, || How do 1 ^get there?

- ‘Let me ,see. || ‘Where ,are we? ‘Oh, there's the 'B 'B,C. I 'think your 'best way from ,hcre | is to 'walk across 'Regent's ,Park.||

-‘Is it ,much of a walk? I - Oh no, I a 'quarter of an ,hour or ,so, | if you're in ,hurry, | why not' take a

,taxi? II - [,think I ,will. |1 ,Ah, | 'Here's one ,coming. || Taxi, | The ,Zoo, please.||

THE 'BARBER AND THE ,HA!RDRESSER

The 'hairdresser's a 'most infportant 'mernber of the com,ımınity. |1 Eve- rybody, | male and .female:, | ,old and ,young, | re’qııires his a'ttention ,regularly | 'Men musl have their 'hair ‘cut, ||

-If they have 'beards or mous,taches, | they must, have them ,trimined. |! ‘Those vvho 'don't ,shave them.selves | musl be 'shaved by the ,barber. ||

Women | must have tlıeir 'hair ,cut | or ,waved. || ‘Here | you 'see the ‘inside of a ‘lıairdresser's ,shop. |1 The pro’prietor's

'busy 'cutting somebody's ,hair; || ‘someone else is being ,shaved. || There are 'several 'customers 'sitting on the ,settee, | ,vvaiting their ,turn. || 'One of them's 'reading a ,ne\ı'spaper;| a'nother , customer's just about to ,leave the ,shop. II He’s just had a ,haircut | and a ,shampoo as ,well. || An 'assistant is 'brushing his

,overcoat. || He will ex’pect a ,tip, of course. || I 'aiways 'shave my,self, | with a ,safety-razor. || My ‘brother 'shaves with

an e,lectric razor. || Most, people 'shave 't' every ,day, | but when we're ,lazy I we 'only 'shave 'every other day. || I sup'pose you 'shave yourself ,too,

,don't you? || 1 'alwa}/s 'think a ‘man ,ought to ,shave himself. || 'Personally, 1 'don't like having my 'cheeks and chin 'covered with ‘lather by 'somebody

ejlse| — be,sides, | it's 'much more con.venient | ‘and, | incidentally, cheaper, ta ,shave oneself at ,home | than to have, to 'waste 'time 'going to the ,barber's.||

I 'CO TO THE BARBER’S

- Good after,noon. sir, | 'What can I ,do for you? ||

- ,Haircut | and ,shave, please. || I should aIso 'like a ,manicure, ||

'Take a seat,,please, | - you 'won'l have to 'wait ,long. ||... You're ,next, sir.

II A 'manucurist will soon be ,free. || İn the ‘meantime ] I'll 'cut your ,hair. II Do

you ‘want it .short | or just, .trimmed? ||

- Er — 'not ,too ,slıort.

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- 'Very ,good, ,sir. || ,Ah, | 'here's the ,manicurist, || - 'May 1 have yoıır ,hand, ,please. || ,Thank you. || ... You have, broken the

'nail on this 'fınger 'rather ,badly. || -,Yes, I have || Be carefi.il with my .right thumb, | it's a 'bit ,painfiıl. || - Certainiy. ... How's ,that ,şir? - Just,right, ,thank you | - Your 'hair's ■t' rather ,dry, sir and it's 'getting a bit 'thin on ,top too. || A

'shampoo will' 'get a lot of ,good. || - Er — 'very ,well. || - And now for the ,shave. || - ,Yes, I but be careful , | buy 'skin’s 'rather ,tender. || - You 'needn't ,worry, sir. |1 l’ve ‘only 'once 'cut a ,customer. 1| He

'suddenly 'jerked his ,head | and I 'cut his ,skin. H There was a 'little blood, I but 'nothing to ,speak of 1 I ,soon ,stopped the bleeding. || ... ,There you ,are, sir, I jthank you. ||

- ,Thank you. | By the ,way, | you have a 'ladies' department ,here, | ,haven’ you? || My 'wife 'wants a ,perm. || 'Could I 'fıx an appointment for her to'morrow, at 'three o’,clock, [ ,say? ||

- Just a ,minute, | Til find ,out. ||.... .Yes, | that'll be 'quite all,right. || - And ,now, | how ,much do I ,owe you? |1 - 'That'll be ,six | and six (6/6) alto,gether. || - 'Here's ,seven and ,six (7/6). You can 'keep the ,change.|| - ,Thank you, ,sir. ||

THE ‘SEASONS

The 'year is di'vided into 'four ,seasons | :,spring, | ,summer, | ,autumn | and ‘winter. || İn ‘spring, | 'nature a'wakens from her 'long 'winter 'sleep. || The 'trees are 'fıllcd with 'new 'life, | the 'earth is 'warmed by the 'rays of the sun, I and the

'weather ,gets ‘gradually ,milder. H The 'fıelds | and the 'meadows | are 'covered with 't' fresh 'green ,grass. || The'woods and 'forests I are 'fılled with the i'- songs of the ,birds. |1 The 'sky is 'blue and ‘cloudless.ll At 'night, | 'millions of ,stars | 'shine in the ,darkness. ||

'When ‘sLimmer ,comes, | the 'weather ,gets ^ warmer ‘still | and ‘sometimes it's 'very ,hot. || İt's the 'farmer's busy ,season| - he 'works in his ,fıelds 1

from 'morning tili ,ni'ght. || The 'grass must be ,cut | and the 'hay must be ,made,l while the 'dry ,weather Masts. || ‘Sometimes | the 'skies are ^ over- cast with heavy ,cIouds. || There, are ‘storms | with ‘thunder, | ’lightning and ,hail. ||

'Autumn ,brings with it | the ‘harvest-time, | the 'crops are ‘gathered ,in | and the 'fruit is ‘picked in the ,orchards. || The days ,get 'shorter | and the

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jlights Jonger. || The 'woods | 'turn ,yellow | and ,brown, | leaves be’gin to fall from the ,trees, 'and the 'ground is ,covered with them. || The 'skies are ^ray, | and 'very ’often it ,rains. ||

When ‘winter ,comes, | we're ob'liged to 'spend 't' more 'time in.doors |

jjecause ‘out ot’.doors | it's ‘coid. || We may get-,fog, | .sleet | and ‘frost. || ,Ponds,| lakes, ,rivers | and ,streams | are ‘frozen, | and the 'roads are T" sometimes 'covered with slippery ,ice | or 'deep ,snow. || The ,trees are ‘bare.ll 'Bitter 'north winds | have ’stripped them of T' all their ,leaves.t| I

ATTHESEASIDE

If ,you're 'going to 'stay in ,England for some ,time, | you ought to 'spend at least a 'week at the ,seaside. || If you can ‘stay ,longer, | so 'much the ,better. || j You ought to have ’no ,diffıculty in 'fınding a 'suitable ,hotel | or 'l|oarding-house.|i Let's i'magine a 'picture which ,shows you | what an 'English

,seaside place is like. || You should ex'amine it ‘carefully, | and you oughtn't to be 'satisfied until you 'know ,all about it. || You can 'see 'several 'people in ,bathing-suits. || One of the ,bathers | is just 'running 'in from the ,sea ! to his ,tent. || He ought to be 'very 'healthy and ,strong | iflic 'bathes I' every ,day, | ,oughtn't he? ||

When we were ,children, | we 'used to en'joy 'playing on the ,beach, |

'nlıaking 'castles and ,forls | and ,channels in the ,sand. || 1 ex'pect you 'did the ,same when you were ,young,| because it's i'' really one of the 'most de'lightfui 'holidays for ,children. || We 'used to ‘love 'playing about on the ,sand I and 'paddling in Ihe ,water | and 'getting 'splashed by the ,waves, || Sometimes | we'd 'get our 'clothes ,wet,| and 'Nurse ,wou!d 'get 'very ,cross | aijid 'teli us we ,oughtn't to ‘have 'gone so 'far into the ,water.||

When you're ‘tired of ,London, | 'go down to 'the sea a ,week | or a ,fbıtnight. II You can 'walk 'up and 'down the ,front, | 'listen to the 'band on tde ,pier | and ‘do 'more or 'less anything you ,please. || 'If you 'wish to ,b|athe, | you can 'hire a ,but | or a ,tent. || A 'swim 'now and ,then, | or 'better 'still, 'every 'day, | will do you a 'lot of ,good. || 'Take your ,car with you, if yöu've ,got one, | 'chose a 'good ho,tel, | and you're ‘sure to 'spend a 'thoroughly en'joyable ,time.||

PLANNING A HOLIDAY

- 1 ,say, I 'what are ,you | and your ,sister | ,going to ,do | for your ‘holiday

this ,year? ||

— 'Well, -1 'don't ,know. || 1 should ‘like to ,take my ,sister | for a ‘tour

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,abroad, | but 'then she ‘can't very 'well İ'' leave hef ‘children. || 'What are ,you doing? ||

-We shall ,go to the ‘sea. || I ex,pect | — for ‘part of the ,time, | ‘anyhow.

II 'Then my 'wife and ,I | -may ,go 'off a’lorie for a ‘week or ,so | in the ‘car.

11 ‘Leaving the ,rest of the ,ft>mily, be’hind, 1 suppose. 1| Oh ‘yes. | They'll be 'quite 'sale with their ,nurse | and, besides | they're

‘ever so much ‘happier 'playing about on the ‘sands 1 than 'spending 't' long ,days in the ‘car. ||

'Where do you ‘go, 1 as a ,rule? || —We've 'tried ‘many ,seaside ,places | on the 'east and 'south ‘coasts: 1 'on

the ‘whole, | 'think we pre,fer the ‘south. H Howjwer, | it ‘really doesn't ‘seem to ‘matter very ,much, 1 as 'long as the ,yoangsters-| get a 'good ‘sandy ,beach. |1 ‘What do you ‘do? || 'Take ,rooms, lor 'stay at a ,hotel, | or

‘what? II We've 'done ‘both, | and 'this ,year -we're ,taking a T' furnished ‘house. ||

'Why don't ‘you make up yoıır ,mind to join us | 'fınd a ,house ‘near ,by, | and

'rnake a 't' large ,party. || It'll be ‘great ‘fun. || For my ‘own ,part, | 1 shoLild ‘love.it. || I'll 'talk it 'over with my ‘sister, | and 'see what ,she ‘thinks about it. II

Do, I and 'let me ,know as 't' soon as you ,can. 1| ‘FLight, 1 will.||

DOCTOR, DENTİST AND CHEMIST

If you have ,toothache, | 'you should 'go to your .dentist. ||

- He'll e,xamine your ,teeth, | and if the 'aching 'tooth is 'not 'too 'far ,gone, 1 he’ll ‘stop it. 1|. If it's ,too ,bad, | he'll ‘take it ,out. || If you ,don't ,feel ,well, | -you should con,sult a ‘doctor. || If you 'feel 'too ‘ill to ,go to the ,doctor's,| you'll have to ‘send for him.|| He'll ,ask you | to des,cribe'to him | the 'symptoms of your illness. || ,Then | he'll feel your ,pulse, | 'look at your ,tongue I and e’xamine you ‘thoroughiy. || ‘Finally | he'll pre’scribe the treatment | and 'write out a

pres’cription. || 'Doctors' pres,criptions | are 'made up by a ,chemist. || At chemists ,shops 1

you can 'aIso 'get 'patent 'medicines of 4' all ,kinds,| lotions, | tonics, | 'cough ,mixtures, | ‘baby ,foods, | ,aspirin, | pilis, | ,ointment, | ,bandages, | ad’hesive ,plaster | and so on. 1| You can ‘buy ,razors | and 'razor-,blades, | ‘vacuum-,flasks, | 'hot'water ,bottles, 1 ,sponges, | 'tooth'brushes and 'tooth-

,pastes, I ‘powder-puffs, | ,lipsticks, | 'shaving-'soap and 'shaving-,brushes | and a 'hundred and 'one other ,things. ||

If you're 'interested in pho’tography, | you can 'aIso ‘get Vcameras 1 and

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‘films at ,most chemists, || They'll de,velop | and ‘print your ,films for you ,töo. II Some ,chemi;;ts | are 'aIso 'quaiified op,ticians, | and ’if your 'eyesight's ,faulty | the}''ll 'test your .eyes | and pre'scribe ,glasses for you.||

A VISIT TO THE DOCTOR

,Well, I 'what's the matter with you. Mr. , Walker? || You'd 'better ,ask ne | 'what is ‘not .matter with me, ,doctor. || 1 'seem to be

'suffering from all the 'illnesses i’maginable: | in,somma | Jıeadaches [

.backache | indi,gestion | , consti,pation, | and 'pains in the ,stomach. || To 'rpake 'things 'still ,wo'se, | I've 'caught a ,cold, | I've 'got a ,sore throat, | and I'm 'constantly T' sneezing and ,coughing. || To 'crown it ,all. | I had an ,accident the ,other ,day | 'hurt my 'right ,shoulder | ‘leg and ,knee | and 'nearly 'broke my ,neck. || If i 'take a 'Icng ,walk | I 'get 'shoıt of ,breath. || - In ,fact I 1 'feel more ,cead | than a ‘live. ||

I'm 'sorry ,to hear ,that.|| ' Anyhow | 1 'hope 'things 'aren't as 'bad as you i’Wıagine. || 'Let me e'xamine you. || Your ,heart, | .chest | and ,lungs, | seem to be all ,right. || Now 'open your ,mouth | and 'show me your ,tongue. |1 Now 'breathe in 'deeply' through the ,nose. || ....There 'doesn't seem to be 'anything 'radically ,wrong with you | but ,it's 'quite ,clear | that you're 'run down I and 'if you 'doı't 'take ‘care of your ,self, | you may have a 'nervous ,breakdown | and

have to 'go to ,hospital. || I ad,vise you, | first of,all, | to 'stop ,worrying. || Take a 'long ,rest, | have

'regular ,meals, | 'keep to a 'diet of ,salads | and ,fruit, | and 'very 'little ,meat. I 'Keep off ,alcohol. || If ,possible, | 'give up ,smoking, | at ,Ieast for a ,time. || -Have this 'tonic ‘made up | and 'take 'two 'tablespoonfuls 'thres times a ,day I be’fore ,meals. || If you 'do ,this. | I can 'promise you 'full re'covery within two I

or three ,months. || And 'if 1 ,don't, doctor? || Then you d 'better 'rnake your ,will, | if you 'haven't yet ,done so. || I ,see.

I jWell, I ,thank you, doctor || I shall have to 'think it ,over | and de,cide | which is the 'lesser ,e\'il 1 — to 'follow ,your advice | or pre'pare for a 'better ,worid.||

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PHONETIC VOCABULARY

accent [‘^ksənt]- l)aksent, ləhcə; 2)vurğu accented [ək’sentid] - vurğulu

accidental [,aeksi’dentl] - təsadüfi accomodation [ə,komə’deiln] - akkomodasiya, uyuşma acoustic[ə’ku;stik] — akustik acoustic impression [ə’ku;stik im’prejn] — akustik təəssürat actual speech ['äektuəl ‘spi:tj] - canlı danışıq adaption [,abdəp’teijn] — adaptasiya, uyğunlaşma, uyuşma adjacent [ə’daeisənt] - qovuşuq, yapışıq, qonşu advanced [əd’vamst] — irəli vəziyyətli, önə doğru yönəlmiş affect [ə’fekt]

— süniləşdirmək, dəyişmək, təsir etmək affıxes [‘aefıksiz] — şəkilçilər affıxation [,äefik’seijn] — affiksasiya, şəkilçiqəbul etmə affricate [‘®frikit] — affrikat, qovuşuq samit afterthought [‘ä: ftə0D;t] - əlavə (söz, cümlə) allophone [‘äeləfoun] - allofon, fonem variantı alternate [‘D:lt3:neit] - əvəzlənmək ,

alternation series [,3;lt3:nei}n ‘siəri;z] - əvəzlənmə sıraları alternative question [D:lt3:nətvi ‘kwestjən] - alternativ sual alveolar [‘selvjələ] - alveolyar, yuvaq (səs haqqında) alveoles [‘slvioulz] -yuvaqlar alveolus [sel’viələs] — yuvaq aperture [‘aep’tjuə] - keçid, növ

apical - alveolar [‘sepikəl ‘selvyələ] — apical - alveolyar (səs haqqında) articulate [a;’tikju:leit] - tələffüz etmək articulation [a:,tikyu’leilən] — artikulyasiya, tələffüz məxrəci articulation basis [aıtikju’leijn ‘beisis] —artikulyasiya bazası articulatory [a;,tikjulətri] - artikulyator ascending scale [ə’sendiq] - qalxan şkala

aspirated [‘sespircitid] - nəfəslənən aspiration [‘äjspi’reijənj - nəfəslənmə assimilate [ə’simileit] - uyuşdurmaq assimilated [ə’simileitid] - assimilyasiyaya uğrayan, uyuşan,uyuşmuş assimilating [ə’simileitiq] - uyuşduran assimilation [ə’simileijn] — assimilyasiya, uyuşma author’s words [‘D:0əz W3;dz] - müəllif sözləri

back — advanced vowels [‘baek əd’vamst vauəlz] — arxa sıra irəli vəziyyətli saitlər

backlingual [‘bdekliqgwəlj - dilarxası (səs haqqında)

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CONTENTS

İNTRODUCTİON

The phone Transcription English literary pronunciation The articulation basic of the English language Consonants Vowels

5 5 6

7 5

8

10

PARTI

THE ESSENTIALS OF ENGLİSH PHONETICS

The organs of speech and their functions Classifıcation of speech soımds Types of obstruction Classifıcation of English vowel phonemes Classifıcation of English consonant phonemes The articulation of the English vowel phonemes English front monophthongs

English back monophthongs English Central monophthongs English diphtongs The System of exersices on English vowels The articulation of the English consonant phonemes The English occlusive consonant phonemes Occlusive sonorants

English constrictive consonant phonemes The English occlusive - constrictive consonant phonemes fricates) The System of exersices on English consonants Phonemes in connected speech English consonants in connected speech The junction of speesch sounds Merging of stages

(af-

11 1 i 12

12

12

13 19 19 22 25

25 30 49 49 49 54

62 65 89 89 90 91

Interpenetration of stages Assimilation Assimilation of consonants

Direction of assimilation Degrees of assimilation

224

92

95

95

96

97

Finished and unfinished (jııxtapositional) assimilation Obliqatoıy and accidental assimilation Conditions favoıırable for assimilation Mistakes in assimilation PHONEME ALTERNATIONS

Phonetik phoneme alternations Phonologikal phoneme alternations SYLLABLE Syllable formation and syllable division in English WORD STRESS Word with one stress

Words with one primary and one secondary stress Word with two primary stresses Stress in compound noııns Word stress in nouns and verbs with the same spelling Rhythmic variations of word stress Reading rules

Vowels graphemes in stressed syllables List of full and reduced forms

90 90 90 99 99

100

101

103 106 110 111

112

1 13 1 14 1 14 1 14 115 115 118

PART II THE ESSENTIALS OF ENGLİSH INTONATION

Function of the English intonation Intonation and its componenets Methods of indicating intonation Stressed and unstressed elements of the English speech İntonation of declarative sentences

Simple sentences Complex sentences Compound sentences İntonation of interrogative sentences intonation of general question İntonation of special questions

intonation of alternative questions İntonation of disjunctive questions intonation of complex interrogative questions İntonation of imperative sentences intonation of complex imperative sentences " intonation of exclamatory sentences

intonation of sentences containing parenthesis

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121

122

123

129

132

132

135

137

137

138

137

139

139

139

140

142

143

144

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The melody of short parenthesis standing at the beginning of the sentence The melody of short parenthesis standing in the middle of the sentence The melody of short parenthesis standing at the end of the sentence İntonation of sentences containing author’s words The melody of the aııthor’s words at the beginning of the sentence The melody of the author’s words in the middle of the sentence The melody of the author’s words at the end of the sentence İNTONATİON OF EMPHATIC SPEECH (emphasis) İntensity emphasis Contrast emphasis intonation of emphatic questions İntonation of short answers to general questions Sequences of melodic pattems Ways of saying some everyday expressious The rhythmic structure of English speech Communicative types of sentences for transcribing and intoning

145

146

146

147

147

147

148

149

145

154

158

161

162

165

170

171

PART III

PHONETIC READER....

Evening (by P.B. Shelley) The Masque of Anarchy (by P.B. Shelley) An extract from “The Cloud” (by P.B. Shelley) My Soul is Dark (by G.G. Byron) Twilight (by G.G. Byron)

The Arrow and the Song (by Longfellov/) Extract from “HAMLET”, Prince of Denmark (by W. Shakespeare) Daffodils (by W. Wordsworth) The slave in the dismal swamp (by Longfeilow) Peace of Earth (by Joe Wallace) Extract from “Robinson Grusoe” (by D. Defoe) No

Enemies Extract from “The Pickwick ckıb” Three men in a boat

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179

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180

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182

182

183

184

185

185

186

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At the seaside Planning a holiday Doctor, Dentist and Chemist A visit to the Doctor Phonetic vocabulai'y

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213

214

215

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Documents

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