Military Psychology: Leadership Dr. Steven J. Kass

Military Psychology:Leadership

Dr. Steven J. Kass

Military Psychology Leadership Defined

Leadership –– Fiedler (1967)- Directing and coordinating the work of

group members– Bennis (1959) – The process by which an agent

induces a subordinate to behave in a desired manner– Air Force – The art of influencing and directing people

to accomplish the mission– Army – The process of influencing others to

accomplish the mission by providing purpose, direction, and motivation

Effective Military Leadership –– Includes a degree of high flexibility, initiative, ability to

lead in complex and ambiguous circumstances and ability deal with local populations and cultures.

Leadership Theories:McGregor’s Theory X / Theory Y

Theory X – Leaders assume followers have an inherent tendency to avoid work, need to be directed, guided, or coerced– Danger of self-fulfilling prophecy

Theory Y – Leaders assume followers are capable of self-direction, accept and seek responsibility

Leadership Theories:Trait Approach

What traits or characteristics do good leaders possess?Bass (1990) 10 traits:1. Desire to achieve2. Desire to influence others for common good3. High energy level4. Persistence5. Task competence6. Interpersonal skills7. Self-confidence8. Willingness to act9. Tolerance for stress10. Flexibility

Correlates of leadership– Intelligence w/leader emergence (r = .50), not strongly associate

with effectiveness– Leadership effectiveness related to:

Emotional stability, dominance, energy level (West Point) Conformity, self-discipline (US Naval Academy) Physical fitness, self-esteem, ability to tolerate stress (VMI) Integrity, loyalty, commitment, energy, decisiveness, selflessness (AF) Self-esteem, self-confidence, achievement-orientation, dependability,

sociability, tolerance for ambiguity (others)– Relationship between traits and leader emergence & effectiveness

moderated by situational factors (e.g., education, experience, follower characteristics)

Leadership Theories:Trait Approach

Search for behaviors that differentiate effective from ineffective leaders Personality traits are stable, but behavior can be trained Derived from Post WWII Big 10 studies (U of Michigan, Ohio State U,

U of Illinois) Two key dimensions

– Consideration (people orientation) Friendly, supportive, show appreciation, caring about personal welfare of

followers– Initiating Structure (task orientation)

Focus on direction and control of task accomplishment Behaviors assessed via

– Surveys– Interviews– Observations

Leadership Theories:Behavioral Approach

Behavioral Approach Conclusions– Behavioral descriptions of leadership may include

more than 2 or 3 dimensions– Reliance on self-report surveys not sufficient to

describe leadership behaviors– Performance relationships are strongly influenced

by follower experience and expectations, as well as situational factors

– Limited support for approach – “it depends”

Leadership Theories:Behavioral Approach

Contingency Approach – Leaders can be trained to diagnose situational factors and select appropriate leadership style

Situational Factors– Characteristics of followers – intelligence, willingness, ability– Characteristics of group – group size, cohesiveness– Characteristics of situation – task complexity, org’l culture– Characteristics of leadership position – level of authority

4 theories1. Normative Decision Model2. Situational Leadership Theory3. Contingency Model4. Path-Goal Theory

Leadership Theories:Contingency (Situational) Approach

Normative Decision Making Model (Vroom, Yetton, Jago) – focuses on the optimal level of participation that followers should have in decision-making process 2 factors

1. Importance of making quality decision

2. Importance of followers accepting decision

– 3 types of leadership behavior1. Autocratic – leader makes individual decision (little or no

group input)

2. Consultative – leader asks for input, then makes decision

3. Group – leader shares info with group, group makes decision together



Normative Decision Making Model – eight questions to help determine decision-making style

1 Quality Requirement (QR): How important is the technical quality of the decision?

2. Commitment Requirement (CR): How important is subordinate commitment to the decision?

3. Leader's Information (LI): Do you (the leader) have sufficient information to make a high quality decision on your own?

4. Problem Structure (ST): Is the problem well structured (e.g., defined, clear, organized, lend itself to solution, time limited, etc.)?

5. Commitment Probability (CP): If you were to make the decision by yourself, is it reasonably certain that your subordinates would be committed to the decision?

6. Goal Congruence (GC): Do subordinates share the organizational goals to be attained in solving the problem?

7. Subordinate conflict (CO): Is conflict among subordinates over preferred solutions likely?

8. Subordinate information (SI): Do subordinates have sufficient information to make a high quality decision?

Situational Leadership Theory (Hersey & Blanchard) – The appropriate leadership behavior is contingent on diagnosis of maturity level or readiness of followers


TaskOriented

Relationship Oriented

Low

Low

High

High

1. Directing / Telling

2. Selling / Coaching

4. Delegating 3. Supporting / Participating

Follower Readiness1. Unable & Insecure/Unwilling2. Unable & Confident/Willing3. Able & Insecure/Unwilling4. Able & Confident/Willing

Contingency Model (Fiedler) – Leader’s style is fixed, so must select right leader for job based on situation favorability

– Leadership style (relationship-oriented vs. task-oriented) based on Least Preferred Coworker Scale

Low LPC – motivated by task completion High LPC – motivated by maintaining group relationships

– Situation favorability determined by: Leader-Member Relations Task Structure Position Power


Pleasant: ___:___:___:___:___:___:___:___: Unpleasant 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1Friendly: ___:___:___:___:___:___:___:___: Unfriendly 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1Rejecting: ___:___:___:___:___:___:___:___: Accepting

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Tense: ___:___:___:___:___:___:___:___: Relaxed

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Distant: ___:___:___:___:___:___:___:___: Close

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Supportive: ___:___:___:___:___:___:___:___: Hostile

8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Cold: ___:___:___:___:___:___:___:___: Warm

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8Boring: ___:___:___:___:___:___:___:___: Interesting

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Quarrelsome: ___:___:___:___:___:___:___:___: Harmonious

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Gloomy: ___:___:___:___:___:___:___:___: Cheerful

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Open: ___:___:___:___:___:___:___:___: Guarded

8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Backbiting: ___:___:___:___:___:___:___:___: Loyal

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Untrustworthy: ___:___:___:___:___:___:___:___: Trustworthy

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Considerate: ___:___:___:___:___:___:___:___: Inconsiderate

8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Nasty: ___:___:___:___:___:___:___:___: Nice

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Agreeable: ___:___:___:___:___:___:___:___: Disagreeable

8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1Insincere: ___:___:___:___:___:___:___:___: Sincere

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Kind: ___:___:___:___:___:___:___:___: Unkind

8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Least Preferred Coworker Scale


Contingency Model


If situation is: ■ Very favorable (good leader–member relations, structured task, strong position power)■ Very unfavorable (poor leader–member relations, unstructured task, weak position power) Then:The best leader is task-oriented (low LPC score) with a directive, controlling style

If situation is:■ Moderately favorable (mixed variables)Then: The best leader is relationship-oriented (high LPC score) with a participative approach

Path-Goal Theory (House) – Behavior of leader impacts follower satisfaction and motivation

– Style of leadership depends Task characteristics (complexity) Follower characteristics (ability, personality)

– Four styles of leadership1. Supportive - Leader shows concern for the followers’ psychological well-

being Appropriate when the followers lack confidence

2. Directive - Leader lets followers know what is expected of them and tells them how to perform their tasks. Appropriate when the follower has an ambiguous job.

3. Participative - Leader consults with followers and asks for their suggestions Appropriate when the follower is using improper procedures

4. Achievement-oriented - Leader sets challenging goals and expects followers to meet them Appropriate when the follower lacks challenging work


Transformational Leadership Theory – Leader raises followers to higher levels of morality, motivation, and performance above that from simply having power of authority

– Transformational Leader: Creates and articulates vision Builds trust by exhibiting self-confidence, personal example Creates emotional involvement with followers Raise level of awareness in followers about importance of outcome Get followers to transcend own self interests

– Transactional Leader: Simply exchanges rewards for performance

Leadership Theories:Transformational Leadership Theory

Leadership Theories:Transformational Leadership Theory

Transformational Leaders lead through:

- Charisma

- Individualized Consideration

- Intellectual Stimulation

- Inspirational Motivation

LeadershipDeveloping Leadership Skills

Management Success Traits (Yukl) – 6 traits that can be learned through training

1. Energy level2. Organizing and planning skills3. Interpersonal skills4. Cognitive skills5. Work-related motivation6. Personal control of feelings & resistance to

stress

Behavioral skills that cut across situations– Ability to communicate

2-way comms, active listening, non-verbal cues Constructive feedback “Manage by walking around”

– Pay attention to HR management skills Socialization process, training, fair appraisals, coaching

– Motivate followers Positive rewards, goal setting, empowerment

– Networking & Political skills Know the right people/how to get things done


Military Training Programs– Focus on contingency leadership principles– “Followership” that precedes leadership activities– Leadership experiences combined with feedback– Formal classroom training designed to provide the

theoretical training for leadership experiences


Total Quality Management/Leadership (Deming) – Management through

– Empowerment– Info sharing– Participative decision making– Continuous commitment to quality/process improvement– Continuous commitment to customer service– Focus on teamwork/communication


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Military Psychology: Leadership Dr. Steven J. Kass