Mining [Western Balkans] 2001 [R]

8/10/2019 Mining [Western Balkans] 2001 [R]

1/108

Mining andenvironmentin the WesternBalkans

www.envsec.org


2/108

Disclaimer: Te views expressed in this study are those o the authors and do notnecessarily reect views o neither UNEP nor ENVSEC partner organizations or theirmember-countries. Te designations employed and the presentation o material inthis study do not imply the expression o any opinion on the part o the organizationsconcerning the legal status o any country, territory, city or area o its authority, ordelineation o its rontiers and boundaries.

Tis study was initiated by the Environment and Security Initiative (ENV-SEC), a partnership between UNDP, UNEP, OSCE, NA O, UNECEand REC.

Mining and Environment in the Western Balkans is also available as in-teractive map and in ormation lm or urther insight in this subject. Bothare available atwww.envsec.org

UNEP promotesenvironmentally sound practices

globally and in its own activities. Thisreport is printed on 100% recycled paper,using vegetable-based inks and other eco-

friendly practices. Our distribution policy aims toreduce UNEPs carbon footprint.


3/108

Editor Christina Stuhlberger

Cartography Matthias BeilsteinChristina Stuhlberger

Photography UNDP MontenegroPhilip Peck Christina Stuhlberger

ContributorsHarald EgererPhilip Peck Pier Carlo SandeiOtto Simonett

Stewart Williams

Copy editingHarry Forster

Tis study was prepared by Zoi EnvironmentNetwork on behal o UNEP Vienna in the

ramework o the Environment and Security Ini-tiative - South Eastern Europe with support o theAustrian Development Agency (ADA) and theMinistry o Foreign Affairs o Finland.

A special thank you to the many members othe ENVSEC - South Eastern Europe amily andriends o the Balkan who contributed through-

out the years with passion and dedication to thetopic. We are in particular grate ul to UNDPMontenegro and its Western Balkan Environ-ment Programme (WBEP) or the continuousbackstopping in preparation o this study and

ruit ul cooperation in the programme imple-mentation on the ground.

Supervision by UNEP Vienna:Harald Egerer HeadPier Carlo Sandei Associate Programme Officer

Mining andenvironmentin the WesternBalkans

P r o

d u c e d b y Z

o E nv i r onm

ent N

et w or k

www.z o

i n et . or g


4/108

Environmentalproblems atmine sites

Mining andenvironment

PolicyrequirementsThe Mining forClosure principles

18Policy requirements19What is Mining for Closure?21Why governments benetfrom Mining for Closurepractices22Why business benets from

Mining for Closure practices

12Mining and environment

26Environmental problems atmine sites29Mine structures tailingsmanagement facilities32Contaminated mine water37Remediation approaches

Contents

11 17 25


5/108

Remediationexercise

Mining in the Western Balkans

Emergency risk reductionat tailings managementfacilities in Albania

CASE S UDIES

42Mining in the Western Balkans45Situation today49

Albania56Bosnia and Herzegovina60Former Yugoslav Republic of

Macedonia72Montenegro77Serbia82Kosovo (UN administeredTerritory under UNSC 1244)

92Practical approach93Rapid risk-reductioninterventions96Selection criteria98Selected sites

54Elbasan65Bucim68Lojane74Mojkovac-Brskovo80Bor complex

86repca Artana/Novo Brdo88

repca Stan erg/Stari rg mine

41 91


6/108

6

Over the last ew years UNEP and itsENVSEC partners have been workingto identi y and reduce transboundaryenvironmental risks rom hazardousmining operations in South Eastern Eu-rope, with the ocus on Albania, Bosniaand Herzegovina, the Former YugoslavRepublic o Macedonia, Kosovo ( erri-tory under Interim UN Administration),Montenegro and Serbia.

Tis has been achieved by collecting,analysing and distributing valuable environmental data, acilitating knowledgeexchange, and creating partnershipswithin the region and beyond. Our team

Prefacehas prepared and supported pilot re-mediation projects in the region whichreduce environmental risks at miningsites. In addition, these practical mea-sures help build local capacity in techni-cal, managerial and administrational ap-proaches to tackle other mining sites oenvironmental concern.

Tis document seeks to provide an over- view o the results and experience cre-

ated over this period to acilitate relatedwork in the uture and ensure broaddissemination o the lessons learned toguarantee that the efforts made so ar canbe sustained.


7/108

7

Mining and Environment

Practically all human societies depend onthe availability and use o mined products.But the expansion o mining operationsinto environmentally sensitive and ragileareas has increased the level o environ-mental destruction and the impact onbasic ecosystem services and biodiversity.

Te mining industry has been involved

in some o the most widely publicizedenvironmental disasters. Well-knownexamples o mining-related environ-mental accidents and long-term dete-rioration include Rio into, a river insouthern Spain, the colliery spoil heap

ailure at Aber an, Wales, or the BaiaMare cyanide spill in Romania.

Mining and mineral processing has playeda vital part in the history and economyo the Western Balkans. Richly endowedwith mineral resources such as copper,chromite, lead and zinc, it boasts some othe largest deposits in Europe. Capitaliz-ing on such mineral assets will be a prior-ity or South Eastern Europe in order to

boost local economies and attract oreigninvestment. o secure the environmental,economic and social sustainability o suchnew or restarted operations, the region willneed to dene and en orce a legal rame-work or sustainable mining practices.

Good practice, research and experiencein policy making, en orcement and tech-nical approaches are all available. In or-mation exchange between South East

Executive summary European countries and internationalpartners trans erring relevant knowledgeto assist local Governments in adoptingsuitable mechanisms and approaches hasbeen shown to be highly valuable.

Policy requirements the Mining for Closureprinciples

All around the world there are examples

o mines that were not properly closed.Some ran out o money be ore completinga cleanup and rehabilitating land, othershad to struggle with ownership issues andconsequently liability and so orth. Regard-less o whether mine legacies were lef byprivate or state-run operations, it is usuallygovernments which must pay or respon-sible mine closure and rehabilitation whereno clear regulations or such sites exist.

New practices have shown that theseproblems and the associated nancialand human costs can be avoided by aprocess o intelligent planning prior tomining or at least well in advance ocessation o mining activities. We call the

avoidance o uture mining legacies viagood planning mining or closure. Oth-ers call it best environmental practice

or mining, integrated mine planningor sustainable mining practice.

Mining or closure involves addressingthe ollowing issues:

dening a vision o the end result ormining land with concrete objectives

or implementation;


8/108

8

ensuring that the mine closure plan isan integral part o the project li e cycle;

preparing a mine-closure plan early inthe process o mine development andin consultation with the regulatory au-thority and local communities;

explicitly including environmen-tal, social and economic issues whenplanning mining operations;

allowing or review and change ex-tending rom the pre-mine planningphase, through construction, mining,and mine closure to post-mine stew-

ardship.Environmental problemsat mine sites

Waste, Air pollution, Adverse impact on land use and bio-

diversity, Water pollution and availability, Hazardous materials, Noise and vibration, Energy use, Visual impacts.

Transboundary impactsIt has been demonstrated that waterways

(uvial transport) are the dominant vec-tor or exposure, at all levels o interest.Airborne toxic emissions rom smelterstransported in the atmosphere, whichconstitute a second vector, also havebeen a very signicant issue in the past.However, in the Western Balkans nu-merous smelter operations have ceasedoperations. In general the regional andtransboundary importance o airborneemissions seems to have decreased in

importance. A third important vectorappears to be toxic-particulate pollutanttransport as dust, which has a largely lo-cal or sub-regional effect.

Tailings management facilitiesailings are the ne-grained waste mate-

rial remaining afer the metals and min-erals have been recovered (extracted)

rom mineral ores via various technicalprocesses. ailings management acili-ties ( MF), also ofen re erred to moresimply as tailings dams, tailings ponds or

tailings impoundments, are waste storagesites or milling and extraction residuesand some o the most common sites oconcern in relation to mining activity at asite. MFs are associated with two mainareas o risk or the environment. Te rstis the potential or losing large volumes owater and/or tailings in a large-scale ail-ure. Te second relates to the eco-toxicityo the tailings themselves.

Common technical problems at tailingsmanagement acilities comprise:

Water-diversion structure ailures, Overtopping ailures, Chronic leakage o pollution.

Contaminated mine waterTe potential toxicity o mine water andits adverse affects on the environment canbe ascribed to our characteristics com-mon in such effluents: acidity, iron and itsprecipitates, trace metals (e.g. cadmium,zinc, copper, lead etc.) and turbidity.

Mine water prevention

Te goal o mine water prevention is tominimize contaminant release. Tis can


9/108

9

be achieved by excluding one or more othe actors relevant to mine water gen-eration. Te essential components orsulphide weathering are sulphide miner-als, water and oxygen.

Passive prevention o pollutant releaseis achieved by the sur ace or subsur aceinstallation o physical barriers whichinhibit pollution-generating chemicalreactions and/or prevent the migrationo existing polluted water.

Re-mining may be another viable optionat mining sites in South Eastern Europeas much mine waste has a relatively highconcentration o marketable material dueto the inefficient metal extraction process-es applied at the time o ore beneciation.In some instances the revenue rom suchoperations could cover part o the expenseo remediation measures or the site, thus

acilitating urther improvement.

Active and passive treatmentWater treatment prevents distribution othe contaminants into the environment.It is considered an end-o -pipe tech-nology, so treatment applications are nota genuinely sustainable solution to the

problem. But it is ofen the only solutionwhere generation o contaminated efflu-ents cannot be avoided.

Active treatment techniques rely on conventional, well-recognized technologyand are regarded as proven technology.Tey have been implemented or de-cades all over the world and the experi-ence gained over time has led to reliabletechniques.

Passive treatment schemes rely onnaturally occurring processes to im-prove the quality o the inuent waterswith minimal operation and mainte-nance requirements. Tese processesare chemical, biological and physical innature. Te aim is to provide such con-ditions where the highest removal rate

or a particular contaminant can beachieved.

Mining sites in the Western Balkans

Te mineral extraction industries, whichocus primarily on mining or base and

precious metals and metallurgy, havehad a long history in the Western Bal-kans. In the period up to the early 1990s,mining, minerals processing and down-stream exploitation o the base metalsintroduced above, established the regionas a major European source o copper,lead, and zinc. Te region, and in par-ticular Albania, was also a major worldproducer o chromate.

Tough traces o very old mining exploi-tation and metallurgy are still visible inmany places and likely to contribute to

the environmental risk o mining sites insome ways, it is the more recent activitieswhich have lef the most serious mininglegacy or the region.

Tousands o old abandoned or or-phaned sites are scattered all over theregion. On such sites, with no liable le-gal owner, the necessary measures toclose the site (stabilization, water man-agement, replanting o vegetation, etc.),


10/108

10

minimize the risk o accidents and prevent environmental pollution have ofennot been taken. aking them now is veryexpensive.

Coping with this situation is com-plicated, with a large number o siteswith serious environmental impacts,high remediation costs and the liableowners missing. In most cases the gov-ernment is held accountable. But thehuge nancial liability attached to anysystematic rehabilitation programme

represents a challenge that ar exceedsthe nancial or organizational resourceso any one regional actor. Te situationis urther aggravated by the lack o ex-pertise required to take practical respon-sibility or dealing with abandoned sitesand the associated issues.

Governments in South Eastern Europeare in the process o preparing andimplementing mine privatization andclosure. Tis seems to constitute a goodopportunity to clean up a substantialnumber o mining sites as part o newand ongoing operations. As such, the re-opening o sites with modern industrialpractices, as stipulated by the European

Union in its BREF documents, couldmake urgently required mitigation andrehabilitation much more easible thanwas thought a ew years ago.

Remediation exercise Emergency risk reductionat tailing managementfacilities in Albania

Tree priority sites in Albania Fushe-Arrez, Reps and Rreshen were chosen

or more detailed investigation, with thedenition o appropriate risk-reductioninterventions as pilot activities or theregion. All three mining sites comprisenon-operational tailings management a-cilities ( MF) that display severe signs o

instability, leakage and ailure. Te resultsare presented in the ollowing section.

o reduce the risk o urther destabiliza-tion and uncontrolled release o miningwaste short to medium-term interven-tions were identied as the most easibleway o improving the situation at thesites. When developing easible interven-tions it is also essential to make allow-ance or the limited availability o bothtechnical and nancial capacities.

Serious environmental and public healthimplications o the selected sites:

widespread pollution o rivers due tochronic erosion and release o con-

taminated waters, and larger acuteailure events; waterways signicantly affected by

pollution rom the sites; all rivers ow through populated areas

and are used or irrigation during thesummer months;


11/108

11

Mining and

environment


12/108

12

Almost all societies depend on the avail-ability and use o mined products suchas minerals and metals. Tey are the ba-sis o our wealth and ensure economicdevelopment all over the world. But theexpansion o mining operations intoenvironmentally sensitive and ragileareas has increased the level o environ-mental destruction and the impact onbasic ecosystem services and biodiver-sity. Furthermore, inadequate provision

or closure and post-closure is leaving agrowing number o abandoned and/ororphan mining sites around the world.

As a result, mining and environment areofen seen as antithetical and many con-sider sustainable mining a contradictionin terms. Afer all mining entails the ex-ploitation o non-renewable resources.Depending on its denition, sustainablemining may re er to the extraction o min-eral resources rom the earth in a mannerthat allows this activity to continue in-denitely. However in this work, sustain-ability in mining applies to policies andpractices that preserve the environment,protect indigenous cultures, and promote

the wel are o local communities.Tere is nothing new about mining giv-ing rise to environmental concerns. In1550, in the rst European textbook onmines and quarries, the scholar and min-er Georgius Agricola wrote:

Te strongest argument of the detractors isthat the elds are devastated by mining op-erations And when the woods and groves

Mining and environmentare felled, then are exterminated the beastsand birds Further, when the ores arewashed, the water which has been used poi-sons the brooks and streams, and either de-stroys the sh or drives them away ... Tusit is said, it is clear to all that there is greaterdetriment from mining than the value of themetals which the mining produces.

Te mining industry has been involved insome o the most widely publicized envi-

ronmental disasters. One well-known ex-ample o a mining-related environmentalaccident and long-term deterioration isRio into, a river in southern Spain. Re-search suggests that ancient (and mod-ern) mining activities around the Rio

into have caused highly acidic condi-tions in the entire river system creatinghostile living conditions and high con-centrations o heavy metals which havepersisted or millennia. During the 20thcentury mining accidents caused deathand injuries all over the world. In 1966the collapse o a colliery spoil heap in Ab-er an, Wales, killed 144 people, including116 children. Numerous catastrophic re-leases o toxic materials have occurred in

the Balkans, one o the most high-prolebeing the ailure o the Baia Mare tailingsdam in Romania. In January 2000 the a-cility overowed, releasing 100,000 cubicmetres o cyanide-contaminated efflu-ent into the isza river. By the time theoverow was detected, the heavily con-taminated waste water had reached theDanube and was on its way to Hungaryand beyond. Large quantities o cyanideentered the drinking water o numerous


13/108

13

towns in seven countries and water sup-plies serving thousands o people andagriculture. races o cyanide, albeit at a very low level, could still be detected inthe river water when it reached the BlackSea two weeks later.

But exploitation o mineral resources canyield great benets or the population,with scope or economic growth and re-gional development. When proper allow-ance is made or environmental and sa etyconcerns, with appropriate environmen-

tal management and contingency plan-ning measures, the benets or popula-tion and environment can be maximized.

Such experience has not only raised environmental awareness but also expecta-tions or the environmental per ormanceo mining operations and o the envi-ronmental quality o areas affected bymining in the past. Changing social de-mands have prompted signicant im-provements in regulatory requirementsand mining practice in many countriesworldwide. Many miners have introducedmanagement policies, practices and tech-nologies that markedly reduce the environmental damage done by mining.

When taken alongside the growing will topreserve land as a repository or valuablebiological assets, natural environmentalservices and aesthetic appeal, these devel-opments appear likely to drive continuingimprovement in mining practice.

In the past communities ofen thought theonly choice was whether or not to mine adeposit, but now the way a mine is plannedcan substantially change or the better the

scale and duration o impacts over the li eo the development and ollowing its clo-sure. As part o this positive trend, mineplanning, closure practices and conducto operations to acilitate environmentallyand socially acceptable closure have alsochanged signicantly in recent years.

Tis is o particular relevance to the West-ern Balkan states, comprising Albania, Bos-nia and Herzegovina, the Former YugoslavRepublic o Macedonia, Kosovo ( erritoryunder Interim UN Administration), Mon-

tenegro and Serbia). Mining and mineralprocessing has played a vital role in thehistory and economy o the region. Richlyendowed with mineral resources such ascopper, chromite, lead and zinc, it boastssome o the largest deposits in Europe.In the 20th century the mining industryplayed a vital role in ormer Yugoslaviaand Albania but with the disintegration othe Yugoslav common market, economicconditions in the region deteriorated andin the early 1990s the Balkan economy de-clined sharply. Industrial output droppedsignicantly, with a widespread shutdowno operations such as mining. In environ-mental terms this cuts both ways. Withthe dramatic drop in industrial output,

pollution decreased. But at the same timeplants were either abandoned or priva-tized under conditions that did not clearlyestablish environmental liability.

Tis lef a vast legacy o orphaned1 andabandoned2 mines scattered across theregion with signicant environmental

1. Mines or which the owner cannot be ound.2. Mines or which the owner is nancially unable orunwilling to carry out clean-up.


14/108

14

risks requiring remediation. Tese envi-ronmental legacies are among the mostwidespread environmental concerns inthe Western Balkans. A wide range omining sites do not meet todays stan-dards or sustainable mine management.Environmental problems, such as waterand soil pollution rom heavy metals,

are the result o sub-standard operationsand improper mine closure.

oday mining and quarrying accountsor only 1.2% o total GDP in the West-

ern Balkans. But the potential remainswith numerous reserves awaiting exploi-tation. Capitalizing on such mineral as-sets will be a priority or South EasternEurope in order to boost local economiesand attract oreign investment. o secure

the environmental, economic and socialsustainability o such new or restartedoperations, the region will need to deneand en orce a legal ramework or sus-tainable mining practices. Tis will alsoinclude mine planning and mine closurerequirements to avoid urther environ-mental legacies in the uture. For the leg-

acies that already exist, solutions need tobe ound to address the technical, nan-cial and administrative problems whichinhibit appropriate risk reduction andmonitoring at the sites.

Leading mining nations have built up awide array o good practice, experienceand research in policy making, en orce-ment and technical approaches. Interna-tional partners can provide valuable sup-

B l

M e d i t e r r a n e a n S e a

D a n u b e

Sardinia

Corsica

S i c i l y

(France)

(Italia)

A U S T R I A

S L O V A K I A

H U N G A R Y

C R O A T I A

BOSNIA ANDHERZEGOVINA

S L O V E N I A

S E R B I A

MONTENEGRO

A L B A N I A

F.Y.R. of MACEDONIA

B U L G A R I A

R O M A N I A

U K R A I N E

T U R K E YG R E E C E

MALTA

MONACO

LIECHTENSTEIN

SAN MARINO

VATICAN CITY

S W I T Z E R L A N D

M O L D O V A

I T A L Y

Antalya

Bursa

Kosovo

Berne

Rome

Vienna

Ljubljana Zagreb

Bratislava

Budapest

Sarajevo

Belgrade

Chisinau

Bucharest

Sofia

SkopjePodgorica

Tirana

Athens

Munich

Istanbul

Izmir

Thessaloniki

Lviv

MilanTurin

Naples

Palermo

Zurich

GenoaVenice

Cagliari

Ajaccio

Triesdorf

Salzburg

Heraklion

Burgas

Brashov

Tunis

Map produced by ZO Environment Network, 2010

0 200 400 kmMediterranean Sea basin Black Sea basin


15/108

15

port to South East European countriesby trans erring related knowledge andassisting Governments to adopt suitablemechanisms and approaches. Te inter-national community will be needed to

1995

1 000

2 000

3 000

4 000

5 000

6 000

7 000

8 000

9 000

10 000

11 000

12 000

13 000

14 000

1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007

F.Y.R. of .Macedonia

Albania

Bosnia andHerzegovina

Serbia

Slovenia

Croatia

RomaniaBulgariaMontenegro

Source: The World Bank, Washington DC.Note: In 2006, Serbia and Montenegro split to form independent states

Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capitaIn constant USD (2000)

support this knowledge exchange, provide access to in ormation and acilitatedemonstrations o environmental reme-diation on the ground.

UNEP and its partners have establisheda targeted programme to reduce trans-boundary environmental and humansa ety risks posed by sub-standard min-ing and mineral processing operations both active and abandoned in SouthEastern Europe. Related work has beenassessed and a wide range o mining

sites in the Western Balkans prioritized.Mining sites were visited and analyzed,accompanied by mining experts romCanada, Germany and Australia. Tishas resulted in detailed remediationplanning or several mining sites whichwill serve as a pilot exercise or similarsites in the region. Mining sites havealso been addressed as part o the indus-trial hotspots project carried out by theUNDP-led Western Balkans Environ-ment Programme with the support o theDutch Government and others.

Te ndings o this work in the regioncreate unique possibilities or improvedenvironmental management and envi-

ronmental protection throughout theregion built on past experience and newinsights as well as regional partnerships.

o capitalize on these outcomes and in-crease their benets, this approach needsto continue, taking into consideration im-portant developments such as the recentglobal economic slowdown and increasedunderstanding o climate change impactswhich may pose novel threats, hinderingefforts to improve the situation.


16/108

16

U K R A I N E

R O M A N I A

S E R B I AB U L G A R I A

MONTENEGROKosovo

G R E E C ET U R K E Y

I T A L Y

S L O V A K I A S L O V A K I AU K R A I N E

R O M A N I A

YUGOSLAVIA B U L G A R I A

SLOVENIA

BOSNIA-HERZEGOVINA

C R O A T I ASLOVENIA

BOSNIA-HERZEGOVINA

C R O A T I A

MACEDONIA

MOLDOVA MOLDOVA


I T A L Y

S O V I E T U N I O N

R O M A N I A

Y U G O S L A V I A


I T A L Y

A U S T R I A A U S T R I A

H U N G A R Y

A U S T R I A A U S T R I A

H U N G A R Y H U N G A R Y

H U N G A R Y

CZECHOSLOVAKIA CZECHOSLOVAKIASOVIET UNION

R O M A N I A

Y U G O S L A V I A


I T A L Y

POLAND

A U S T R I A - H U N G A R Y

S E R B I A B U L G A R I A

B U L G A R I AB U L G A R I A

ALBANIA

ALBANIAALBANIA

ALBANIAMACEDONIA

FYR of

ALBANIA

G R E E C EO T T O M A N

I T A L Y

MONTENEGRO

E M P I R E

A U S T R I A - H U N G A R Y

R U S S I A R U S S I A

R O M A N I A R O M A N I A

S E R B I A

O T T O M A N E M P I R EI T A L Y

MONTENEGRO

FYR of

ViennaBudapest

Zagreb

Sarajevo

Belgrade

Sofia

Bucharest

Budapest

Bratislava Bratislava

Zagreb

Sarajevo

Belgrade

Chisinau Chisinau

SofiaSkopje Skopje

Bucharest

Istanbul Istanbul

Budapest

Zagreb

Sarajevo

Belgrade

Sofia

Bucharest

Istanbul

Vienna

Vienna

Ljubljana Ljubljana

ViennaBudapest

Zagreb

Sarajevo

Belgrade

Sofia

Bucharest

Constantinople

ViennaBudapest

Zagreb

SarajevoBelgrade

Sofia

Bucharest

Constantinople

ViennaBudapest

Zagreb

Sarajevo

Cetinje CetinjeTirana

Tirana

Tirana TiranaPodgorica Pristina

Tirana

Belgrade

Sofia

Bucharest

Constantinople

Occupied by Austria-Hungary

20101995Dayton Agreement

1945After World War II1923Treaty of Lausanne

1913After the Balkan Wars

1878Congress of Berlin

Development of national boundaries in South Eastern Europe


17/108

17

Policy

requirementsThe Mining forClosure principles


18/108

18

Economic growth is still the main crite-rion or social development so ecologicalprinciples are ofen neglected. It cannotbe expected that mining operations willbecome completely environmentallyneutral but with environmentally soundplanning and increasing economic ca-pacity, the chances are that mining aswell as overall environmental stan-dards will substantially increase in theWestern Balkans.

Country-specic reviews o the environment show that mining-relatedproblems, in particular mine water is-sues, are amongst the most severe andwidespread. Short and long-term pollu-tion rom active and abandoned mines

Policy requirementsis one o the most serious threats to thewater environment in South EasternEurope.

With numerous ore deposits in SouthEastern Europe still unexploited or un-sustainably developed in both technicaland environmental terms, considerablewealth with high added value may bederived rom systematic exploitation othe deposits or restructuring o indus-

trial activities. Exploitation o the orecould promote the development o thisregion, which has endured poverty, warand political instability in the past. Ex-traction industries are in this sense vitaland despite their numerous environ-mental implications.


19/108

19

All around the world one can nd exam-ples o mines that were not closed prop-erly, or ran out o money be ore comple-tion o cleanup and rehabilitation o land.Developed nations, as well as the devel-oping and emerging economies, ace de-cades, i not centuries o work with theclean-up o mines and mining debris.Te Western Balkans is a prime exampleo a region acing such challenges.

Regardless o whether state-run opera-tions or the private sector lef mininglegacies, it is usually governments thatmust pay or responsible mine closureand rehabilitation. Governments usuallyhave to pay the social costs lef behind byclosing mines too.

However, new types o practice in lead-ing mining nations have shown that theseproblems and the associated nancial andhuman costs are ofen avoidable. Tis re-quires a process o intelligent planning pri-or to mining or at least well in advanceo cessation o mining activities. We callthe avoidance o uture mining legacies via good planning mining or closure.

Others call it best environmental practiceor mining, integrated mine planning orindeed sustainable mining practice.

Regardless o the name, a growing num-ber o countries have shown that suchgoals can be achieved through soundgovernance. In short, corporate prac-tice, regulatory rameworks, governanceguidelines, nancial markets and insur-ance sectors can be developed to support

What is Mining for Closure?a modern mining industry and protectthe environment and society. Moreover,there is increasing evidence that win-winsituations are possible i done the rightway, mining or closure can benet theState, society and mining companies.

Success ul mining or closure requiresplanning or the entire li e cycle o amine and the environmental and socialeffects o the operation. In its simplest

orm, this means the mine closure planshould be an integral part o the projectli e cycle and be ramed to ensure that:

uture public health and sa ety are notcompromised;

environmental and resources are notsubject to physical and chemical dete-rioration;

the afer-use o the site is benecialand sustainable in the long term;

any adverse socio-economic impactsare minimized; and

socio-economic benets are maximized.

It also requires legislators to strictly ap-ply the polluter-pays principle, withmine operators setting nancial resourc-

es aside be ore and during mine opera-tion to pay or the costs o closure.

Te role o government is to ensure that theexpectations o all stakeholders are met.Furthermore, it should be borne in mindthat stakeholder expectations are inherent-ly uid and that in the Western Balkans the views and demands o social stakeholdersare likely to become much more importantin coming years than at present.


20/108

20

denes the end result or mining land and sets orth concrete objectives orimplementation;

ensures that the mine closure plan is an integral part o the project li e cycle; prepares the mine closure plan early in the process o mine development and in

consultation with the regulating authority and local communities; explicitly includes environmental, social and economic aspects in planning or

mining operations; allows or review and evolution stretching rom the pre-mine planning phase,

through construction, mining and mine closure to post-mine stewardship.

As more specic items, such processes should incorporate:

the concerns and participation o other stakeholders in reclamation objectives; plans or action i ownership reverts to the state despite all efforts to ensure

otherwise; the preservation o mine management and geological records; early delineation o project creditors claims on the site; legal considerations or ownership, both now and in the past;. maintenance o control over tenure i leases expire and another party wants to

obtain rights to the sur ace or sub-sur ace; adequate capacity among regulatory personnel; ongoing research and testing o remediation strategies and technologies and in-

tegration o results in mining or closure review processes; surveillance o the views and desires or the involvement o local communities

(in particular where such parties wish to check the quality o in ormation theyare receiving demanding a role in site-monitoring and access to in ormationto ensure accountability o the operator and governments, or example);

the maintenance o communication between private and public bodies to im-

prove closure policy and regulations; ongoing searches or nancing measures or clean-up; disaster response; spills

management and so orth, particularly or orphaned sites.

Te Mining for Closure approach...


21/108

21

A vibrant mining sector can yield manybenets to a country with mineral re-sources. For the Western Balkans themining sector has long been an integraland vital part o its industrial in rastruc-ture. oday, in the light o economicrestructuring and industrial moderniza-tion, the mineral resources o the regionmay again become important contribu-

tors to economic development.However the environmental and socialcosts associated with past mining activi-ties have lef intractable and expensivelegacies in environmental and socialterms. As the shutdown o mines hasbeen relatively sudden and unplanned,the State has been lef responsible orproper mine closure and rehabilitationo mines.

Despite the reality o such difficulties,work in leading mining countries aroundthe world has clearly demonstrated thatmany o the legacy issues associated withmining can be prevented. It has also

been shown that as long as a mine con-tinues to operate, its subsequent legacycan be reduced. Indeed there is growinginternational expectation that miningcompanies will always dealt with suchlegacies while they are still mining. Fu-ture mining legacies can be prevented bymining or closure activities and princi-ples. Prevention is easible and desirable via sound governance. Governmentsshould ocus on preventive measures

Why governments benet fromMining for Closure practices

i society is to benet rom a countrysmineral resources.

Some o the advantages or Governmentsyielded by mining or closure methods

all within the ollowing broad categories: lower nancial burden on the national

purse or mine closure and rehabilita-tion;

lower risks or signicant post-closureliabilities; prevention o harm ul environmental

and social impacts and reduction othe signicant associated costs;

lower risk o non-compliances by op-erators;

greater acceptance and/or lower re-sistance rom key stakeholders (inparticular local communities and landowners) to plans to open new mines,re urbish old mines, change land-use etc.;

improved national access to projectnance on reputable international -nance markets.

In the context o developing and restruc-turing economies such preventive strat-egies are just as relevant as or leadingmining nations the jurisdictions thatalready benet rom such approaches.But i governments lack sufficient s-cal resources to deal with legacies, evengreater invention and exibility will ob- viously be needed to protect the publicand the environment rom the hazardslef by mining legacies.


22/108

22

Te mining or closure approach placesa number o demands on mining com-panies. It requires achievement o manyplanning items, many types o reha-bilitation work, and consideration o anumber o social parameters that havenot traditionally been carried out bymine operators. On the contrary gov-ernments have had to pick up the costs

afer mines stopped working. Amongother things, mining or closure requiresconcrete targets to be set or how siteswill be closed long be ore closure isanticipated; it requires ongoing site re-habilitation during mining operations;it demands explicit inclusion o envi-ronmental, social and economic issues

Why business benets fromMining for Closure practices

in planning o mining operations. Tepolluter-pays principle means miningenterprises are responsible or the costso damage their activities cause this isthe best incentive or such damage to beavoided in a cost-effective manner. Ac-countability or all or a signicant part othe environmental and social impacts omining is thus the new norm or mining

organizations.Initially mining companies may retortthat such demands will make it difficultto run a competitive mining business.Fortunately, the costs and benets aredynamic and i mines are operated intel-ligently they may still be competitive.


23/108

23

Leading mining companies worldwidehave shown that it also makes good busi-ness sense to adopt best environmentalpractice in mining, and mine or closure.Among other things, this is a vital argu-ment or governments to have in mindwhen engaging in the privatization pro-cess. Importantly or mining organizations,these benets are apparent during miningoperations and at the end o a mines li e.

Te benets or mining companies all theway through a mine service li e include:

steady reduction in liability by opti-mizing rehabilitation work during theproductive phase o mining operationsrather than de erring costs to the endo the project, with required rehabili-tation achieved at a lower overall cost;

increased efficiency in execution owork (reduction o double-handling

As mine decommissioning usually occurs at a stage in the li e o an operation whenthe economically viable recovery o minerals has ceased, and cash ows are minimalor non-existent, it is no time to be undertaking the bulk o rehabilitation operations.

Te mine decommissioning process should be integrated with the overall mine-operation planning process. Te best actors to rehabilitate a mine site are com-monly the operators. Tey can achieve the best result at the lowest cost. Te besttime or this to be planned is be ore the impacts occur, and the best time or reha-bilitation activities to be carried out is during the mines service li e. Furthermore,i decommissioning and closure are not undertaken in a planned and effectivemanner, the results will very probably also be sub-standard.

While the benets o such methods are maximized when planning or the start o

a new mine, experience has shown that tangible benets also exist or mines thathave operated or many years. It is never too late to start.

Integrated mine closure planning

or waste materials and topsoil, costsavoided in spoil-dump re control,etc.);

lower ongoing responsibilities or thesite and easier timely relinquishmento tenements and bond recovery;

lower risk o regulatory non-compli-ances and less exposure to contingentliabilities linked to public sa ety andenvironmental hazards and risks;

greater acceptance and/or less resis-tance or mining operations rom keystakeholders (in particular local com-

munities and land owners) throughlower environmental, social and eco-nomic impacts on local communities

rom mine operations; improved access to capital rom repu-

table lending institutions and poten-tial reduction in cost o capital andliability insurance.


24/108

24


25/108

25

Environmental

problems atmine sites


26/108

26

Waste

Mines generate large volumes o waste,involving materials that must be removedto gain access to the mineral resource,such as topsoil, overburden and wasterock, as well as tailings remaining aferminerals have been largely extracted romthe ore. Some o this waste is inert andconsequently unlikely to be a signicant

environmental hazard apart rom smoth-ering river beds and the risk o collapse istored in large quantities. However other

ractions, in particular those generated bythe non- errous metal mining industry,may contain large quantities o dangeroussubstances, such as heavy metals.

Structures such as waste dumps, tailingsimpoundments and/or dams, and con-tainment acilities should be planned,designed, and operated in such a waythat geotechnical risks and environmen-tal impacts are appropriately assessedand managed all the way through themine cycle.

Water use and quality Management o water use and qualityin and around mine sites can be a sig-nicant issue. Potential contaminationo water sources may occur early in themine cycle during the exploration stageand many actors including indirect im-pacts (e.g. population migration) can re-sult in negative impacts to water quality.Trough the extraction and subsequentprocessing o minerals, metals and metal

Environmental problems atmine sites

compounds tend to become chemicallymore available, which can result in acidor alkaline drainage. Reduction o sur-

ace and groundwater availability is alsoa concern at the local level and or com-munities in the vicinity o mining sites,particularly, in arid regions, or in regionso high agricultural potential.

Land use and biodiversity Habitat alteration is one o the mostsignicant potential threats to biodiver-sity associated with mining. It may oc-cur at any stage in the mine cycle withthe greatest potential or temporary orpermanent alteration o terrestrial andaquatic habitats during construction andoperation. Additionally, exploration o -ten requires the construction o accessroutes, transportation corridors andtemporary camps to house workers, allo which may result in land-clearing andpopulation inux to a varying extent.

Air quality Managing ambient air quality at mine

sites is important at all stages o the minecycle. Airborne emissions may occurduring each stage o the mine cycle, butparticularly during exploration, develop-ment, construction and operation. Temain sources include dust escaping romblasting, exposed sur aces such as tail-ings acilities, stockpiles, waste dumps,haul roads and in rastructure, and to alesser extent, gases rom combustion o

uels in equipment and vehicles.


27/108

27


28/108

28

Hazardous materialsHazardous materials may be used at various stages o mineral extraction, orexample cyanide or gold leaching. Suchmaterials should be handled, stored andtransported in such a way as to avoidleaks, spills or other types o acciden-tal release into soils, sur ace water andgroundwater resources.

Other environmental concerns includenoise and vibration, energy use and vi-sual impacts created by mining opera-

tions.Transboundary pollution

Mining and minerals processing op-erations share a number o pathways inwhich the surrounding environmentand communities can be exposed to theharm ul effects o pollutants which canbe o transboundary nature. Once pol-lution travels across boundaries, it addsthe potential or political conict be-tween the affected countries. Relevanttransboundary pathways include:

airborne transport o pollutants such asdust, smelter emissions, gases, vapours;

mass movement o solid wastes(generally tailings containing heavymetals and toxic compounds);

mass movement o liquid, or semi-liquid wastes (again, generally tailingscontaining heavy metals and toxiccompounds);

waterborne transport o wastes assuspended solids and as dissolvedmaterials.

It has shown that the dominant pathwayo exposure at all levels o interest is

via waterways (uvial transport). A sec-ond exposure pathway, airborne toxicemissions rom smelters transportedin the atmosphere, has been a very sig-nicant issue in the past. However, asa number o smelter operations haveceased operations, or are closed untilsuch time that acceptable levels o emis-sion can be achieved through upgradingo plant, the regional and transbound-ary importance o airborne emissionsappear to have generally reduced inimportance. A third important pathwayappears to be toxic particulate pollutanttransport as dust this is a largely localand sub-regional effect.

Fluvial transport mechanisms or tailings wastes have a pivotal importance orboth regional and transboundary pollution risk in the Western Balkans. Tisbears several implications with it. o name but a ew very large volumes o ma-terials can be involved with catastrophic damage to downstream land, propertyand ecosystems associated with the physical impacts o such accidents; biochemi-cal, and eco-toxicological effects o these pollutants can be catastrophic and canextend ar beyond the zone physically affected by such materials; the physical andbiochemical, and eco-toxicological effects can be long term.

Te importance of river transport


29/108

29

ailings management acilities, also o -ten re erred to more simply as tailingsdams, are waste storage sites or millingand extraction residues and some o themost common sources o concern in re-lation to mining activity at a site.

ailings are the ne-grained waste mate-rial remaining afer the metals and miner-

als have been recovered (extracted) rommineral ores via various technical pro-cesses. Te material is rejected at the tailend o the process with a particle sizenormally ranging rom 10 m to 1.0 mm.

A tailings management acility ( MF)includes all the structures which dealwith tailings: the tailings dam, tail-ings impoundment, clarication ponds,stormwater diversion structures, deliv-ery pipelines and so on. Many environ-mental problems in mining are related totailings management and storage as their volume and contaminant content can be very high and securing the structures re-liability a major challenge.

Te MF is used to contain tailings andgenerally includes a tailings dam (im-poundment and pond), decant struc-tures and spillways. Te tailings damcomprises embankments, dam walls orother impounding structures designedto retain tailings and process water, andallow tailings to settle. A MF should becare ully designed and built under closesupervision.

Mine structures tailingsmanagement facilities

As can be seen rom the descriptionabove, a MF is an important engi-neered structure. Indeed, it represents alarge capital investment and an integralpart o mining and mineral processingactivities. Its proper operation is a key

actor in the overall operation o a suc-cess ul mining project and its industrialprocesses. But the difference between

the MF and mining activities as suchis that the MF and the associated risksremain afer the mining project ends.As such, there are several reasons orconcern with MFs particularly acil-ities which were not care ully designedand built, or have been lef or any pe-riod o time without monitoring andmaintenance.

MFs entail two main areas o environ-mental risk: rst its potential or losinglarge volumes o water and/or tailingsin a large scale ailure; secondly the eco-toxicity o the tailings themselves. Teycontain the remains o complex mineralor metal compounds which could not

be removed, and ofen residual processchemicals that may be toxic in them-selves. Te effluents rom tailings damsare ofen either markedly acidic or alka-line and generally carry dissolved metalsor other contaminants.

Tere is growing understanding that environmental degradation o national andtransboundary watercourses, interna-tional lakes and seas can be caused by un-


30/108

30

intended large scale movement o hazard-ous materials as a result o MF ailures;these can have ar-reaching consequences

or the environment and environmentalservices, or human health and the socialacceptance o mining activities.

Furthermore there is growing aware-ness that all categories o MF pose

such risks: active, idle or inactive, ne-glected, temporarily or permanentlyclosed, abandoned or orphaned. Ashas been mentioned, there is particu-lar concern regarding the large numbero neglected, abandoned or orphaned

MFs where active monitoring ormaintenance is not being undertaken inthe Western Balkans.

Dam wall

Tailings drainage

Tailings(coarse)

Tailings(fine)

Process water

Seepage

Tailingsinfeed

Water decant structure

Surface water

collection damWater diversion

Produced by ZO Environment Network, 2010


Tailings management facility

Surface runoff Infiltration into soiland groundwater

Evaporation

Precipitation

Seepage through

dam wall

Drainingsystem

Tailings

Processwater

Seepage belowdam

Dam wall

Tailingsinfeed

Waterdecantstructure

Tailings management facility - cross section

Surface water collection dam Water

diversion


31/108

31

Frequent technical prob-lems at tailings dams

Water diversion structure failureso obtain a structure that will actually

hold tailings, water inows such as sur-ace runoff and streams must be diverted

to limit seepage and erosion. A dam maythere ore be built upstream rom the tail-ings, with a channel (tailrace) or pipe tocarry inow around, or in some cases un-der, the tailings impoundment. Problemsgenerally arise with such diversion struc-

tures when they are not maintained orwhen ooding occurs that exceeds theirdesign capacity. With time lack o main-tenance leads to increasingly poor per or-mance as structures ll with sediment orleak and erode. Tis is ollowed by even-tual ailure. A ood event on the otherhand can lead to immediate ailure. Whenwater is no longer diverted away rom the

MF, new types o problems arise.

Decant structure problemsDe ective decant systems affect the nextline o de ence in a MF. Under nor-mal operating conditions a MF decantstructure is supposed to prevent the levelo liquid (generally contaminated water

called supernatant) rom rising abovea certain level, compromising structuralstability o the dam (or overtopping o thedam crest). I the pipes or ductwork in thedecant structure are blocked or not largeenough to remove liquid ows into thedam, then the level continues to rise.

Overtopping failures

Overtopping ailures occur when waterbuilds up in a MF to a level higher than

the dam crest. Several things can occur atthis point. In some tailings dams, the crest

may have a spillway allowing the water tocascade over the top without eroding thestructure o the dam itsel . In such cases, aslong as the structural stability o the damitsel is not threatened by the high waterlevels (with potential saturation o the damstructure), a ailure can be avoided. But inmany cases the dam crest is not designedto cope with overtopping. Te water ow-ing over the structure quickly erodes thematerial o the dam wall. Depending onthe volume and speed o the ow tailingsmaterial is then carried downstream. Insome cases, the whole dam may ail.

Chronic leakage of pollutionChronic leakage re ers to ongoing ows

o effluents or transportation o waste inrelatively small quantities. An ecosystemmay be able to assimilate one such ow,but the net result o many such ows inparticular over a long period o time may well exceed that capacity. Day aferday the effluents rom substandard MFscarry acidic water containing dissolvedmetals. Tese ows enter river systemsand eventually the sea, making water un-suitable or agricultural or public use.


32/108

32

Contaminated mine water, ofen re erredto Acid Mine Drainage (AMD), can be aconsequence o mining coal or mineraldeposits. A large amount o scientic re-search has been conducted to determinethe chemical reactions that create acid-ity and lead to the precipitation o dis-solved metals, but despite improvementsin prediction and prevention methods,acid mine drainage problems persist.Te acidity o mine drainage is caused

primarily by the oxidation o pyrite, amineral containing Iron and sulphide,commonly ound in tailings, overburdenand other mine waste piles. Te rate ooxidation depends on the ollowing: re-active sur ace area o the pyrite, the oxy-gen concentration and pH o the water,and the presence o Iron-oxidizing bac-teria (e.g. Tiobacillus erroxidans).

Te potential toxicity o mine water andits adverse affects on the environmentcan be ascribed to its our main char-acteristics that are acidity, iron and itsprecipitates, trace metals (e.g. cadmium,zinc, copper, lead etc.) and turbidity.Sulphate is another regular component

in mine water as it is ormed during py-rite oxidation. Not all o these compo-nents have to be present in mine waterin order to cause harm but in most casesthey are ound in combination witheach other.

More distinct are the terms Acid MineDrainage and Alkaline Mine Drainage.Te ormer is acidic water (pH


33/108

33


34/108

34

Determinant

Type of studyReconnaisancestudy

Geologicalinvestigation

Routine datafor design

Site-specificdeterminats

Guideline values

Copper 0.3 mg/l

Nickel 0.5 mg/l

Cobalt

Arsenic 0.1 mg/l

Cyanide 1 mg/l

Nitrate 50 mg/l*

Uranium 0.015 mg/l*

Radium

Radon

BOD5 50 mg/l

User identified

pH 6-9Conductivity

Temperature < 3 degree differential

Alkalinity

Dissolved oxygen

Chromium (VI) 0.1 mg/l

Calcium

MagnesiumSodium

Potassium

Lead 0.02 mg/l

Iron 2 mg/l

Manganese Aluminum

Zinc 0.5 mg/l

Mercury 0.002 mg/l

Sulphate

Ammonina

Cadmium 0.05 mg/l

Source:Environmental, Health and Safety Guidelines for Mining, World Bank, 2007*WHO Guidelines for drinking water quality, 2006

What to analyze in mine water?

ing water supply and degradation o liv-ing conditions or most organisms in anatural waterway. But the indirect effects

urther aggravate the risk through metal

solubility. Tis means that the lower thepH in water, the more likely it is thathigh concentrations o heavy metals willoccur, because acidity dissolves metals.


35/108

35

Iron and iron precipitates

Iron is ofen the most abundant con-taminant in mine water, particularly incoal mine drainage. Apart rom its con-tribution to acidity, excess iron in water-courses can have several other environ-mental impacts.

Iron, much as many other metals, is a

trace element needed by humans andother vertebrates. But when organismstake up large amounts o iron, acute andchronic toxic reactions occur, such asperoxidation o lipids ollowed by dam-age to protein structures. As a chronictoxin, iron can cause haemochromatosis,cirrhosis o the liver, vascular congestionand eventually death. Moreover, turbid-ity caused by iron precipitates (ochre) re-duces the incidence o light in the water

body, impeding photosynthesis in theseareas and causing ood chains to breakdown. Te biodiversity o affected areasdeclines and may nally upset the bal-ance o the ecosystem, a readily visibleeffect o mine water contamination.

Trace metals

Apart rom iron, other ecotoxic elements

(such as Cd, Zn, Cu, Pb, etc.) can causehealth risks and serious ecosystem de-gradation.

When trace metals are released romtheir stable, isolated state in the geo-sphere, they are disseminated via wa-terways where they are available to thebiosphere. Until they are trans erredback into sediments and eventually rock,metals can persist through cycles and


36/108

36

reactions where they may cause toxic e -ects. Small amounts o these elements

are common in the environment butelevated amounts o any o them maycause acute or chronic toxicity. Possibleeffects occurring under exposure to suchmetals are, among others, damage to thehuman nervous system, blood composi-tion, lungs, kidneys, liver and other vi-tal organs. In streams where mine wateris discharged with high levels o one ormore ecotoxic metal present, signicantloss o biodiversity has been observed in

several cases.race metals are mainly a problem where

metal ores are mined. Tis is the case ormany mining sites in the Western Bal-kans where copper, lead, zinc and otherelements are requent.

Sulphate

Sulphate is usually not a contaminanto major concern except under special

Chemistry Environmental impactParameter

Low pH H+ Degradation and death of animals andplants, reduction in drinking water quality,mobilization of metal ions,corrosion of man made structures.

Ironprecipitates

Fe3+, Fe2+, Fe(OH) 3 Discoloration and turbidity,clogging up of fish gills,encrustation of man made-structures.

Tracemetals

Cu, Pb,Zn,Cd,Co,Ni,Hg,As,Sb Degradation and death of animals and plants,bioaccumulation, reduction in drinking waterquality, soil and sediment contamination

Total

dissolved solids

Ca, Mg,K,Na, Fe, Al, Mn,Si, SO 3 Reduction in drinking water quality,

soil and sediment contamination.

Environmental impacts from pollution

Source: Mine wastes: characterization, treatment, and environmental impacts by Bernd G. Lottermoser, 2007

conditions. Te recommended limitor sulphate in drinking water is about

250 mg/l. Tis value has largely beenchosen or aesthetic reasons (i.e. tasteand odour) but at higher concentrationssulphate does have power ul, temporar-ily laxative effects.

Sulphate can also constitute a large pro-portion o the total amount o dissolvedsolids. In arid and semi-arid regionswhere watercourses may already displayhigh salinity due to evaporation, urther

salinization by mine water can signi-cantly decrease water quality, making itunsuitable or human uses such as irriga-tion and livestock watering.

With regard to the Western Balkans, sev-eral areas eature low atmospheric pre-cipitation and high evapotranspiration.In such places, high sulphate concentra-tions are likely to have a negative impacton water usability and consequently onthe quality o li e in the region.


37/108

37

As we all know, prevention is better thancure so avoiding or at least reducing theoutput o contaminated mine water inthe rst place is a goal in itsel . Preven-tive measures should consequently seekto reduce the amount o contaminantsbeing released into the water and the to-tal amount o water leaving a mining site.Un ortunately prevention is not alwayspossible due to technical restrictions andlocal conditions.

Te goal o mine-water prevention is tominimize contaminant release. Tis canbe achieved by eliminating one or moreo the actors relevant to mine-watergeneration. Te essential components

or sulphide weathering are sulphideminerals, water and oxygen.

Passive prevention o pollutant release isachieved by the installation o physicalbarriers (requiring little or no long-termmaintenance) on or below the sur ace toinhibit chemical reactions which pro-duce pollution and prevent the migra-tion o existing polluted waters.

Possible techniques for mine water prevention: dry covers, water covers, selective diversion o sur ace water, inundation, alkaline addition, alkaline injection, coating/encapsulation, biocides, separation o sulphides.

Remediation approachesIn the Western Balkans the preventiono mine-water generation in the rst in-stance is o course o very high impor-tance where easible. At many high-risksites the situation could be substantiallyimproved by implementing preventivemeasures such as clay capping to reducewater ingress rom atmospheric precipi-tation and water diversion channels toreduce ingress o sur ace run-off romthe surrounding area.

Re-mining, i.e. the processing o minewaste or metal extraction, may be anoth-er viable option in the Western Balkansas much mine waste contains a relativelyhigh concentration o marketable materialdue to the inefficient metal extraction pro-cesses applied at the time o ore benecia-tion. In some instances, the revenue romsuch operations could cover a portion othe expenses generated by remediationmeasures or the site and thereby acili-tate urther improvement. At a numberproblematic o sites, the rst considerationshould be mine-water prevention becauseit is a very efficient measure to reduce tail-ings dam instability and pollution.

Active treatment

As water treatment is not tackling thecontamination source, but only pre- venting the spread o contaminantsinto the environment, this counts as anend-o -pipe technology. So treatment isnot a genuinely sustainable solution tothe problem, but it is ofen the only onewhere negative effects cannot be avoided.


38/108

38

Active treatment techniques rely onconventional, well-recognized technolo-gy and are regarded as proven technol-ogy. Tey have been used or decadesall over the world and the experiencegained over time has lead to reliabletechniques.

Apart rom the current state-o -the-arto the two treatment approaches, theyalso differ in where they may be ap-plied. Te most striking advantage oactive treatment plants is the high con-

taminant load they can handle and theirreliability or compliance with regula-tions on effluent quality. Tis is pos-sible because the variables are adjustedto suit changing mine water qualityand quantity.

A major drawback o active systems isthat they are very expensive. Te maincosts arise during the operational phaseo the plant. Active treatment systemsneed constant energy and/or chemicalinput, and monitoring and maintenancethat has to be undertaken permanentlyby staff on the spot. Moreover, a relevantcost actor in an active treatment systemis the disposal o the resulting metal lad-en sludge which can accumulate in verysignicant amounts over long periods otime. It is not uncommon or water treat-

ment costs to exceed $200,000 per yearat sites using active treatment. Te costsassociated with operating an active mine-water treatment plant are ongoing or theli etime o the plant, or rather, or as longas mine-water output continues.


Inflow Oxidation

Mixing with alkali

Metalprecipitates

Mine water

Sedimentation

Outflow

Fe2+ Fe3+ Fe3++3OH- Fe(OH)3

NaOHCa(OH)2

Active mine water treatment scheme


39/108

39

Currently, chemical precipitation is themost widely used technique or metal re-moval rom mine waters. Although it isan attractive process, there are also severaldisadvantages, such as the production olarge amounts o sludge, the need or ur-ther treatment o sludge to meet disposalcriteria, and the loss o valuable metals.

In principle, the mine water issues thatarise in the Western Balkans could beaddressed with active mine water treat-ment plants but so ar, they have not yet

been widely used in the region.Passive treatment

Te principle o passive treatment involves using natural processes to im-prove the quality o incoming water withminimal operation and maintenance re-quirements. Tese processes are chemi-cal, biological and physical in nature.

Chemical removal processes: oxidation,reduction, coagulation, adsorption, ab-sorption, hydrolysis, precipitation.

Physical removal processes: gravity,aeration, dilution.

Biological removal processes: biosorp-tion, biomineralization, bioreduction,alkalinity generation.

Genuinely passive systems work withoutany regular input o cost-intensive re-sources, such as manpower, energy andchemicals. But in reality, a completelypassive system is hard to achieve as manysites ofen require active componentssuch as pumping or aeration. However,

even when systems are not entirely pas-sive according to the denition, overalloperational li e cost prole is lower than

or adequate, ully active systems.

With active treatment, the costs are dis-tributed over time, i.e. operating costs arehigh and exceed by ar the cost o design-ing, building and commissioning a plant.Tese operating costs are caused by needssuch as constant energy and/or chemicalinput, staff and high maintenance costs.Passive systems, on the other hand, re-

LimestoneMine water

Inflow

Vegetation

Organic material(e.g. compost)

Outflow

Metal

absorbtion

pH riseMetal sulphide precipitationpH rise

Example for passive mine water treatment installation



40/108

40

quire the main nancial input to be madewhen the system is being built.

Estimates suggest that the up ront in-stallation costs or a passive system are,depending on the size o the application,similar or at times marginally higher thanan active system. As the nature o passivesystems is to be sel sustaining, at least toa certain degree, the cost ollowing suc-

cess ul commissioning o the plant willbe low compared to an active solution.

Compared to conventional treatment,research suggests that passive systemsentail about hal the capital outlay andless than 1/20 o the maintenance costso active systems. Other calculations areless positive but still indicate that the costadvantage is only small in the early yearso operation but then starts to increase.

In general these systems are less cost-intensive in their li e-cycle, require lesstechnical assistance and have a coststructure which avours external und-ing. On the other hand they are not yetas reliable and predictable as conven-tional techniques. Passive systems havea background o less than 20 years, sothere is a signicant need or more ex-perience.

A number o innovative mine-watermanagement measures have been developed and have been shown to suc-cess ully address common contaminantsin mine water. rack records and the

requency o application vary stronglywithin the available techniques. Te ap-plicability o the techniques varies withincoming water quality, surroundingconditions and managerial issues.


41/108

41

Mining in

the WesternBalkans


42/108

42

Mining in the Western BalkansTe mineral extractive industries, ocus-sing primarily on mining or base andprecious metals and metallurgy, havea long history in the Western Balkans,reaching back through historical recordsto at least the 5th century BC. In Serbia

or example, copper mining at the Bordeposit is believed to have prehistoricbeginnings,. It is also believed that theCrveni Breg lead and silver mine and

the uplja Stena mercury mine on theAvala in the vicinity o Belgrade werein operation prior to recorded history.By the time o the Roman empire, thereis evidence that many o the depositsmined today were already being exploit-ed and almost all known lead and zincdeposits were being mined by the 13thand 14th century.

S E R B I A

R O M A N I A

B U L G A R I A

C R O A T I A

B O S N I A &

H E R Z E G O V I N A

A L B A N I A

G R E E C E

M A C E D O N I A

M O N T E N E G R O

F ORMER YUGOSLAV REPUBLIC OF

K o s o v o

A D

R I

A T

I C S

E A

D a n u b

e

S a v a

D r a v a

T i s a

O l t

M u r e s h u

l

K u pa

U n

a

C e t i n a

V r b

a s

B o

s n a

N e r e t

v a

D r i n a

S a v a

M o r a a

D r i n

V a r d a r

A x i o s

S t r u m a

M e s t a

S t r i m o n a s

Zagreb

Belgrade

Sarajevo

Podgorica

Tirana

Skopje

Sofia

Osijek

Split

Lecce

Arad

Sibiu

RamnicuValcea

Craiova

Drobeta-Turnu Severin

TimishoaraSubotica

Novi Sad

Ni

Pritina

Pleven

Pernik

Thessaloniki

Bitola

Banja Luka

Kyustendil

Blagoevgrad

Alba IuliaDeva

ReshitaPetroshani

Vidin

MontanaVratsa

SerresKavala

Kastoria

Ohrid

Vlor

Durrs

Bar

Zrenjanin

Smederevska

PalankaPoega

Novi Pazar

LeskovacBijelo Polje

GjeganKurbnesh

Zenica

Slavonski BrodKarlovac

Zadar

Brindisi

Brko

Panchevo

Jajce

Mostar

VaresSrebrenica

Bardh-Mirash

Suplja-Stijena

Zletovo

Kavadarci

Sasa

Zajaca

TetovoVeles

Kolubara

Podgarec

Jegunovce

Zvecan

Leposavic

Bor complex

Mojkovac Stan Terg

Novo Brdo

Lojane

Rreshen

Fushe-Arrez

Reps

Bucim

Elbasancomplex


Mining sites in the Western Balkan

Serious water pollution

Assessed mining site

River

National boundary

Prioritized mining site

Note: Map based on site assessment conducted by ENVSEC in 2006-8


43/108

43

While traces o very old mining exploi-tation and metallurgy are still visible atmany localities, and are likely to contrib-ute to the environmental risk port olioo mining sites in some ways, it is post-1945 activities which have generated themost serious mining legacies or the re-gion. Tese areas will pose a task or boththis and or coming generations.

By the early 1930s mineral deposits inthe region were well-dened, with in-

creasing levels o exploitation. Te majorbase metals mined have included alu-minium, chromium, cobalt, copper, iron,lead, magnesium, manganese, nickel,and zinc. Precious metals such as gold,silver, palladium and platinum are oundmainly in association with base metalssuch as copper, lead and zinc. Industrialminerals, represented by a broad range ocarbonate and silicate rocks, gravels, andsands as well as clays and volcanic mate-rials have also been important. Mineral

S E R B I A

R O M A N I A

B U L G A R I A

C R O A T I A

B O S N I A &

H E R Z E G O V I N A

A L B A N I A

G R E E C E

M A C E D O N I A

M O N T E N E G R O

F ORMER YUGOSLAV REPUBLIC OF

K o s o v o

A D

R I

A T

I C S

E A

D a n u b

e

S a v a

D r a v a

T i s a

O l t

M u r e s h

u l

K u pa

U n

a

C e t i n a

V r b

a s

B o s n

a

N e r e t

v a

D r i n a

S a v a

M o r a a

D r i n

V a r d a r

A x i o s

S t r u m a

M e s t a

S t r i m o n a s

Zagreb

Belgrade

Sarajevo

Podgorica

Tirana

Skopje

Sofia

Osijek

Split

Foggia

Szeged Arad

Sibiu

RamnicuValcea

Craiova


TimishoaraSubotica

Novi Sad

Ni

Pritina

Pleven

Pernik

Thessaloniki

Larisa

Bitola

Banja Luka

Kyustendil

Blagoevgrad

Alba IuliaDeva

ReshitaPetroshani

Vidin

MontanaVratsa

SerresKavala

Kastoria

IoanninaKerkyra

Ohrid

Vlor

Durrs

Bar

Zrenjanin

SmederevskaPalanka

Poega

Novi Pazar

LeskovacBijelo Polje

Giegan

Kurbnesh

Zenica


Zadar

Manfredonia

Brko

Panchevo

Jajce

Mostar

VaresSrebrenica

Bardh-Mirash

Suplja-Stena

Zletovo

Kavadarci

Sasa

Zajaca

TetovoVeles

Kolubara

Podgarec

Jegunovce

Bor complex

Mojkovac Stan Terg

Novo Brdo

Lojane

Rreshen

Fushe-Arrez

Reps

Bucim

Elbasancomplex


Watersheds in the Western Balkans

Serious water pollution

River

National boundary

Watershed boundary

River flow directionMine site

Note: Map based on site assessment conducted by ENVSEC in 2006-8


44/108

44

uels extracted in the region include coal

(lignite), natural gas and petroleum.In the period up until the early 1990s,mining, minerals processing and down-stream exploitation o the base metals cit-ed above established the region as a majorEuropean source o copper, lead and zinc.Te region, in particular Albania, was alsoa major international source o chromate.

Te use o low grades o coal and lignite inthe regions industrial and electric powergeneration acilities had raised the emis-sion o sulphur dioxide in some areas tolevels that were reportedly twice thoserecorded in Western Europe. Concentra-tions o SOx and NOx consistently exceeded

sa ety guidelines set by the World HealthOrganisation (WHO) and uncontainedemissions rom the non errous metalsprocessing plants and smelters contributedto regional acid rain. Moreover, such sitesofen contributed to serious local and sub-regional heavy-metal contamination o theenvironment due to allout.

Mining was one o the agship indus-trial sectors, inuencing the area more

extensively than in simply economic

terms. Afer the disintegration o theYugoslav common market, economicconditions in the region aggravated andin the early 1990s the Balkan economydeclined sharply. Industrial outputdropped signicantly, with a widespreadshutdown o operations such as mining.In environmental terms this cut bothways. With a dramatic drop in indus-trial output, pollution decreased. But atthe same time plants were either aban-doned or privatized under conditionsthat did not clearly establish environ-mental liability.

Such long association with mineral ex-tractive industries indicates that both a

long-established culture o mining activ-ity and a socio-economic dependency onmining and metallurgical activities canbe expected in many parts o the region.Un ortunately, it is also indicative o ahigher likelihood o multiple abandonedmining sites that may constitute pointsources o pollution. Furthermore, broadacceptance o such industries and theirpollution is likely at many levels withinthe societies in the region.


45/108

45

Situation today Te environmental legacy associated withextraction industries is all too amiliar.Badly operated or abandoned mining siteshave already caused severe pollution, somewith impacts reaching across nationalboundaries: heavy metal spills rom BaiaBorsa tailings in Romania; the cyanidespill rom Baia Mare in Romania; heavymetal spills rom Sasa tailings in Mace-donia; and various releases at Majdanpekand Veliki Majdan in Serbia, and Mojko-

vac in Montenegro. Watercourses are themain vector or transboundary pollution,whether it is ongoing and chronic, or in-

requent, acute and accidental. Smeltersalso contribute to air pollution, with seri-ous consequences or human health.

Tousands o old abandoned or or-phaned sites, with no liable legal own-er, are scattered all over the region. InBosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro,Serbia, Albania, Macedonia and Kosovo( erritory under Interim UN Admin-istration) alone the ENVSEC initiativeidentied over 180 separate operations,some with many individual sites o activ-ity. About a third o these appeared to beo signicant environmental and security

concern, and nearly a fh was deemedto involve potential transboundary risks.

On many abandoned sites the necessarymeasures or proper closure (e.g. stabili-zation, water management, replanting o


46/108

46

A D

R I

A T

I C

S E

A

D a n u b e

S a v a

D r a v a

T i s a

O l t

M u r e s h

u l

K u pa

U n a

C e t i n a

V r b

a s

B o s n

a

N e r e t

v a

D r i n a

S a v a

M o r a

a

D r i n i i Z i

D r i n

V a r d a r

A x i o s

S t r u m

a

M e s t a

S t r i m o n a s

B a l a t o

n

Zagreb

Belgrade

Sarajevo

Podgorica

Tirana

Skopje

Sofia

Osijek

Split

PcsSzeged Arad

Cluj-Napoca

Sibiu

RamnicuValcea

Craiova


TimishoaraSubotica

Novi Sad

Ni

PritinaPernik

Thessaloniki

Larisa

TetovoGostivar

Bitola

Banja Luka

Kyustendil

Blagoevgrad

t Dunajvros Bkscaba

Alba IuliaDeva

ReshitaPetroshani

Vidin

MontanaVratsa

SerresKavala

Kastoria

IoanninaVolos

Kerkyra

Veles

Ohrid

KorVlor

Durrs

Shkodr Bar

Zrenjanin

SmederevskaPalanka

Poega

Novi Pazar Leskovac

Bor

Bijelo Polje

TuzlaZenica

Mostar


Zadar

Dubrovnik

BrkoPanchevo

Map produced by ZO Environment Network, 2010Sources: LandScan Global Population Database. OakRidge, TN: Oak Ridge National Laboratory; World Gazetteer

1 100 00

500 000

200 000100 00020 000

Population

Population density(inhabitants per km)

1 10 100

Population density in the Western Balkans

vegetation, etc.), to minimize the risk oaccidents and to prevent environmentalpollution were never taken. Implement-ing them now is very expensive.

Coping with the present situation iscomplicated, with a large number osites with serious environmental im-pacts, high remediation costs and the

liable owners missing. In most cases thegovernment is held accountable. But thehuge nancial liability attached to anysystematic rehabilitation programmerepresents a challenge that ar exceedsthe nancial or organizational resourceso any one regional actor. Te situationis urther aggravated by the lack o ex-pertise required to take practical respon-


47/108

47

Te region has almost the ull range o risks entailing large-scale environmental

damage, in particular: ore types and rock with signicant acid mine drainage (AMD) generating po-

tential; absence o mine planning or AMD control, and/or closure; large (historical) milling and concentration plants with signicant tailing im-

poundments mountainous terrain; periods o heavy rain and/or snowmelt; numerous rivers and catchment areas shared by several countries; signicant seismicity (earthquakes); abandoned and orphaned sites with little or no closure or control; lack o ongoing physical and/or biochemical monitoring o operational and/or

abandoned sites; lack o ongoing maintenance, both proactive and reactive; absence o institutionalized accident/disaster response procedures; apparent ocus upon site jurisdictions rather than natural boundaries such as

watersheds

Factors contributing to environmental risks at mine sites

sibility or dealing with abandoned sitesand the associated issues.

Most modern mining operations conse-quently include a bonding system whichensures that sufficient nancial resources

are set aside during the active period othe mine. I appropriate such resourcesare released when mining stops andthe measures mentioned above need tobe taken.

In the Western Balkans, the situation isar away rom that. Funds necessary or

even routine maintenance o hazardoussites such as tailings ponds and hazard-ous waste dumps have been very limited.

As an inevitable result, the likelihood oenvironmental accidents has increasedmarkedly.

Governments in the Western Balkans arein the process o preparing and imple-

menting the privatization and closure omines. Tis appears to provide a soundbasis or cleaning up a substantial num-ber o mining sites as part o new andongoing operations. As such, the re-opening o sites under modern industrialpractices, as stipulated by the EuropeanUnion (BREF documents), could makeurgently required mitigation and rehabil-itation programmes much more easiblethan was assumed a ew years ago.


48/108

48

Rehove

Podgarec

Martanesh

Bulqize

Rubik

Rreshen

Kurbnesh

Reps

Fushe Arrez

Kalimash

Giegan

Burrel Lac

Elbasan

Korfu

D r i n

M o r a c a

Z e t a

L i m

C e m

B o j a n

a

Be l i D r i m

J u z n a M

o r a v a

V a r d

a r

T r e

s k a

C r n a

R e k a

Ma t

M a t

F a n

E r z

e n

S h k u m b i n

S e m a

n D e v o l l

O s u m

V i j o s e

S h u

s h i c

e

V i j o s e

D r i n

T h i a m i s

A r a t

o s

H a l i a c m

o n

Lake Skadar

Lake Ohrid

Lake Prespa

M O N T E N E G R O

A L B A N I A

F O R M E R Y U G O S L A V

R E P U B L I C O F M A C E D O N I A

K o s o v o

(UN administered Territory under UNSC 1244)

G R E E C E

Podgorica

SkopjeBar

Shkoder

Lezhe

Lac Burrel

Kukes Tetovo

Gostivar

Kumanovo

PristinaPec

Prizren

Plav

CetinjeKotor

Ulcinj

Dakovica Orahovac

Gnjilane

Urosevac Presovo

Prilep

Bitola

Struga

Ohrid

Debar Kicevo

Tirana

Kruje Bulqize

Peshkopi

Shijak

Durres

KavajeElbasan

Pogradec

Lushnje

Fier

Patos

Kucove

Berat

Corovode

Korce

Vlore

Tepelene

Gjirokaster

Sarande

Korfu

Igoumenitsa

Ioannina

Florina

Kastoria

Gravena

Trikala

25 50 75 km0


Mining site


49/108

49

AlbaniaAlbania is situated on the Adriatic andIonian coast between Greece and the or-mer Yugoslavia. It has rich biodiversitywith a landscape o coastal plains and alargely orested mountainous interior.Albania aces serious anthropogenicthreats to its environment. Erosion, il-legal cutting and harvesting o orestand vegetation resources, urban waste,industrial pollution and rapid popula-tion growth have led to severe environ-

mental degradation. Te coastal plaincontinues to be used or extensive, un-sustainable agricultural practices to sup-port the population. Current agriculturaland grazing practices have led to severeerosion, environmental destruction andpollution in Albanias watersheds.

In the period rom 1945 to 1991 Alba-nias industry and general economy developed under a system o central eco-nomic planning with a la

Documents

Mining [Western Balkans] 2001 [R]