Mixed Approach

8/9/2019 Mixed Approach

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MIXEDMIXED METHODMETHOD

APPROACHAPPROACHby

Prof. Philip AE Serumaga-ZakeUNISA SBL

March 23, 2010


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QUALITATIVE APPROACHQUALITATIVE APPROACH

Refers to research that:

focus on phenomena that occur in natural settings real world

involve studying those phenomena in all their complexities (Leedy and Ormrod,

2010).

Qualitative researchers normally try to portray issues in their multifacetedforms.

Often formulate general research problems or ask general questions at the

beginning and so, cannot know the right methods to use, but with time, as they

come to learn more and more about the phenomenon, they tend to ask specific

questions, formulate specific hypotheses and know better specific methods to

apply.Qualitative researchers must be well trained in observation and interviewing

strategies, with a firm grasp of previous research

With qualitative research, there is no quick and easy answers like yes, no

answers.


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What is Qualitative Research?

Often uses multiple forms of data

Takes a great deal of time

The researcher should record any potentially useful data thoroughly,

accurately and systematically, using field notes, audiotapes, sketches,

photographs, etc.

Often researchers use non-random purposive samples for which key

informants give most of the information being sought.

Normally small non-random samples are used

The researcher/interviewer is an integral part of the investigationIt is subjective but the truth is being sought

It is holistic and contextual

Normally in-depth interviewing and observation are used to collect data

Uses inductive rather than deductive process to derive themes or patterns

Thematic categorization of data, narrative description and content analysis

including coding are used in data analysis and reporting the study resultsQualitative researchers aim to gather an in-depth understanding ofhuman

behaviourand the reasons for such behaviour.

Qualitative research aim to describe systematically observations of social

behaviourwith no preconceived hypotheses to be tested (Rubin & Babbie,

1993).


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Hypotheses emerge from the observation and interpretation of human

behaviour, leading to further observations and the generation of new

hypotheses for exploration.The interviewer is an integral part of the investigation making the

research subjective.

Qualitative research uses detailed descriptions from the perspective of the research

participants themselves as a means of examining specific issues and problems under

study.

Qualitative approaches have the advantages of flexibility, in-depth analysis,and the potential to observe a variety of aspects of a social situation

(Babbie, 1986).

By developing and using questions on the spot in (a face-to-face interview),

a qualitative researcher can gain a more in-depth understanding of the

respondent's beliefs, attitudes, or situation.

During the interview, observational data can be of particular value when a

respondent's body language runs counter to the verbal response given to an

interview question.


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Gilgun (1990) suggested these steps of doing a qualitative research:

1. Identification of the area under investigation

2. Literature review - Drawing on the theoretical and research literature, suchquestions may be formulated and organized in advance to address a specific

research topic.

3. Selection of variables or parameters of study

4. Collection of data

5. Comparison of patterns of first case with those of second case6. Development of working hypothesis as common patterns emerge across

interviews

7. Formulation of additional questions and modification of questions, based

on analysis

8. Continuation of theoretical sampling

9. Review of relevant literature when patterns appear to stabilize10.Linking of relevant literature to the empirically grounded hypotheses

11.Testing of theoretical formulations derived from preceding step

12.Revision of theoretical formulations as needed to fit empirical patterns in

each subsequent step.


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y Produces more in-depth, comprehensive information.

y Uses subjective information and participant

observation to describe the context, or natural setting,of the variables under consideration, as well as the

interactions of the different variables in the context.

y It seeks a wide and deep understanding of the entire

situation.

Disadvantages of qualitative research

y The very subjectivity of the inquiry leads to difficulties in establishing the

reliability and validity of the approaches and information.

y It is very difficult to prevent or detect researcher induced bias.

y Its scope is limited due to the in-depth, comprehensive data gathering

a roaches re uired.

The process ends when the researcher reaches theoretical saturation,

the point at which no new data are emerging (see also Glaser & Strauss,

1967). Through this procedure emerging theories are grounded in data and

are linked to other theories and research (Gilgun, 1992).

Advantages of qualitative research


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Methods ofData Collection

Methods include interviews and focus group discussions, observation(Participant Observation, Non-participant Observation), field notes, various

texts, pictures, and other materials.

Structured interviews

Limited time and financial resources may lead some qualitative researchers

to pursue other data collection techniques, such as a structured interview

schedule with open-ended questions.

Qualitative Research Designs (Leedy & Ormrod, 2005)

Case study

Ethnography

Phenomenological study

Grounded theory studyContent analysis


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We dig deep to get a complete understanding of the phenomenon.

We collect different forms of data and examine them from various angles

to construct a rich and meaningful picture of a complex, multifaceted

situation - triangulation.

Note: There are several different research designs to use but they: all focus on a phenomenon in its natural setting in the real world.

involve studying the phenomenon in all its complexity in a multifaceted

and all its dimensions.

The researcher must keep his/her perceptions, impressions and biases to

him/herself. What matters is to get the truth.

In the academic social sciences the most frequently used qualitativeresearch approaches include the following:Ethnographic Research, used for investigating cultures by collecting anddescribing data that is intended to help in the development of a theory.Grounded Theory, an inductive type of research, based or grounded in

the observations or data from which it was developed; it uses a variety ofdata sources, including quantitative data, review of records, interviews,observation and surveys.Phenomenological Research, describes the subjective reality of anevent, as perceived by the study population; it is the study of aphenomenon.


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Data analysis

Interview questions and responses are typically tape-recorded and then

transcribed verbatim before analysis is begun.

Qualitative researchers often categorize data into patterns as theprimary basis for organizing and reporting results.

Narrative descriptions of data collected through interviews, observations,

and case records are also used in qualitative analysis.

Content analysis is often used in qualitative and quantitative researchmethods.


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When to use qualitative approach?

Purposes:

Description of situations, settings, processes, relationships or people

Interpretation enables researchers:

oTo gain new insights about a particular phenomenon

oDevelop new concepts or theoretical perspectives about a phenomenon, or

oDiscover the problems that occur within the phenomenon

Verification to test the validity of certain assumptions, claims, theories or

generalizations within real-world.Evaluation provides means through which a researcher can assess the

effectiveness of a policy, programme, practice or innovation

Note: Qualitative research cannot address cause-and-effect relationships or questions

like, why did such and such happen? You need quantitative research, especially

experiments.


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Qualitative Research DesignsQualitative Research Designs

1. A case study

- A particular individual programme or event is studied in depth for a specifiedperiod of time

e.g., a medical researcher studying the nature and treatment of a rare illness for a

particular patient or strategies a teacher uses to teach his/her school children

- can be generalized to similar situations or environments

- sometimes researchers study 2 or more cases for comparison, build a theory or

generalizations

- may be suitable for learning more about a little known or poorly understood

situations or investigating how an individual or programme changes over time

- case studies can be useful to generate or provide preliminary support for

hypotheses

Note:T

he problem is generalization is not easy


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Method

Site-based fieldwork

P

rolonged engagement in the groups natural settingThe researcher observe and record processes

First step is to gain access to the site

The research must often go thru a gatekeeper, e.g., tribal chief, a principal

After gaining entry into the site, the researcher must establish rapport with and gain

trust of the people being studied

Researcher must be open about why he/she is there. This is ethical.Informed consent is important

A big net approach, intermingling with everyone and getting overall sense of the

social and cultural context

It requires considerable patience and tolerance


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Gradually, the researcher identifies key informants who can provide the necessary

information and insights relevant to the research question and can facilitate contacts

with other helpful individualsSometimes the researcher engages in participant observation, becoming immersed

in the daily life of the people.

Throughout the fieldwork, the researcher must be a careful observer, interviewer

and listener

Lengthy conversations and significant events can be recorded using audiotapes and

videotapes.The researcher may also collect artifacts (e.g., tools, ritualistic implements, artistic

creations) and records (e.g., accounting ledgers, personal journals, etc) from the

group.


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3. Phenomenological study

Phenomenology refers to a persons perception of the meaning of an event, as

opposed to the event as it exists external to the person.

It is a study that attempts to understand peoples perceptions, perspectives, and

understandings of a particular situation.

E.g., a researcher might study the experiences of people caring for a dying relative,

living in abusive relationship, etc

Sometimes the researcher wants to gain a betterunderstanding of the experience

related to a phenomenon. By looking at multiple perspectives on the same

situation, the researcher can make some generalizations.

Method

Depends almost exclusively on lengthy interviews (say, 1 to 2 hours) with a

carefully selected sample of participants. Say, 5 to 25 individuals, all of whom

have had direct experience with the phenomenon being studied (Creswell, 1998).

Often a very unstructured interviewsThe researcher listens closely as participants describe their everyday experiences

A typical interview looks more like informal conversation, with the participant

doing most of the talking and the researcher doing most of the listening.


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Grounded theory study

Least likely to begin from a particular theoretical framework.

Main purpose is to begin with the data and use them to develop a theory

The study uses a prescribed set of procedures for analysing data and

constructing a theoretical model from them

Typically, the study focuses on a process (including peoples actions and

interactions) related to a particular topic, with the ultimate goal of developing a

theory about that process (Creswell, 2008).

E.g., to study childrens eating habits, college students thoughts and feelings during

classroom discussions, and workers stress levels in public service agencies.


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Method

Data collection is field-based, flexible, and likely to change over the course of the

study.

Interviews typically play a major role in data collection, but observations,documents, historical records, videotapes, and anything else of potential relevance to

the research question may also be used.

Like in the case of the other designs, data analysis begins almost immediately the

researcher develops categories to classify the data.

Subsequent data collection is aimed at saturating the categories in essence,

learning as much about them as possible and at finding any disconfirming evidence

that may suggest revisions in the categories identified or interrelationships among

them.

The process of moving back and forth between data collection and data analysis,

with data analysis driving later data collection, is sometimes called the constant

comparative method.The theory that ultimately evolves is one that includes numerous concepts and

interrelationships among those concepts


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Content analysis

A detailed and systematic examination of the contents of a particular material

for the purpose ofidentifying patterns, themes or biases.Typically performed on forms of communication, including books, newspaper,

films, television, art, music, videotapes, transcripts of conversations, etc.

The researcher defines a specific research problem or question at the very

beginning.

E.g. Do contemporary television commercials reflect traditional gender stereotypes?

Method

Identify the specific body of material to be studied

Define the characteristics or qualities to be examined in precise concrete terms

Etc


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When to choose a qualitative method

Qualitative research serves the following purposes:

Descriptive reveal nature of certain situations, settings, processes,

relationships, system or people.Interpretation to gain new insights about a phenomenon, develop new

concepts and theoretical perspectives, etc and discover the problem that

exists within the phenomenon.

Verification it allows the researcher to test the validity of certain

assumptions, claims, theories or generalizations within the real world

Evaluation a means through which a researcher can assess theeffectiveness of a particular policy, programme, practice or innovation. For

e.g., understanding how and why programme outcomes are not achieved.

Programme evaluation studies involving the qualitative approach focus on

participants' perceptions and their experiences in the programme (Bogdan &

Taylor, 1990; Patton, 1990; Rubin & Babbie, 1993).

Tries to paint a picture of a given situation by addressing questions: who,

what, when, where and how. For e.g., an economic or employment situation

in SA


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Note:

Qualitative studies normally take long time periods, e.g. months and years

They do not normally give quick and easy answers to research questionsQualitative studies are subjective and it is difficult for other researchers to

repeat the studies, let alone to evaluate the studies in terms of the researcher

biases.

Unlike for a quantitative study, in the case of a qualitative research, the

researcher is the data collection instrument

Purposive sampling based on previous research is normally usedQualitative approach is weak at investigating relationships between

phenomena and predicting phenomena

Generalizations tend to be impossible because they normally use

nonrandom and small sample sizes


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QUANTITATIVE APPROACHQUANTITATIVE APPROACH

Uses mathematics and statistical methods to study phenomena.

Often used to study relationships between variables or phenomena and topredict

Uses statistical methods to test hypotheses

It is more objective than the qualitative approach

Its designs are mostly:

Experiments, and

Research surveys.

Quantitative studies normally use large sample sizes, randomly selected

subjects and representative samples

Randomization of any experimental groups is essential, and a control

group should be included, wherever possible.

A sound quantitative design should only manipulate one variable at a time,or statistical analysis becomes difficult and open to question.

Ideally, the research should be constructed in a manner that allows other

researchers to repeat the experiment or study and obtain similar results.


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Advantages

Using a quantitative research design is an excellent way of finalizing results

and proving or disproving a hypothesis.

The structure is standard across many scientific fields and disciplines.After a statistical analysis of the data, a comprehensive answer is reached,

and the results can be legitimately discussed and published.

Quantitative studies try to filter out external factors (if properly designed), and

so the results gained can be seen as real and unbiased.

Scientific experiments are useful for testing the data gained by a series of

qualitative experiments, leading to a final answer, and a narrowing down ofpossible directions for follow up research to take.

Disadvantages

Quantitative studies must be carefully planned to ensure that there is

complete randomization and correct designation ofcontrol groups.

Quantitative studies usually require extensive statistical analysis.


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Experiment

regarded as the most accurate and unequivocal standard for testing a

hypothesis.generates good statistical data.

manipulates one or more variables to generate analyzable data.

should be designed with laterstatistical tests in mind, by making sure that

the experiment has controls and a large enough sample group to provide

statistically valid results.

Every true experimental design must have a hypothesis to test as the

ultimate aim of any experiment.

The precursor to a hypothesis is a research problem, usually framed as a

question. It might ask what, or why something is happening.

Experiments are sometimes referred to as true science. They use

traditional mathematical and statistical means to measure and analyse dataconclusively.


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The Basics

With most true experiments, the researcher is trying to establish a causal

relationship between variables, by manipulating an independent variable to

assess its effect upon dependent variables.Random groups are the best way of ensuring that the groups are as

identical as possible.

The basis of conducting an experiment

With an experiment, the researcher is trying to learn something new about

the world, an explanation of why something happens.

This method of study is especially useful for trying to test theoreticalmodels by using them in real world situations.

Interpretation

The observations are often referred to as 'empirical evidence' and the

logic/thinking leads to the conclusions.


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2. Survey Research Design

A Survey

Five preliminary steps that should be taken when embarking on a research project

can be identified.T

hey are:choose a topic

review the literature

determine the research question or objectives

develop a hypothesis, and

operationalise, that is, find the suitable research methodology and use it to

implement the research plan to answer the research question or to achieve pre-determined objectives of the study.

Two additional considerations that are very crucial, namely:

designing a representative sample randomly selected, and

a questionnaire to be used to collect data.

By a representative sample, we mean an accurate proportional representation

of the population under study.In this sample, every characteristic in the population should be well or fairly

represented.

In other words, to obtain reliable results on the characteristics of interest of the

population, a sample, through the process of randomization should in all relevant

respects be a true image or reflection of the target population.


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Longitudinal Study

A longitudinal study is observational research performed over a period

of years or even decades, and allows social scientists and economists to

study long-term effects in a human population.A cohort study is a subset of the longitudinal study because it observes

the effect of a factor or variable on a specific group of people over time.

There are two main sub-types of cohort study, the retrospective and the

prospective cohort study.

The major difference: retrospective looks at phenomena that have

already happened, whilst the prospective type starts from the present.Trend studies focus on a particular population, which is sampled and

scrutinized repeatedly.

An example of a trend study is an annual survey of the average hourly earnings

of workers in the manufacturing industry in South Africa over a long period of

time.

A trend line is then fitted to the data.

While samples are of the same population, they are typically not composed of

the same people.

Several data from several studies of the same population (not necessarily done

by the same researcher) may be combined to investigate the trend of the

characteristic (or variable) of interest.


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Cohort studies also focus on a particular population sampled and studied more

than once.

For example, a sample of the 2010 first-year students at the SBL could be

questioned regarding their attitude toward the library staff.Two years later, the researcher could question another sample of the same 2010

first-year students and study any changes in attitude.

Note: If after the two years, the 2012 first-year students were studied, the study

would be a trend study instead.

Retrospective Cohort StudyThe retrospective case study is historical in nature. The researcher looks

at historical data to judge the effects of the variable.

It is a lot easier than the prospective, but there is no control, and

confounding variables can be a problem, as the researcher cannot easily

assess the lifestyle of the subject.

A retrospective study is a very cheap and effective way of studyinghealth risks or the effects of exposure to pollutants and toxins.

It gives results quickly, at the cost ofvalidity, because it is impossible to

eliminate all of the potentially confounding variables from historical

records and interviews alone.

Note: Secondary data can be used here


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Prospective Cohort Study

In a prospective cohort study, the effects of a certain variable are plotted

over time, and the study becomes an ongoing process.

To maintain validity, all of the subjects must be initially free of the

condition tested for.

Ambidirectional Cohort Study

The ambidirectional cohort study is the ultimate method, combining

retrospective and prospective aspects.

The researcher studies and analyzes the previous history of the cohortsand then continues the research in a prospective manner.

This gives the most accurate results, but is an extremely difficult

undertaking, costing time and a great deal of money.

The ambidirectional study shares one major drawback with the

prospective study, in that it is impossible to guarantee that any data can

be followed up, as participants may decline to participate or dieprematurely.

These studies need to look at very large samples to ensure that any

attributional losses can be absorbed by the statistics


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Panel studies allow the researcher to find out why changes in the population are

occurring since they use the same sample of people every time.

T

hat sample is referred to as a panel.A researcher could for example, select a sample of the SBL students and asks

them questions on their future work expectations.

Every year thereafter, the researcher would contact the same people and ask

them similar questions and ask them the reasons for any changes in their

expectations.

Panel studies suffer from attrition, that is, people drop out of the study forvarious reasons, for example, moving away from the area of study, dying,

deciding not to participate in the subsequent surveys, etc.


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Mail

This does not necessarily mean using the postal service; this includes

delivering it physically.

This is a good way of targeting a certain section of people and isexcellent if you need to ask personal or potentially embarrassing

questions.

The problems with this method are that you cannot be sure of how many

responses you will receive until a long time period has passed.

Structuring andD

esigning the QuestionnaireThe design of your questionnaire depends very much upon the type of

survey and the target audience.

If you are asking questions face to face it is easy to explain if people are

unsure of a question.

On the other hand, if your questionnaire is going to include many

personal questions then mailing methods are preferable.You must keep your questionnaire as short as possible; people will either

refuse to fill in a long questionnaire or get bored halfway through.

If you do have lots of information then it may be preferable to offer

multiple-choice or rating questions to make life easier.


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Statistical data Sets

These are a collection of data - maintained in an organized form.

The basis of any statistical analysis has to start with the collection of

data, which is then analyzed using statistical tools.

Therefore statistical data sets form the basis from which statistical

inferences can be drawn.

Statistical data sets may record as much information as is required by

the experiment or survey.

For example, to study the relationship between height and age, onlythe measures of these two variables might be recorded in the data set.

Creating a statistical data set is only the first step in research.

The interpretation and validity of the inferences drawn from the data is

what is most important.

The next step is to devise which statistical test you are going to use

and start to enter some numbers to judge the significance of your data.


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USE OF MIXED METHODSUSE OF MIXED METHODS

How to choose an approach or method

Depends on the research questions and the research skill of theresearcher.

Appropriateness ofMethod

Some methods are better suited to a study of certain research questions than

others. Some might even be totally inappropriate to your research question.

So type of research methodology depends on:

Research Questions/problem

Variables qualitative or quantitative


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Type of data nominal, ordinal, interval or ratio

1. Nominal-scaled data

These are mainly qualitative and assigned to a number of categories of equal importance,

for example, gender [male, female].2. Ordinal-scaled data

Ordinal-scaled data are mainly qualitative and assigned to coded categories. Ranking is

implied between categories, for example, Class [1st years, 2nd years, 3rd years, Honours].

3. Interval-scaled data

These are quantitative; they possess both order and distance but no origin, for example,

IQ scores and temperature (say, in degrees Centigrade).

4. Ratio-scaled data

Ratio-scaled data are quantitative with a zero origin, for example, age, height and weight.

They possess all the properties of the other data types. Ratio is regarded as the

strongest level of data and nominal the weakest.


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When the phenomenon being investigated is not well understood, a

qualitative research can be used first to generate preliminary hypotheses,

and then quantitative research is used to test specific hypotheses.

For comprehensive studies, it is better to use both approaches (i.e.

qualitative and quantitative), a situation where, the quantitative method

helps to test hypotheses and to make the study more objective and the

qualitative method helps to give a complete understanding or in-depth

information on the phenomenon being studied in all its dimensions.

Complex studies, having many different research questions may use

both approaches to answer particular questions or to address particular

research problems.

E.g., poverty is multidimensional in nature, i.e., it has social, political and

economic dimensions. So, a poverty study may need both approaches to

be studied a situation where the qualitative research methods are usedto investigate the social and political issues and help the voice of the poor

to be heard and quantitative methods are used to study the economic

issues.


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Normally a semi-structured questionnaire is used to include both

closed and open-ended questions.

Note:

Social experiences and the realities of the world are multidimensional andso if phenomena are viewed only along a single dimension we cannot have a

complete picture of what is going on around us.

Qualitative empirical research tends to expose the complexity of real life

experience.

The use of mixed methods and a multidimensional approach allows the

researcher to frame questions which precisely focus on how differentdimensions and scales of social existence are related.

The particular strength of qualitative research lies in the knowledge provided

regarding the dynamics of social processes, change and social context, and in its

ability to answer how and why questions in those domains.

There are two core elements to the logic of qualitative explanation: one relates

to a qualitative logic of comparison, e.g., between cases, situations, contexts,

over time, etc and the second relates to the significance of context.

Understanding how social processes and phenomena are embedded within

specific contexts makes possible the development of cross-contextual

generalizations.


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This entails the use of contextual explanation, where emphasis is on explaining

how different dimensions of context together link up together with the

processes or questions driving the study.

Using mixed methods to triangulate or to corroborate each other suggests an

integrated framework, where each method and form of data is used to highlight

a specific part of the picture.

There might however be tensions arising from differences in approaches to

data collection because of using different sets of assumptions.

To overcome any such potential difficulty the solution is in how explanations

are done.

Explanations do not have to be internally consistent to have a meaning and

capacity to explain.

If indeed the realities of the world are multidimensional political, social,

cultural, economic, etc, then explanations arising from mixed data-collection methods would be likewise (see Cho and Trent, 2006; Dixon-

Woods, et. al. 2006, Moran-Ellis, 2006; Mason, 2006 in Kimani, 2009).


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Remember:

Using a quantitative research design is an excellent way of finalizing

results and proving or disproving a hypothesis, and

Scientific experiments are useful for testing the data gained by a series

of qualitative experiments, leading to a final answer, and a narrowing

down of possible directions for follow up research to take.

Documents

Mixed Approach