Mindrescu Et Al_2012_Interdisciplinary Investigations of the First Reported Laminated Lacustrine_QI

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Interdisciplinary investigations of the firstreported laminated lacustrine sediments inRomania

ARTICL E in QUATERNARY INTERNATIONAL APRIL 2013Impact Factor: 2.13 DOI: 10.1016/j.quaint.2012.08.2105

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Mndrescu Marcel

Stefan cel Mare University of Suceava-Depa

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Alexandru Ionu Cristea

Stefan cel Mare University of Suceava


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Simon Mark Hutchinson

University of Salford


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Angelica Feurdean

"Emil Racovita" Institute of Speleology


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Available from: Mndrescu MarcelRetrieved on: 17 August 2015
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Interdisciplinary investigations of the rst reported laminated lacustrinesediments in RomaniaM. Mndrescu a , * , A.I. Cristeaa, S.M. Hutchinsonb, G. Florescua, A. Feurdeanca University of Suceava, Department of Geography, Universitatii Street, Suceava 720229, Romaniab School of Environment and Life Sciences, University of Salford, Salford M5 4WT, UK c Senckenberg Research Institute and Natural History Museum & Biodiversity and Climate Research Centre (BiK-F), Senckenberganlage 25, 60325 Frankfurt am Main, Germany

a r t i c l e i n f o

Article history:Available online xxx

a b s t r a c t

An interdisciplinary study (cartographic and historical records, geomorphological, geological andbathymetric survey, water analysis, sediment coring and analysis and AMS radiocarbon dating) of twosmall and previously unreported lakes (Iezer and Bol atau) in Obcina Feredeului Mountains, northeasternRomania, provides new data into the environmental history and possible human impacts over the lastmillennium in this region. The rst recorded historical reference to Iezer Lake dates to 1594 AD, and toBolatau Lake to 1806 AD. Two sediment cores (420 cm for Iezer and 540 cm for Bolatau) of nely bandedlake sediments and a radiocarbon age estimate at Iezer Lake suggest that this lake may represent theoldest landslide lake in Romania. The geomorphological, geological, and morphometric surveys indicatethat these lakes origins relate to landslide activity. Coarse grained, lighter sediment bands are generallycharacterized by higher values in magnetic susceptibility, Saturation Isothermal Remanent Magnet-isation (SIRM), as well in geochemical indicators such as Ti and Zr, and low organic content, possiblyindicating periods of increased runoff. Conversely, ner-grained, dark sediment bands show lower valuesin magnetic susceptibility, SIRM, Ti and Zr and higher organic content, and are likely to suggest quieterdeposition periods. However, there are two signi cant episodes of markedly increased surface erosion. The

oldest occurs between 100 and 110 cm, and might be coincident with the terminal part of Little Ice Age(LIA), whereas the youngest in the top 30 cm coincides with recent land use. These lakes hold signi cantpotential in providing an important perspective on the environmental conditions over the last millenniumand, more speci cally, to supply new information about the Medieval Warm Period (MWP) and LIA signalsin the NE Romanian Carpathians. These two landslide-dammed lakes should be de ned as scienti creserves to ensure their protection and to enhance their use as a scienti c and educational resource.

2012 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction

Lakes are important elements in the landscape and may havea rangeof uses, from sources of drinkingwater andirrigation to oodcontrol and shing.Occasionally,referenceto lakescanalso befoundwithin local folklore. In the case of the two lakes presented in thisstudy, the larger (e.g., Iezer Lake) is also known as the Eye of Hell

due to the fatethatmany animals have met in attempting to cross ordrink from it. When references to such lakes become incorporatedwithin the historical record they can also provide a means to tracktheir development and usage over time. Water bodies may beformed dueto a varietyof processes that modifythe land surface andimpede draining including landsliding. When a lake is formed bysuch processes, it may also effectively have a documented date of

birth if the event was both observed and recorded. Linked to thepalaeolimnological record provided by their sediments, landslidedammed lakes may also provide an important opportunity toreconstruct the environmental changes that have affected the waterbody as it has developed. In turn, these insights can be useful inunderstanding catchment e lake interactions and thereby the envi-ronmental management of the site ( Birks and Birks, 2006).

Determining theformation of lakes hasa longhistory of research(Cohen, 2003) and Hutchinson (1957) , for example, recognisedeleven categories of lake origins. Most lakes may be classed ashaving been formed by glacial, tectonic, or uvial processesaccording to this classi cation. Other types of lake (including thoseformed by landslide damming) account for a relatively smallproportion of the present day lakes ( Cohen, 2003). Nevertheless,lakes formedby landslide damming canbe commonin uplandareas.In Romania themostwell-known lake formedfollowing landslidingis Red Lake, which is located in the Eastern Carpathian Mountains. It

* Corresponding author.E-mail address: [email protected] (M. Mndrescu).

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1040-6182/$ e see front matter 2012 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2012.08.2105

Quaternary International xxx (2012) 1 e 12

Please cite this article in press as: Mndrescu, M., et al., Interdisciplinary investigations of the rst reported laminated lacustrine sediments inRomania, Quaternary International (2012), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2012.08.2105
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was formed in 1837 AD and is now a popular tourist destination(Pandi, 2004). Lakes formed as a consequence of landsliding are notuncommon in this region, due to the instability of the underlying

ysch geology. However, to date, Iezerand Bol atau Lakes have beenonly brie y mentioned in the scienti c literature.

The rst aim of this study is to detail the origins and develop-ment over time of these two water bodies. The historical evidencefor their formation will be evaluated with preliminary informationprovided by the sedimentary record. Secondly, for the rst timethe bathymetry of the two basins will be described, and combinedwith sediment composition and physical parameters in order toprovide a preliminary palaeoenvironmental reconstruction in NERomania. Lastly, the data will also provide the basis for futurerecommendations on the environmental management and thesustainable use of these water bodies. These sites are signi cant as

they may provide a model of the evolution of older landslides inthe Romanian Carpathians.

2. Study area and site descriptions

Iezer and Bolatau Lakes are located in the northern section of Eastern Carpathians, northeastern Romania ( Fig. 1). They lie at thesouthwestern extremity of the Obcina Feredeului to the west of Feredeului Peak (1364 m) and the Poiana Prislop saddle (1102 m) inthe River Sadova drainage basin (a tributary of the River Moldova).Administratively, the lakes belong to the Sadova Commune, about14.5 km from Cmpulung Moldovenesc town within the County of Suceava. Iezer Lake (930 m) is located on a tributary of the RiverSadova, whereas Bolatau Lake (1137 m) lies on the next tributaryupstream on the River Sadova. The tributary is also called Bolatau

Fig.1. Location of Iezer and Bolatau Lakes. Insert (bottomlef t) shows their position within the Romanian Carpathians. Insert (top right) shows the study area within SuceavaCounty.

The main map provides details of the area around the lakes within the Obcina Feredeului.

M. Mndrescu et al. / Quaternary International xxx (2012) 1 e 122

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(the upper course of this river is known by the name Holohos ca)(Fig. 1). In order to avoid confusion and to make a necessarydistinction from similar toponyms in different location in Romania,it is suggested that the lakes in the present study are referred to asBolatau-Feredeu and Iezer-Feredeu. Details of the geographicalsettings of the two lakes are given in Table 1.

In order to ascertain the trophic state of the lakes, chemicalanalysis of both water bodies March 2010 were compared withprevious estimates from 1981 ( Decei, 1981). An increase in the pHof the water of Iezer Lake occurred between 1981 and 2010, from

pH 6.0 to 6.5 to pH 7.45, as well as an augmentation in the oxygenconcentration from 9.72 mg/l in 1981 to 10.99 mg/l in 2010(Table 1). The analyses showed that there are slight differencesbetween the lakes in terms of the concentration of nitrates andphosphates. Consequently, Iezer Lake falls into quality grade IIwhereas Bolatau Lake is classi ed as quality grade I (Mndrescuet al., 2010a). Both lakes are eutrophic at present. Observationsalso indicated that the water column becomes strati ed and thatthermal strati cation is most marked during the summer.

Geologically, the southwestern extremity of the Obcina Fer-edeului belongs to the Audia Nappe comprising ysch deposits of the Eastern Carpathians (see Sandulescu, 1984 ). Flysch typicallyconsists of a sequence of shales rhythmically interbedded with thinbands of sandstone. The stratigraphy of this region comprisesmostly Cretaceous and Palaeogene deposits ( Fig. 2). The Cretaceousdeposits are predominantly clayey, and the Palaeogene are mostlyrepresented by uniform layers of sandstone, with small intercala-tions of clays and marly clays. The study catchments are situatedwithin the westernmost sub-unit (Black Shales Formation) of theAudia Nappe comprising shales of Cretaceous age. These strata arehighly susceptible to landsliding as they comprise alternations of black marly shales, glauconitic, siliceous or calcareous sandstones,red, green, striped, and grey clays ( Ionesi, 1971). The geologicalsection in Fig. 2 also shows that these deposits are highly foldedand are oriented near-vertically, and in line with the valley of theRiver Sadova. Holocene deposits in the area include signi cantlandslide and other debris deposits ( Kratner et al., 1975 ).

The climate in NE Romania is temperate continental. Accordingto the data provided by the meteorological station in CmpulungMoldovenesc (Fig. 1), the annual mean temperature of the sites is6.4 C (16.5 C in July and 5.2 C in January; for the period 1934 e1987). The maximum monthly temperature amplitude occursduring the cold season, especially in March (range: 48.6 C) and theminimum amplitude during summer, respectively. The long-termannual precipitation volume ranges between 696 mm (Cmpu-lung, 642 m a.s.l.) and 902 mm (Rarau, 1572 m a.s.l.). The distri-bution of the precipitation throughout the year shows that 73% of the rainfall occurs during the warm season, between April and

Fig. 2. Geological details of the study area (after the Geological Map of Romania, 1:50,000 scale, Pojorta sheet) (after Kratner et al., 1975).

Table 1

Lake basin characteristics.Variable Iezer Lake Bolatau LakeInformation about lakesLatitude, N 47 360 1300 47 370 2100Longitude, E 25 260 5800 25 250 5400Altitude, m 930 1137Catchment area (ha) 355.2 29.57Catchment perimeter (km) 8.04 2.37Lake area in 1981 (on map) (m2) 18,200 2280Lake area in 2010 (by GPS) (m2) 7500 2350Water volume (m 3) in 2010 11,911 5699Max. water depth (m) 4.47 5Sediment thickness (m) 3.93 5.40Water depth at core point (m) 3.80 4.10Estimated max. water depth of

initial lake (m)12a 14a

Estimated max. basin depth(water sediment) (m) 8a

9.50a

Sediment rates based on C-14 date, 386 cm/1035 yr Estimated rate of sedimentation

(mm a 1)3.73 5.12a

Estimated sediment yield (t ha a 1),using lake area from 1981

0.127 0.264a

Trophic state of the lakes (March 2010)pH, in 1960 6.0e 6.5 epH 7.45 7.11O2, mg/l 10.99 9.98NO3 e N, mg/l 1.179 0.901PO4 e P, mg/l 0.153 0.014a Estimated values.

M. Mndrescu et al. / Quaternary International xxx (2012) 1 e 12 3

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September. The maximum monthly precipitation occurs in July(262 mm) and the minimum in December (62 mm). The highestamount of precipitation in 24 h was 67.9 mm in July 1947 in Cm-pulung, whereas the highest value documented in the area was inVatra Dornei, 260 mm in September 1912. The number of days peryear whereby the rainfall exceeds 10 mm is 21 days in Cmpulungand 28 in the Rar au Mts., respectively. As regards the duration of precipitation during the warm season, Rar au Mts. are included inthe zone of maximum duration of rainfall within the Romanianterritory (over 190 min of rain) ( Rusu, 2002). Thus, considering theclimatic conditions in the area, it may be inferred that, in additionto the nature of the bedrock, the consistently high precipitationlevels and the occurrence of heavy rainfall events may furtherincrease susceptibility of the regional geology to landsliding.

The regional forests at the elevation where the study sites aresituated are composed of a mixture of Fagus sylvatica and Piceaabies forests (Toader and Dumitru, 2004 ; Feurdean et al., 2011).P. abies forests dominate the surrounding slopes at both sites.

3. Methods

3.1. Cartographic records

Cartographic sources such as old maps can provide a source of historical information about elements within the landscape such aswater bodies and catchments land use and cover. In order todocument the evolution of the two sites based on cartographicsources, we used the maps of Bucovina (historical region) madeduring Austro-Hungarian rule (Table 2). They were devised mainlyfor military use, and thus contained valuable cadastral data. The

rst set of maps made for Bucovina during the late 18th centurywere on a scale (1:28,800) which was suitable for detailed repre-sentations of numerous elements of the landscape and containeda large density of toponyms. During the early 19th century, thereforms regarding tax collection made under Francis I were fol-

lowed by more accurate triangulations, which were the base fora new set of large scale cadastral maps (1:2880). Both sets of mapsprovide important information regarding the existence of the lakesduring the 18th and 19th centuries (Table 2).

3.2. Historical records

In order to evaluate the age of the lakes and the likely humanimpact on these landscapes, historical documents, mainly estateregisters, were also used. The estate boundaries were establishedbased on elements of the local topography and other elements of the landscape, such as rivers, lakes and springs. Due to an enduringmonastic life in northern Romania, several monasteries were builtand endowed with land properties in the surrounding areas(Documente privind Istoria Romniei, 1952 ). In this context,

historical documents, such as monastery registers or other

historical sources may prove to be valuable for environment,climate and human impact reconstruction in northern Romaniaduring the last ve centuries ( Feurdean et al., 2009).

3.3. Bathymetric survey

In 2010 a Garmin 525 sounder was used to determine thebathymetry of the lake. The data points in this survey (more than1000 for each site) were registered in the Stereo 70 coordinatesystem and superimposed on the corresponding orthophoto. Thiswas done in order to verify the accuracy of the topographicmapping and the lakes contour extraction. On the perimeter of thelakes, points of 0 depth value were automatically created and usedfor better interpolation. In order to obtain isobaths and a 3D modelof the lake basins, a method that caused the least deformation of the measured depths and which represented as accurately aspossible the situation in the eld was required. Aftera review of themethods available in ArcGIS 9.2, data point interpolation andgeneration of a digital model of the basin were undertaken usingthe Topo-to-Raster method. This method worked well for otherlakes i.e., S tiol lake (Mindrescu et al., 2010b).

3.4. Sediment coring and analysis

The sediment cores (sections 60 cm long) from Iezer (length410 cm) and Bolatau (length 540 cm) were taken with a Russiancorer from the frozen surface of the water bodies in March 2010.Immediately after the cores retrieval, lithostratigraphic descrip-tions were made based on the visual inspection of the colour,texture, and presence of laminations. Both cores were subsequentlycleaned, photographed digitally, and scanned.

In order to evaluate the input of minerogenic sediment into thebasins and lake productivity, each sediment core was subsampled(1 cm intervals), dried, and the uppermost section (120 cm) of IezerLake was subjected to the following analyses: geochemical analysis,mineral magnetic measurement, total organic content and particlesize determination.

The geochemistry of samples was determined using a handheldNiton XL3t 900 X-Ray Fluorescence analyser (pXRF). This techniquehas been employed for the rapid analysis of a range of environ-mental samples ( Kalnicky and Singhvi, 2001),but only the Ti and Zrcontent are reported here as proxies for mineral material in-washed into the lake. The Fe/Mn ratio and the Pb concentrationsprovide additional information.

The magnetic susceptibility was measured using a BartingtonInstruments Ltd MS2 system with a B sensor. SIRM (SaturationIsothermal Remanent Magnetisation) was induced in a Molspin LtdPulse Magnetiser at 1000 mT and measured in a ux gate magne-tometer ( Walden et al., 1999 ). Both parameters indicate the mineralmagnetic concentration of samples and can therefore re ect sedi-

ment sources (e.g. Hu et al., 2002).To estimate the organic matter content, 1 cm 3 of sediment weredried overnight at 105 C, carefully weighed and combusted for 4 hat 550 C. Reweighing after combustion permitted the calculationof loss on ignition, which is widely accepted as re ecting the totalorganic content of sediment samples ( Heiri et al., 2001).

Sediment particle size was determined by laser based HoribaPartica LA-950V2. The Horiba laser scattering method uses Mie scat-teringtheoryover theentiresize rangeof theparticles ( Horiba,2009).The median particle size (based on volume) down pro le is reported.Samples were previously ashed and the data points presented aretaken from three repeat measurements following ultrasonication.

The identi cation of depositional layers was based on imagedigital analysis of the 60 cm cores sections ( Fig. 3). Digital grayscale

images were used and the graphic processing was performed using

Table 2Maps of Bucovina made during the Austro e Hungarian rule (1778 e 1880).

No Map name Date of print Scale Section1 Plans des Bukowiner Districts,

72 Sections1778 1:28,800 XLIX

2 Topographische BukowinerKreis-Carte, 55 Sections

1790 1:28,800 134

3 Franziszeische Urmappe 1854e 1856 1:2880 Sadowasheet

4 Specialkarte der k.u.k.

sterreichisch-UngarischenMonarchie im Mastab

1880 1:75,000 12 XXXIII


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F i g

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UTHSCSA Image Tool 3.0 software which has been specicallydesigned to identify lacustrine varves ( Ridge, 2011). The method-ology involved drawing several longitudinal pro le lines (witha width of 10 pixels) for each core and identifying the mean valuecorresponding to intersected pixels. The RGB values obtainedindicate the presence (in relation to depth) of darker or lighterlayers (from 0 for black to 768 for white). By plotting these data, thecolour contrasts (1 pixel is equivalent to 0.03 cm) were used toestimate the thickness and number of sediment layers.

One AMS 14C measurement was performed on a P. abies woodfragment found at 386 cm at Iezer Lake (lab-code: UBA-18397;Belfast Radiocarbon Laboratory, Northern Ireland).

4. Results and discussion

4.1. General considerations

Both lakes are located in an area with numerous ancient land-slides, some of which are still active (Georgescu and Georgescu,1965). Moreover, owing to their poorly cemented and friable rocks,

ysch areas aregenerally highlysusceptible to landslides ( Ichim andR adoane, 1996 ). This is especially the case where the geologicalstrata have been folded to a near vertical orientation, exposing thedifferent rock layers to the elements and weakening any lateralsupport of the individual units (see Fig. 2). In the 1960s studies of landslides in the region, including this area (upper catchment of Sadova River), were undertaken (e.g., Georgescu and Georgescu,1965). The results highlighted several major features as a result of dams created by landslides. Moreover, the entire western slope of Obcina Feredeului has been affected by several landslides and thereis extensive evidence of slope movements in both catchments(Fig. 4).

4.2. Cartographic records and lake basin evolution

The earliest detailed cartography referring to Bucovina, prob-ably printed in 1778, was made by engineers of the HabsburgImperial Army at a scale of 1:28,800 and is known as the Plans of the Bukowina District (Plans des Bukowiner Districts). However, itdoes not mention the existence of a lake in Obcina Feredeului.

Fig. 4. Distribution of landslides in the basins of Iezer and Bolatau Lakes.


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This omission may be attributed to the haste with which thesesurveys were carried out during 1773 e 1775 in a territory which,at that time, did not politically belong to the Habsburg Empire.However, Iezer Lake can be distinguished on the cadastral map(the Topographische Bukowiner Kreis-Carte), made at the samescale and printed in 1790. This lake also appears in the Austriancartographic documents of the following century, for example the1850s 1:28,800 scale cadastral map and the 1880s 1:75,000 scaletopographic map. Romanian maps show only Iezer Lake on thepolychrome 1:50,000 topographic map ( 1973 edition), but bothlakes are represented on the 1:25,000 polychrome map ( 1985edition).

The rst map with the approximate location of the Iezer Lake in1790 showed an uncertain area ( Fig. 5a). In 1856 the lake wasshown as roughly rectangular shaped with an area of 2.13 ha

(Fig. 5b), but by the 1880s it had become smaller and hook-shapedwith an area of w 1.10 ha (Fig. 5c) This marked change in form maybe the result of the inputof material (such as a debris cone) into thelake from the landslide area that originally formed the lake. In the1930s the Iezer lake appears to have again increased its surfaceareato2.5 haand has a regular shape ( O ciul Judet ean de Turism, 1935 ).However, by the 1960s is described as small (less than 2 ha) andpartly silted ( Georgescu and Georgescu, 1964 ). A signi cant recentchange occurred in 1965 when the lake was drained to allow theconstruction of a dam wall across its out ow, and subsequentlyout ow was controlled. This increased the surface are of the lake toapproximately 2 ha ( Decei, 1981). By the early 1980s, the lake s

surface area slightly decreased to 1.8 ha ( Fig. 5d). Currently, the lakeis rapidly silting and has decreased to its smallest size since itsformation (0.75 ha), with more than half covered by marsh vege-tation composed by a mixture of sedges, grasses, and mosses(Fig. 6). The dam wall is now degraded and the over ow mecha-nism is inoperative. Consequently the lake is returning to the hook-shape of the 1880s.

For Bolatau Lake, both cartographic and historical referencesinformation are limited and it rst appears on Romanian topo-graphic plans only in the 1980s. As a relatively small and moreisolated lake, it is less likely to have been mapped (especially at themapping scales used in older surveys) and, given its location withina relatively remote, forested area, it is unlikely to have becamea local landmark and consequently to have been recorded in

historical documents.

4.3. Historical documents

Theoldest historical document in which Iezer Lake is mentionedis dated 12th July 1594 during the reignof Aron Vod a (Table 3). Thisdocument states that the M agura Mountain had been offered asa gift to the monastery by Aron s father (Alexandru Lapus neanu,who ruled between 1552 e 1561 AD and 1564e 1568 AD), where thelake is referred to as part of the boundary of the estate. Subse-quently, Izvorul Iezerului stream and indirectly the homonymouslake (i.e., Iezer) are mentioned in another document dated 16thAugust 1762 (S tefanelli, 1915, 66e 67). According to the documen-tary evidence, it may therefore be considered that Iezer Lake wasformed prior to 1594 AD. It is thus possibly one of the oldestlandslide dammed lake ( Mindrescu et al. , 2010c), that can be tracedin a historical archive in Romania.

Bolatau Lake is rst mentioned as Bol atau Dairy (most likelya glade with a temporary shelter for shepherds, an abode orstockyard) in 1806 AD (S tefanelli, 1915, 322e 323). However,according to another historical document dated 21st May 1737 AD(S tefanelli, 1915, 36e 37), Bolatau Lake could be older (Table 3).Therefore, in the early eighteenth century at least two lakes fromthe western slope of the Obcina Feredeului are recorded in histor-ical sources, and it is assumed that these are Iezer and Bol atauLakes.

4.4. Sediment coring and analysis

4.4.1. Age and origin of the lakesIn order to determine the age of Iezer Lake, a 14C measurementwas performed on spruce found on the bottom part of the sedimentpro le. The radiocarbon age obtained (913 21 14C) was convertedinto calendar years AD with Calib Rev 6.0( Stuiver and Reimer,1993 )using the INTCAL09 data set of Reimer et al. (2009). This suggestsa calibrated data range (2 s ) of 1035e 1176 cal AD. As sprucefragments are likely to be detrital and were therefore carried intothe lake basin by the landslide, this date probably provides theupper constraint for the formation of the lake basin.

Useof theUTHSCSA Image Tool 3.0software and7 digital imagesofthe60cmlongcoresforIezerLake(0 e 60,60e 120,120e 180,180e240, 240e 300, 300e 360 and 360 e 420 cm), identi ed a largenumber of layers, 1350 e 1450. On the basis of the radiocarbon date

and layer count, it is apparent that Iezer Lake is at least 1035 years

Table 3Earliest references to the lakes in historical documents.

Lake Date of document

Original text in Romanian/Translated into English

Iezer 12 June 1594 Io Aron voevod, [. ] domn al t arii Moldovei. Am dat s i am ntarit [ . ] s ntei mn astiri din Homor [ . ] un munte care se

chiama Magura, cu toate poenile s i izvoarele, care sunt mprejurul lui, care [.

] este danie s ntei mn astiri din Homor delaraposatul p arintele domniei mele, Alexandru voevod [ . ]. Iar hotarul acelui munte mai nainte numit, care se chiam a Magura,cu toate poenile s i izvoarele, ncepnd dela Iazer merge pn a la Feredeu s i de aici tot la deal Obcina [. ] iaras i pna la Iazer [. ]

(Documente privind Istoria Romniei/D.I.R., 1952, p. 112). I, voivode Aron (. ), lord of the Moldavia country. I gave and made lawful ( . ) to the holy monastery of Homor ( . ) amountain called M agura with all the glades and springs surrounding it, which ( . ) is bene cence to the holy monastery of Homorfrom the late lamented father of my lordship, voivode Alexandru. ( . ) and the bounds of the mountain previously mentioned,which is called Magura, with all the glades and springs, starting from Iezer and going to Feredeu, and from here straight uphill theObcina (. ) and again to Iezer ( . ). (Documente privind Istoria Romniei, 1952 , 112 p.).

Bolatau 21 May 1737 au marturisit (doi c alugari batrni de cca. 70 de ani- n.n.) c au t inut cu adeat acel munte a m anasterii anume M agura ct t inede la eazer (lacul Iezer- n.n.) pn a n Feredeu s i din Feredeu n Prislopu Secului s i opcina cea mare n gios pna la fntna s ila alt ezer s i pe piciorul lui Paliean pn a la prag s i din prag dealul alature cu Neagra pn a n gura Negrei pna n Moldova s iMoldova n sus pna n gura Breazi s i Breaza pna la ezer... (21 mai 1737) (S tefanelli, 1915 , 36e 37). have confessed (two old monks of about 70 years old) that they kept that mountain of the monastery, namely M agura, fromthe eazer (Iezer lake) to Feredeu and from Feredeu to Prislopul Secului (Poiana Prislop) and the big ridge downhill to the fountainand to other ezer and to Paliean Foot to the threshold and from the threshold the hill next to Neagra, to the Neagra river smouth to Moldova and Moldova upstream to Breaza river s mouth and Breaza to the ezer (S tefanelli, 1915 , 36e 37).


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old, and thus 600 years older than the maps and historical docu-ments have indicated. Based on the geomorphological observationsit is apparent that Iezer Lake was formed as a result of a landslide,which barred the valley, and thus Iezerul Lake could be the oldest

landslide-dammed lake in Romania. Both the upstream and down-stream ends of this lake are delineated by landslide debris ( Fig. 4).Directly below the landslide, the river channel becomes deeplyincised, cutting into both the landslide body and the bedrock. This

Fig. 5. Location of the Iezer lake according to old maps. a. The approximate location of Iezer Lake on the Austrian cadastral map of 1790 (Topographische Bukowiner Kreis-Carte,1:28,800, 1790); b. Position and dimensions of Iezer Lake (section no. 134) on the Austrian cadastral map (Sadova sheet) of 1856 (Franziszeische Urmappe e Sadowa,1:2880, 1856);c. Location and shape of Iezer Lake on the Austrian map of 1880. Insert: note the hook-like shape of the lake (Specialkarte der k.u.k. sterreichisch-Ungarischen Monarchie imMastab 1:75,000 der Natur, 1880); d. Iezer Lake on the Romanian topographic plan of 1981e 1982 (Planul topogra c romnesc, 1:5000, 1981e 1982).

Fig. 6. Bathymetric maps of Iezer and Bolatau Lakes.


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landslide is thelargest in theareaand hasa surfaceof approximately35 ha, displacing around 10 M m 3 of material.

Bolatau Lake was formed by a landslide that barred a deep andnarrow valley and which led to the formation of a relatively small,but deep lake (currently 5.4 m deep). The landslide affected an areaof almost 23 ha and displaced a volume of about 9 M m 3 of rock(Fig. 4).

The question that remains, however, is the condition underwhich these lakes were formed; whether as a result of geomor-phological events due to the climatic conditions alone or coupledwith major deforestation. The impact of humans in the uplandforests of the Romanian Carpathians is documented to havebecome strongly visible from the Middle Age onwards (i.e. duringthe last millennium) with a sudden increase from about 1500 ADbased on pollen and charcoal records ( Farcas et al., 2003; Feurdeanet al., 2009, 2010; Tant au et al., 2011). Another important shift inthe management of the upland forests took place around 1850 ADwith the introduction of large-scale wood industrial exploitation(Feurdean et al., 2009). The period of Iezer Lake s formation couldtherefore be coincident with the onset of strong human impact inthe forests of the region. There are a number of landslide dammedlakes in Romania which were formed around the time of theintroduction of industrial wood exploitation. These include RedLake in the Has mas Mountains which formed in 1837 AD (Pandi,2004), Bolatau Lake in the Nemira Mountains which formed in1883 AD (Gs tescu, 1971), but also involve more recent examplessuch as Novat Lake in the Maramures ului Mountains which formedin1957 AD (Ciornei,1959) and Cuejdel Lake (also called Crucii Lake)in the Stanis oara Mountains which formed in 1991 AD (Ichim andR adoane, 1996 ; R adoane, 2002 e 2003; Rusu et al., 2002).

4.4.2. Change in bathymetric and sedimentary characteristicsTable 1 shows the current dimensions of both lakes, including

information on their contrasting catchment and basin characteris-tics. Whereas the area of Iezer Lake has decreased markedlybetween the 1980s map and the survey in 2010, the dimensions of Bolatau Lake appear largely unchanged over recent decades. This isconsistentwiththe data provided by thelonger term historicalmapsof the area, which suggest that Iezer Lake has previously changed insize and shape ( Fig. 5). Based the topography at the site of the lake,the initial lake bed ( Fig. 4) at Iezer Lake reached a maximum waterlevel and size (4 ha and a depth of 12 m) soon after the landslideoccurred, and has subsequently reduced in size and depth as anoutletto thelake formedand deepened ( Fig.4).ThedepthofBolatauLake(5.4m atpresent) atthe timeof its formationmay havebeenupto 14 m (Fig. 4). Therefore, although there has been little change inthesurfacearea of this lake, ithasdecreased signi cantlyindepthbyapproximately 60% (Fig. 6). It is evident that Iezer Lake has a morecomplex shape and bottom topography. Bol atau Lake is steeper-sided in cross section with two marked deep points.

The lacustrine sediments in both cores are characterised bylaminar (varve-like) lighter and darker bands (see Fig. 7). Signi -cantly, this banding occurs throughout the entire sediment column.The width of these layers varies, but they suggest repeated, rela-tively rapid changes in sedimentation with contrasting mineralversus organic content. The banding may therefore re ect strongseasonal contrasts (e.g. ice cover vs. spring-summer oods),changes in catchment hydrology affecting inputs to the lake anddiscrete events such as ood episodes.

To objectively describe the banding a digital photo of the longsection of each core section was scanned to produce the sedimentcore pro les shown in Fig. 3. Changes in colour are shown as pixelvalues and clearly highlight the laminations in the sediments.Lower pixel values correspond to darker bands, for example,

between 6 and 8 cm, 12 and 14 cm and 19 and 21 cm. Finer, lighter

coloured bands (with higher pixel counts) can be seen in themiddle part of the core (20 e 50 cm).

The particle size analysis and the organic content show clearanti-phase variation through the sediment i.e., coarser grain sizecorrelated with lower organiccontentand viceversa ( Fig.8a and b).There is also a clear, positive correlation between peaks in particlesize and the lighter coloured parts of the core deposited between1e 6, 8e 12, 25e 35, and 39e 50, ca. 70, 80, 85e 90, and 110 cm(Fig. 8a and b). The organic content, on the other hand, increaseswhere the core is darker in appearance i.e., between 6 e 8, 12e 14,19e 21, 75e 78, 82, 98e 102 and 105 e 110 cm. This suggests thatthe lighter bands comprise coarser grained (presumably higherenergy event related) sediments, whereas the darker bands mayrepresent more quiescent periods of accumulation. The hypothesisof increased runoff and deposition of the light colour, coarsermaterial is supported by the rise in magnetic concentration shownby magnetic susceptibility and SIRM and also geochemical indica-tors such as Ti and Zr (Figs. 8c, d, g and h). In contrast, magneticconcentration and Ti and Zr values decrease markedly in the darkersections, characterized by enriched values in organic content andsmaller particle size ( Fig. 8).

Generally there would appear to be a trend of increasing Tiand Zr concentrations from the base to the top of the coresections illustrated. However, the mineral magnetic andgeochemical properties of the sediments also indicate theoccurrence of two signi cant episodes where the sedimentaryregime of the lake has been perturbed, suggesting an increase insurface erosion The oldest occurs between 100 and 110 cmwhereas the youngest in the top 30 cm ( Fig. 8). At these depths

there is a major change (from low to high values) in the Fe/Mnratio suggesting a change in the nature of inputs to the lake basinat these times. The Pb concentration pro le is included as anindicator of the pollution status of the lake. Throughout thepro le the concentrations remain relatively low and in line withthe values expected as a function of the geology of the catchment(cf. Krauskopf and Bird, 1994). The down-core uctuations inconcentration also support the notion that the origins of thiselement in the sediment column are natural, rather thananthropogenic. There are no direct sources of such inputs withinthe catchment ( Fig. 1), although the surface layer of the core hasthe maximum level re ecting recent atmospheric inputs to thesite (Akinyemi et al., in this issue). Based on the single basalradiocarbon date at Iezer Lake (1035 years at 368 cm from a total

core length of 420 cm) and the number of sediment laminations

Fig. 7. Laminated sediments sections of Iezer (a) and Bolatau (b).


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identi ed (1350e 1450), if a constant sediment accumulation rateis assumed it appears that rst erosional event may have takenplace around 250 e 300 years ago. Tentatively, this should coin-cide with the terminal part of the Little Ice Age (LIA), a cold andmoist interval occurring between 1400 and 1840 AD ( Moberget al., 2005). Other regional climate and environmental recordsfrom the Carpathians depict the cooling trend during the LIA. For

example, dendrochronological analysis of stone pine ( Pinus cem-bra L.) samples from an upper timberline forest located nearby inthe Calimani Mts (Popa and Kern, 2009) show a decline of about2 C in summer temperature between 1370 and 1840 AD. Thestable oxygen isotope and pollen record from the ApuseniMountains show cooler and moister conditions and a corre-sponding reduction in grazing activity between 1400 and 1700(Feurdean et al., 2009, 2011 ; Pers oiu et al., 2011), whereas in thelowlands of Transylvania the LIA is recorded between 1285 and1755 in Magurici Cave, NW Romania (Geanta et al., 2012). Thesecond episode of apparent erosion (at 20 e 30 cm) is relativelyrecent and is likely to be the result of recent land use changes inthe last 50 e 100 years. During this time period engineering workwas undertaken (1965) on the impoundment that maintains the

current level of the lake.

Both lakes have a considerable thickness of sediment, greater inthe case of Bolatau Lake (5.4 m) despite the relatively small size of its catchment. Assuming constant sediment deposition, the rate of sedimentation is 3.73 mm a 1 for Iezer Lake, high compared toother upland Romanian lakes (Table 1). For example, the rates of sedimentation that have been computed for two upland lakes(Iezerul Calimani and Taul Zanogut ii) range between 0.28 and

0.30 mm a1

(Mndrescu et al., 2010b). According to Cohen (2003),sedimentation rates are typically high in lakes dammed by land-sliding in mountainous areas. Mndrescu et al. (2010b) calculatedthe rate of sedimentation in an upland lake (S tiol Lake, Rodna Mts),which was recently affected by a water level change due to theconstruction of a dam, as 6.25 mm a 1. The rates of sedimentationestimatedfor twofurther lakes, a landslide-dammedlake formedin1976 AD (Rusu, 2002) in the Rarau Mts (e.g., Izvorul Alb Lake), anda collector lake for log-rafting dating to 1906 AD on the Crlibabavalley, Mestecanis Mts (e.g., Buaescu Lake), were 15.4 mm a 1 and14.42 mm a 1 respectively.

The yield values obtained for the two study sites (0.127 t ha a 1for Iezer and 0.264 t ha a 1 for Bolatau) are relatively low comparedto the sediment yield values obtained by R adoane and R adoane

(2005) based on their calculations of sediment production derived

Fig. 8. Lacustrine sediments analyses (Iezer Lake).


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from measurements of silting in 136 reservoirs across Romania(0.51e 1.0 t ha a 1 for the area in question). However using theground-penetrating radar technique (GPR), Lesenciuc et al. (2010)obtained a total volume of sediments of 89,200 m 3 accumulatedin the Iezer basin, leading to a sediment yield value of 0.15 t ha a 1.

5. Concluding remarks

As yet, theworldwide distribution of published varvedsedimentrecords over the past 100 years ( Ojala et al., 2012) does not includeany reference to such sediments documented in Romania or thesurrounding countries. Thus, the two sites, Iezer Lake and Bol atauLake, provide the rst laminated lacustrine sediments (varve-like)reported and documented in within the Romanian territory.Moreover, the age of the Iezer Lake (ca. 1035 cal BP) shows that itmay be the oldest landslide-dammed lake in Romania.

This study comprised an interdisciplinary approach employinghistorical and cartographical sources, geomorphological andgeological information, AMS radiocarbon dating, bathymetry andsediment investigations and has provided a preliminary insightinto the lakes origins and the time of their formationas well as lakebasin morphometric changes. The location of the lakes on theeastern slope of Eastern Romanian Carpathians indicates thatclimatic, hydrological and ecological conditions as a strongsummer-winter temperature contrast, ice cover persistence forseveral months during winter (up to 40 cm thickness), strati cationof the water column during summer and spring-summer oods,which may act as key factors in uencing the occurrence of lami-nated sediments. The soft geology ( ysch), the hydrology (severalin ows), the land cover and land use dynamics (especially defor-estation) together with the lake morphometry are additionalconditions increasing the potential for the formation of nelybanded lake sediments.

Iezer and Bolatau Lakes, given their age and the nature of thesediments, have an inherent scienti c and potential heritage andamenity value and thus merit protectionand enhancement throughappropriate environmental management strategies. This mightinclude their declaration as scienti c reserves and making themavailable for further study in the Eastern Romanian Carpathians(e.g.Tant au et al., 2011 ; Feurdean et al.,2012 ), as an appropriate sitefor the detailed analysis of varved sediments (e.g. Moore et al.2001). There are also certain practical steps that might be takento protect these sites. Although Bolatau Lake is relatively inacces-sible and to date has remained almost untouched by direct humanactivities, Iezer Lake has been dammed. This structure hasnow fallen into disrepair so that the water level is no longermaintained.

The two lakes hold signi cant potential for developing a quan-titative, high-resolution climate reconstruction model (decadal andmultidecadal variability) over the past 1000 years for in theNorthern Romanian Carpathians. In a more ample context, thesesites could be integrated into a regional climate model in order tosupply new information about the Medieval Warm Period (MWP)and Little Ice Age (LIA) signals in laminated lacustrine sedimentsfrom Romanian Carpathians.

Acknowledgments

We thank the students from the Department of Geography,University of Suceava for their participation in the eld work forthis project. The authors appreciate the useful comments of thereviewers. Marcel Mindrescu thanks the Erasmus Programmefor their support. Angelica Feurdean acknowledges the GermanResearch Foundation grant FE-1096/2-1.

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Pl i hi i l i M d M l I di i li i i i f h d l i d l i di i
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