Mitigating global warming

Chautauqua UWA-6, Dr. E.J. Zita9-11 July 2007

Fire, Air, and Water: Effects of the Sun, Atmosphere, and Oceans in Climate Change and Global Warming

Title

Solving the Climate and Energy ProblemSolving the Climate and Energy Problem

Stephen W. PacalaPetrie Chair in Ecology

Director, Princeton Environmental Institute

April 2006

Surface Air Warming (°F)

2xCO2 Climate

4xCO2 Climate

GFDL Model

Monsters Behind the DoorMonsters Behind the Door

• Ocean Circulation

• Hurricanes

• Sahel Drought

• Ice Sheets

Instability of Ocean CirculationInstability of Ocean Circulation

Manabe and Stouffer

Increasing Hurricane IntensityIncreasing Hurricane Intensity

Source: Knutson and Tuleya 2004, Journal of Climate 17, 3477-3495

Drought in the SahelDrought in the Sahel

(Held et al. 2006)

Ice Sheet Ice Sheet InstabilityInstability

(Oppenheimer et al. 2004)

$100/tC

Form of Energy Equivalent to $100/tC

Natural gas $1.50/1000 scf

Crude oil $12/barrel

Coal $65/U.S. ton

Gasoline 25¢/gallon (ethanol subsidy: 50¢/gallon)

Electricity from coal 2.2¢/kWh (wind and nuclear subsidies: 1.8 ¢/kWh)

Electricity from natural gas 1.0¢/kWh

Today’s US energy system ~ $150 billion/year (~1% of GDP)

Carbon emission charges in the neighborhood of $100/tC can enable most available alternatives. (PV is an exception.)

$100/tC is approximately the October 2005 EU trading price.Source: Robert Socolow

Three interdependent problems lead to the conclusion that it is time to replace our energy system…

The Oil Problem (OP) The Air Pollution Problem (APP) The Climate Problem (CP)

1947-48 Postwar dislocations

1952-53 Iranian nationalization, strikes

1956-57 Suez Crisis

1969 strikes

1973-74 OAPEC embargo

1978-79 Iranian revolution

1980-81 Iran-Iraq War

1990 Persian Gulf War

2000 East Asian Economic Growth

Source: James D. Hamilton

Costs of Iraq, Afghanistan and Costs of Iraq, Afghanistan and Enhanced Security in Billions of US Enhanced Security in Billions of US

Dollars (4 Years)Dollars (4 Years)• Iraq 309• Afganistan 99• Enhanced Security 24• Other 45

• Total 477

• Time Frame FY 2002-2005• Source Congressional Research Service Report

Steve Kosiak

Incremental Costs Since 9/11

• Grand Total, Iraq• DoD costs: $585 billion• Non-DoD assistance: $24 billion• VA costs: $77-179 billion• Brain injuries: $14-35 billion• Interest: $98-386 billion• Total: $798-1,209 billion

• Stiglitz– Direct costs: $839-1,189 billion– Macroeconomic: $187-1,050 billion– Total: $1,026-2,239 billion

Source: Steve Kosiak

Center for Strategic and Budgetary Analysis

Estimated Deaths Per Year from

Air Pollution

US – 130,000

World – >3,000,000

Source: The Skeptical Environmentalist pp. 168, 182

@ $2.5 million per life, US cost is $ 330 billion/y

Three interdependent problems lead to the conclusion that it is time to replace our energy system…

Do we have the technological know-how to Do we have the technological know-how to construct an energy system that would solve construct an energy system that would solve all three problems?all three problems?

The Oil Problem (OP) The Air Pollution Problem (APP) The Climate Problem (CP)

Carbon Mitigation Initiative at Princeton, 2001-2010

Carbon CaptureCarbon Capture

Carbon ScienceCarbon Science

Carbon StorageCarbon Storage

Carbon PolicyCarbon Policy

$21,150,000 funding from BP and Ford.

Stabilization Wedges: Solving the Climate Problem for the Next 50 Years with Current

Technologies

Stephen W. Pacala and Robert SocolowScience Vol. 305 968-972 August 13, 2004

20562006

14

7

Billion of Tons of Carbon Emitted per Year

1956

0

Historical emissions

1.9

2106

Past EmissionsPast Emissions

20562006

14

7

1956

0

1.9

2106

The Stabilization Triangle

OInterim Goal

Billion of Tons of Carbon Emitted per Year

Currently

projected path

= “ramp”

Historical emissions

Flat path

Stabilization Triangle

(380)

(850)

The Stabilization Triangle: The Stabilization Triangle: Beat doubling or accept tripling (details)Beat doubling or accept tripling (details)

Values in parentheses are ppm. Note the identity (a fact about the size of the Earth’s atmosphere): 1 ppm = 2.1 GtC.

14

7

21

1956 2056 21062006

850 ppm

500 ppm

Ramp = Delay

Flat = Act Now

1.9(320)

(470)

(530) (750)

(500)(500)

(500)(850)

Business A

s Usual

2156 2206

GtC/yr

Historicalemissions

Stabilizationtriangle

The Demography of CapitalThe Demography of Capital

Policy priority: Deter investments in new long-lived high-carbon stock:not only new power plants, but also new buildings.

2003-2030 power-plant lifetime CO2 commitments WEO-2004 Reference Scenario.Lifetime in years: coal 60, gas 40, oil 20.

Historic emissions, all uses

Credit for comparison: David Hawkins, NRDC

20562006

14

7

Billion of Tons of Carbon Emitted per Year

1956

0

Currently

projected path

Flat path

Historical emissions

1.9

2106

14 GtC/y

7 GtC/y

Seven “wedges”

WedgesWedges

O

What is a “Wedge”?What is a “Wedge”?A “wedge” is a strategy to reduce carbon emissions that grows in 50 years from zero to 1.0 GtC/yr. The strategy has already been commercialized at scale somewhere.

1 GtC/yr

50 years

Total = 25 Gigatons carbon

Cumulatively, a wedge redirects the flow of 25 GtC in its first 50 years. This is 2.5 trillion dollars at $100/tC.

A “solution” to the CO2 problem should provide at least one wedge.

Filling the Triangle With Filling the Triangle With Technologies Already in the Technologies Already in the

Marketplace at Industrial ScaleMarketplace at Industrial ScaleC o a l t o G a s

C C S

N u c le a r

R e n e w a b l e s

E f f i c i e n c y

N a t u r a l S i n k s

Revolutionary Technology: FusionRevolutionary Technology: Fusion

Revolutionary Technology: Revolutionary Technology: Artificial PhotosynthesisArtificial Photosynthesis

WedgesWedgesEFFICIENCY• Buildings, ground transport, industrial processing, lighting, electric power plants.

DECARBONIZED ELECTRICITY • Natural gas for coal • Power from coal or gas with CCS• Nuclear power• Power from renewables: wind, photovoltaics, hydropower, geothermal.

DECARBONIZED FUELS• Synthetic fuel from coal or natural gas, with carbon capture and storage• Biofuels• Hydrogen

– from coal and natural gas, with carbon capture and storage– from nuclear energy – from renewable energy (hydro, wind, PV, etc.)

FUEL DISPLACEMENT BY LOW-CARBON ELECTRICITY• Grid-charged batteries for transport• Heat pumps for furnaces and boilers

NATURAL SINKS• Forestry (reduced deforestation, afforestation, new plantations) • Agricultural soils

OP,APP,CP

OP,APP,CP

OP,APP,CP

OP,APP,CP

CP

Efficiency and Conservation Efficiency and Conservation

transport buildings

industry power

lifestyle

Effort needed by 2056 for 1 wedge:

2 billion cars at 60 mpg instead of 30 mpg.

Photos courtesy of Ford, WMATA, Washington State Ridesharing Organization

Efficiency in transportEfficiency in transport

Effort needed for 1 wedge:2 billion gasoline and diesel cars (10,000 miles/car-yr) at 60 mpg instead of 30 mpg

500 million cars now.

Cost = negative to $2000 - $3000 per car (hybrid Prius). Fuel savings ~150 gallons per year = emissions savings of ~0.5 tC/yr =carbon cost > $2/gal !

ElectricityElectricityEffort needed by 2056 for 1 wedge:

700 GW (twice current capacity) displacing coal power.

NuclearNuclear

Graphic courtesy of NRC

Phase out of nuclear power creates the need for another half wedge.

Power with Carbon Capture and StoragePower with Carbon Capture and Storage

Graphics courtesy of DOE Office of Fossil Energy

Effort needed by 2056 for 1 wedge:

Carbon capture and storage at 800 GW coal power plants.

Carbon StorageCarbon StorageCarbon StorageCarbon Storage

Effort needed by 2056 for 1 wedge:

3500 In Salahs or Sleipners @1 MtCO2/yr

100 x U.S. CO2 injection rate for EOR

A flow of CO2 into the Earth equal to the flow of oil out of the Earth today

Graphic courtesy of Statoil ASA Graphic courtesy of David Hawkins

Sleipner project, offshore Norway

King CoalKing Coal

Liquid Fuels

HydrogenCars

GeologicStorage

HydrogenElectricity

IGCC

C

CO + H2O Partial Combustion

CO, H2 , CO2 H2O,

Shift Reaction

Best CO/H RatioFor Liquid Fuels

Complete theShift Reaction

H2 , CO2

Turbine

Syn

ga

s Re

acto

r

Tu

rbin

e

APP OP OP,APP OP,APP CP

New Builds by BPNew Builds by BP

DF-2 announced February 2006. Coke to hydrogen to >500 Megawatts electricity. ~ One million tons per year of CO2 to spent Californian oil reservoirs.

DF-1 announced June 2006. Natural gas to hydrogen to 350 Megawatts of electricity. ~One million tons per year of CO2 to a spent oil reservoir in the North Sea.

En Salah. One million tons per year CO2 sequestration project.

The Future Fossil Fuel Power Plant

Shown here: After 10 years of operation of a 1000 MW coal plant, 60 Mt (90 Mm3) of CO2 have been injected, filling a horizontal area of 40 km2 in each of two formations.

Assumptions:•10% porosity•1/3 of pore space accessed•60 m total vertical height for the two formations.

•Note: Plant is still young.

CO2 Injection and Leakage Pathways

Flow Dynamics

Well-leakage dynamics

• Numerical Simulations• Analytical Solutions

• Spatial Locations• Well Properties• Cement Degradation

Shallow-zone Effects

• Unsaturated Soils• Groundwater Resources

Carbon Storage

Wind ElectricityWind ElectricityWind ElectricityWind Electricity

Effort needed by 2056 for 1 wedge:

One million 2-MW windmills displacing coal power.

Today: 40,000 MW (2%)

Prototype of 80 m tall Nordex 2,5 MW wind turbine located in Grevenbroich, Germany

(Danish Wind Industry Association)

Wind HydrogenWind HydrogenWind HydrogenWind Hydrogen

Prototype of 80 m tall Nordex 2,5 MW wind turbine located in Grevenbroich, Germany

(Danish Wind Industry Association)

Effort needed by 2056 for 1 wedge:

H2 instead of gasoline or diesel in 2 billion 60 mpg vehicles

Two million 2 MW windmills

Twice as many windmills as for a wedge of wind electricity

Today: 40,000 MW (1%)

Assumes the H2 fuels 100-mpg cars

Solar ElectricitySolar Electricity

Effort needed for 1 wedge:

Install 40 GWpeak each year

2 GWpeak in place today, rate of production growing at 20%/yr (slice requires 50 years at 15%).

2 million hectares dedicated use by 2054 = 2 m2 per person.

Graphics courtesy of DOE Photovoltaics Program

Cost = expensive (2x – 40x other electricity but declining at 10% per year).

BiofuelsBiofuelsBiofuelsBiofuels

Effort needed by 2056 for 1 wedge:

Two billion 60 mpg cars running on biofuels

250 million hectares of high-yield crops (one sixth of world cropland)

Usina Santa Elisa mill in Sertaozinho, Brazil (http://www.nrel.gov/data/pix/searchpix.cgi?getrec=5691971&display_type=verbose&search_reverse=1_

Effort needed by 2056 for 1 wedge:

Elimination of tropical deforestation

and

Rehabilitation of 400 million hectares (Mha) temperate or 300 Mha tropical forest

Natural StocksNatural Stocks

Photo: SUNY Stonybrook

Effort needed by 2056 for 1 wedge:

Conservation tillage on all cropland

Forests Soils

Photo: Brazil: Planting with a jab planter. FAO

WedgesWedgesEFFICIENCY• Buildings, ground transport, industrial processing, lighting, electric power plants.

DECARBONIZED ELECTRICITY • Natural gas for coal • Power from coal or gas with carbon capture and storage• Nuclear power• Power from renewables: wind, photovoltaics, hydropower, geothermal.

DECARBONIZED FUELS• Synthetic fuel from coal or natural gas, with carbon capture and storage• Biofuels• Hydrogen

– from coal and natural gas, with carbon capture and storage– from nuclear energy – from renewable energy (hydro, wind, PV, etc.)

FUEL DISPLACEMENT BY LOW-CARBON ELECTRICITY• Grid-charged batteries for transport• Heat pumps for furnaces and boilers

NATURAL SINKS• Forestry (reduced deforestation, afforestation, new plantations) • Agricultural soils

OP,APP,CP

OP,APP,CP

OP,APP,CP

OP,APP,CP

CP

Three Interdependent ProblemsThree Interdependent Problems

The Oil Problem (OP)The Oil Problem (OP)

~ $600 billion /yr for Iraq, ~ $600 billion /yr for Iraq,

>$100 billion /yr for oil price shocks>$100 billion /yr for oil price shocks

(how much for vet care?)(how much for vet care?)

The Air Pollution Problem (APP)The Air Pollution Problem (APP)

>$100 billion /yr for air pollution>$100 billion /yr for air pollution

The Climate Problem (CP)The Climate Problem (CP)

~ $100 billion/yr to solve the problem~ $100 billion/yr to solve the problem

ConclusionsConclusions

What is needed is a national policy designed to solve the oil problem, the air pollution problem, and the climate problem.

We already possess cost-effective technologies for the next fifty years, if costs are seen in the context of what we are already paying.

The solution will only get cheaper, as investment elicits industrial R&D and new innovation.

Workshop on Energy Costs

GW mitigation options

Wind power – available soon enough?

Current windpower capacity ~ 40 GWpeak

If we need 2000 GWpeak for one wedge, then the scale-up factor is 50 = W(t)/W0

Growth in windpower k = 30% per year - is this fast enough?*

0

0

( ) *

( ) 50 :

kt growthrate timeW t W e current windpower e

W tFind timeto reach W

Wind power – available soon enough?

Current windpower capacity ~ 40 GWpeak

If we need 2000 GWpeak for one wedge, then the scale-up factor is 50.

Growth in windpower k = 30% per year - is this fast enough?

1ln 50 13

.30t years

0

0

( )50

( )ln ln

kt

kt

W te

W

W te kt

W

0

1 ( )ln

W tt

k W

Nuclear energyFISSION FUSION

Splits heavy atoms Combines light atoms

Produces electricity Experimental; works in Sun

Radioactive waste Harmless helium waste

Atom bomb H-bomb

Millions of times more energy than combustion

More energy than fission

Fault → can meltdown Fault → fusion stops

Nuclear energy

Nuclear energy

E=mc2

Good Nukes – Bad Nukes?

http://www-ssrl.slac.stanford.edu/research/highlights_archive/technetium.htmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitrification

Nuclear waste vitrification (fission)

What about FUSION?

http://encarta.msn.com/media_461531710_761575299_-1_1/Hydrogen_Isotopes.html

11 H p

Hydrogen

21 H D 3

1 H T

Isotopes of Hydrogen

Deuterium fusion: E=mc2

Fusion: D + D → T + H

Mass balance: 2*2.014102 u → 3.016049 u + 1.007825 u

m = ________________ u = atomic mass units

m = __________ u * 1.66 x 10-27 kg/u = ___________ kg

E = m c2 where c=3 x 108 m/s

E = _________________ J

How much D fusion energy is possible from 1 kg of water?

Giancoli Ex.43-7 p.1097

Deuterium fusion: E=mc2

Fusion: D + D → T + H

Mass balance: 2*2.014102 u → 3.016049 u + 1.007825 u

m = 4.02820 u - 4.02387 u = 0.00433 u

m = 0.00433 u * 1.66 x 10-27 kg/u = 7.18 x 10-30 kg

E = m c2 where c=3 x 108 m/s

E = 6.46 x 10-13 J

How much D fusion energy is possible from 1 kg of water?

Giancoli Ex.43-7 p.1097

Fusion vs. combustion

How much D fusion energy is possible from 1 kg of water?

0.015% of the H in water is D. The number of D nuclei in 1 kg water is

We found that 2D release 6.45 x 10-13 J of energy, so N release

Compare this to the energy from burning 1 kg of gasoline: Egas ~ 5 x 107 J. A hundred times more energy from water.

Giancoli Prob.43-37 p.1112

233 2 226 10 2

10 0.015 10 1018

mol x molecules DN g x D nuclei

g mol molecule

-1322 96.45 x 10 J

10 3 102 D nuclei

E D nuclei x Joules

IPCC III

Compare populations and resources

2030 Emission reduction potential depends on price of CO2

CO2 emission reduction potential (2030)

Costs of CO2 emission reductions

CO2 stabilization scenarios

Stabilized CO2 and T levels

Emissions reductions for specific measures

Challenge: to construct solution packages with available technology.

Research project guidelinesCover sheet:  title, teammates, class, date, and (one line each) each solution option in your package, including how much CO2 it will “remove.” 

Contents: Your team’s motivation and how you chose your solution package, why you chose not to include other options.  For each solution option, key strengths and weaknesses, realistic evaluation of its near-term availability, costs and consequences, and a quantitative analysis of how much CO2 it will “remove.” Approximately 10 pages plus AnnotatedBibliography.  Shorter is fine:  make every word count, and say everything you need to say - clearly and concisely.

Cite all sources for all information right where you mention the information.  Include a list of all references at the end. Credit all sources, including classmates, librarians, and other people who may have helped you.

research projects …Goals for your doing research projects include: • Become local experts on methods to reduce CO2 using current technology• Quantitatively estimate the potential contribution of these methods to stabilize CO2 levels• Understanding how the methods you investigate satisfy Pacala and Socolow’s stabilization criteria. Add additional wedges if necessary. Discuss your criteria (values) for selecting from the various options.

Suggested format (with suggested page lengths for each section):• Abstract-Summary of conclusions (0.25 page)• Brief Introduction, with overview of the problem and choice of methods investigated (.75 page)• Technical Summary of each method (2-4 pages)• Quantitative estimates of contributions of each method to C reduction• Assumptions, computations, critique (2-4 pages)• Discussion of how your solution package meets Pacala and Socolow’s stabilization criteria (1-2 pages).

Design your own global warming solution package:

http://www.princeton.edu/~cmi/resources/CMI_Resources_new_files/CMI_Wedge_Game_Jan_2007.pdf

http://www.princeton.edu/~cmi/resources/stabwedge.htm

Revised game approachessuggested by Chautauqua participants

http://www.princeton.edu/~cmi/resources/CMI_Resources_new_files/CMI_Wedge_Game_Jan_2007.pdf

http://www.princeton.edu/~cmi/resources/stabwedge.htm

• Discuss and consider revising rules before play

• Permit partial wedges? Half a solar wedge?

• Require addition of a minimum amount of new power?

• Require inclusion of all four colors of solutions?

• Other options?