Milankovitch-driven cycles in the Precambrian of China

Journal of Palaeogeography2013, 2(4): 369-389

DOI: 10.3724/SP.J.1261.2013.00037

Lithofacies palaeogeography and sedimentology

Milankovitch-driven cycles in the Precambrian of China: The Wumishan Formation

Mei Mingxiang1, *, Maurice E. Tucker2

1. State Key Laboratory of Geological Processes and Mineral Resources, China University of Geosciences (Beijing), Beijing 100083, China

2. Department of Earth Sciences, University of Durham, Durham DH1 3LE, UK

Abstract Carbonate strata of the Mesoproterozoic Wumishan Formation in the Jixian area near Tianjin are ~3300 m thick and were deposited over some 100 million years (from ~1310±20 Ma to ~1207±10 Ma). Metre-scale cycles (parasequences) dominate the succes-sion. They are generally of the peritidal carbonate type, and mostly show an approximately symmetrical lithofacies succession with thick stromatolite biostromes and small thrombolite-oncolite bioherms constituting the central part and tidal-flat dolomites forming the upper and lower parts. Lagoonal-supratidal dolomitic shales with palaeosol caps make up the topmost layers. The boundaries of the Wumishan cycles are typically exposure surfaces, and there is abundant evidence for fresh-water diagenesis.

Widespread 1:4 stacking patterns indicate that the individual Wumishan cycles are sixth-order parasequences, with 4 parasequences constituting one fifth-order parasequence set. Locally, 5-8 beds or couplets, can be discerned in some of the cycles. The regular vertical stacking pattern of beds within the sixth-order parasequences, forming the fifth-order parase-quence sets, are interpreted as the result of environmental fluctuations controlled by Milanko-vitch rhythms, namely the superimposition of precession, and short and long-eccentricity. The widespread 1:4 stacking pattern in the cyclic succession, as well as the local 1:5-8 stacking patterns of the beds within the cycles, suggest that the Milankovitch rhythms had similar ratios in the Mesoproterozoic as in the Phanerozoic. Based on the cycle stacking patterns, 26 third-order sequences can be distinguished and these group into 6 second-order, transgressive-regressive megasequences (or sequence sets), all reflecting a composite, hierarchical suc-cession of relative sea-level changes.

Key words peritidal carbonate cycles, Milankovitch rhythms, Wumishan Formation, Mes-oproterozoic, Tianjin, North China

1 Introduction*

The Mesoproterozoic Wumishan Formation in the area of Jixian near Tianjin in northern China (Fig. 1) is a cyclic shallow-water carbonate succession of 3300 m thickness,

* Corresponding author. Email: [email protected]: 2013-07-04 Accepted: 2013-08-13

which was deposited over ~100 m.y., from ~1310±20 Ma to ~1207±10 Ma (Wang et al., 1995). Stromatolite bios-tromes and thrombolite-oncolite bioherms, tidal-flat do-lomites and lagoonal-supratidal dolomitic shales are the principal lithofacies of the metre-scale cycles, which are marked by an approximately symmetrical lithofacies suc-cession. The research on cyclic sedimentation presented here is developed from earlier studies of the Wumishan

370 JOURNAL OF PALAEOGEOGRAPHY Oct. 2013

Formation including Zhao (1988, 1992) and Song et al.(1991) on the sedimentology, Xing et al. (1989) and Zhu et al. (1993, 1994) on the biostratigraphy and lithostratig-raphy, and Wang et al. (1995) on the chronostratigraphy.

The objectives of this research are to document the facies of the Wumishan Formation and describe the cy-clicity, and then to interpret the succession in terms of the controls on deposition (Catuneanu et al., 2005; Eriksson, 2005a, 2005b; Miall, 2005). Although it is difficult to de-termine the time-spans of the Milankovitch rhythms in the Precambrian, the well-developed stacking patterns of the Wumishan cycles, documented later in this paper, suggest that the rhythms were similar to those in the Phanerozoic (e.g., Read, 1985, 1995; Read and Goldhammer, 1988; Koerschner and Read, 1989; Goldhammer et al., 1990; Schwarzacher, 1993, 2005; Burgess, 2001, 2006; Burgess et al., 2001; Blendinger, 2004; Brett et al., 2006; Spence and Tucker, 2007; Zecchin, 2007, 2010; Tucker and Gar-land, 2010; Catuneanu and Zecchin, 2013; Zecchin and Catuneanu, 2013).

2 The basic model for the Wumishancycles

Contrasting with the majority of metre-scale carbon-ate cycles that typify carbonate platforms throughout the geological record (e.g., Read, 1985, 1995; Read and Gold-hammer, 1988; Koerschner and Read, 1989; Goldhammer et al., 1990; Schwarzacher, 1993, 2005; Burgess, 2001, 2006; Burgess et al., 2001; Brett et al., 2006; Banerjee etal., 2007), the Wumishan cycles are marked by an approx-imately symmetrical lithofacies succession. Stromatolite biostromes and thrombolite-oncolite bioherms constitute the central part, tidal-flat dolomites form the lower and upper parts, and lagoonal-supratidal dolomitic shales with palaeosol caps make up the topmost part. The clear deep-ening-up and then shallowing-up nature of the Wumishan cycles is different from the “parasequence” as defined by Vail et al. (1977), bounded by a flooding surface and gen-erally showing a shallowing-up facies succession, which is the fundamental building block of a sequence.

2.1 Lithofacies of the Wumishan cycles

The four major lithofacies types in the Wumishan For-mation in the Tianjin region are (A) Subtidal stromatolite biostromes, (B) Subtidal thrombolite-oncolite bioherms, (C) Tidal-flat dolomites, and (D) Lagoonal-supratidal dol-omitic shales (from A to G in Figures 2 to 5). The funda-mental features of these lithofacies are as below:

(A) Subtidal dolomitic stromatolite biostromes Thebiostromes are generally less than 1 m thick and can be followed for several 10s of metres. Locally, intraforma-tional breccias and grainstones are present between stro-matolites, and lime mudstone too.

Many types of stromatolite are developed in the Wum-ishan Formation, including the Ectasian stromatolite as-semblage (Conophyton-Pseudogymnosolen assemblage), which can be divided into two stromatolite sub-assemblag-es, the Mopanyu and the Shanpoling (Liang et al., 1984; Zhu et al., 1993, 1994). The Mopanyu stromatolite sub-assemblage is mainly composed of small (cm-scale) stro-matolites, such as Pseudogymnosolen mopanyuense Liang and Tsao, and Scyphus parvus Liang, which are common in the lower part of the Wumishan Formation. As shown in Fig. 1a, these small microdigitate stromatolites are inter-preted as the products of direct precipitation of carbonate on the sea floor (Grotzinger and James, 2000). The Shan-poling stromatolite sub-assemblage mainly consists of gi-gantic stromatolites, which reach 2 metres in height (Fig. 2c), and include Conophyton lituum Maslov, C. coniformeLiang et al., C. shanpolingense Liang et al., Jacutophytonfurcatum Zhao et al., and Petaliforma epicharis Zhu et al.

Fig. 1 Maps showing the location of logged sections, the study area, and the distribution of the Wumishan Formation near Jixian in Tianjin City, North China.

Milankovitch-driven cycles in the Precam-brian of China: The Wumishan Formation

Mei Mingxiang and Maurice E. Tucker:371Vol. 2 No. 4

Fig. 2 The lithofacies units and the general characteristics of the Wumishan cycles. Symbols from A to G refer to the lithofacies units of the Wumishan cycles described in the text. SB refers to the boundary of the third-order sequences. S is a scoured surface. The arrows represent the boundaries of the Wumishan cycles. Photo (a) shows a stromatolitic biostrome made up of Pseudogymnosolen; photo (b) shows the boundary of a Wumishan cycle (arrowed), which is expressed as the abrupt change from the shallowing-up succession of “E-F-G” in the upper part of the underlying cycle to the deepening-up succession of “E-D-A” in the lower part of the overlying cycle; photo (c) shows a stromatolitic biostrome made up of Conophyton; photo (d) shows the cycle boundary expressed as the abrupt change from the unit G at the top of the underlying cycle to the unit D in the lower part of the overlying cycle; photo (e) shows a unit B facies without stromatolites; photo (f) shows a cycle boundary expressed as an abrupt change, similar to those in photos (b) and (d); photo (g) shows a unit C facies with a scoured surface (S); photo (h) shows the sequence boundary that separates a succession of asymmetrical cycles without stromatolitic biostromes and thrombolitic-oncolitic bioherms in the top part of the underlying sequence from a succes-sion of approximately symmetrical cycles with thick-bedded to massive stromatolitic biostromes; photo (i) shows a unit D facies with mud cracks; photo (j) shows one Wumishan cycle with a thickness more than 10 metres.


These are more common in the upper part of the Wumis-han Formation. The biostromes were deposited in low to moderate-energy subtidal environments.

(B) Subtidal thrombolitic-oncolite bioherms Thesestructures are up to 2 metres across and 1 metre high and are assignable to Microphytoliths (Du et al., 1992). Sand-sized grains (catagraphs, or thrombolitic grains) and peb-bles composed of thrombolite fragments, as well as on-coids, occur as lenses and thin beds with scoured surfaces. They were probably generated by storms. The thrombo-lite-oncolite bioherms were deposited in a moderate to high-energy shallow subtidal environment. Catagraphs refer to thrombolitic grains, and thrombolites and onco-lites are grouped into Microphytoliths (Du et al., 1992). As shown in Figure 2e, this lithofacies unit is marked by the absence of true stromatolites (laminated structures). The clotted fabric of this lithofacies is interpreted as a second-ary product of microbial-organic matter degradation and calcification, as suggested by Riding (2000) in his term “post-depositional thrombolite”. According to detailed studies by Zhao (1992), some thrombolitic grains with vague coats were probably an embryonic form of oncolite. This lithofacies is regarded as a type of non-stromatolitic microbial carbonate, and warrants further research. Inter-estingly, if the clotted fabric of this lithofacies is a post-depositional thrombolite (c.f., Riding, 2000) or incipient oncolite (c.f., Zhao, 1992), then it may well be one of the oldest recorded thrombolites as shown in Figure 3a (Ken-nard and James, 1986; Aitken and Narbonne, 1989; Knoll and Semikhatov, 1998; Grotzinger and James, 2000; Rid-ing, 2000). In addition, the microdigital stromatolites mak-ing up the Mopanyu stromatolite sub-assemblage (Liang et al., 1984; Zhu et al., 1993, 1994) would be one of the youngest stromatolites that resulted from the precipitation of carbonate directly on sea floor, since this form of stro-matolite is chiefly developed in the Archaean and Palaeo-proterozoic (Knoll and Semikhatov, 1998; Grotzinger and James, 2000).

(C) Intertidal silicified microbial laminated dolo-mites Microbial laminites are marked by wavy, hum-mocky and planar stromatolites. As shown in Figure 2g and Figure 3b, interbedded tabular calcirudites on scoured surfaces with cross-bedding are interpreted as tempestites, although this special type of tabular calcirudites has been interpreted as earthquake-induced soft-sediment defor-mation structures by many authors, such as Qiao and Li (2009), Ettensohn et al. (2011), Su and Sun (2012), etc.The pebbles are mostly mud flakes liberated by desicca-tion. Intense silicification and dolomitisation are basic fea-

tures of this lithofacies.(D) Intertidal quartz-sand-rich dolomicrites In this

lithofacies unit, mudcracks (Fig. 2i), silcretes, calcretes and halite pseudomorphs are present, especial for the do-lomicrites that form the upper part of Wumishan cycles as shown in Figures 2b, 2d, 2f and Figure 4. The well-round-ed quartz grains could well be wind-blown. Silicification and dolomitisation are common.

(E) Supratidal muddy and sandy dolomites In this unit, there occur mudcracks, silcretes and silicified vadose pisoids. Irregular microkarstic surfaces are overlain by lenticular karst breccias. Dolomitisation and silicification are widespread.

(F) Lagoonal-supratidal dolomitic shales The main clay-minerals of these shales are sepiolite, montmoril-lonite, illite, palygorskite and talc, with minor kaolinite (Huang et al., 1996). This particular association of clay minerals suggests that the shales were formed through freshwater diagenesis of carbonate rocks with a high con-tent of silicon and magnesium and low content of alu-minium in a hypersaline lagoonal-supratidal environment. Lithofacies unit F has been interpreted as a shelf shale (e.g., Zhao, 1988; Song et al., 1991). However, as shown in photos b, d and f of Figure 2, most of the Wumishan cycles have a basal part made up of lithofacies unit D (do-lomicrites with mudcracks), and lithofacies unit D also constitutes the upper part of the Wumishan cycles. Thus, lithofacies unit F (lagoonal-supratidal dolomitic shale) with a palaeosol cap frequently occurs between the over-lying lithofacies unit D (dolomicrites) and the underlying lithofacies unit E (supratidal muddy and sandy dolomites). Ultimately, a shallowing-up succession from unit D to unit G makes up the upper part of the Wumishan cycles, and a deepening-up succession from unit D or unit E makes up the lowermost part of the Wumishan cycles. Boundaries of the Wumishan cycles are always marked by the abrupt change from unit G (palaeosols that form the cap of unit F) as shown in photos b, d, f of Figure 2 as well as Figure 4c. All of these features indicate that lithofacies F is unlikely to be a shelf shale.

(G) Palaeosols This lithofacies typically consists of brown shale 5 to 20 cm thick, interpreted as the product of subaerial exposure and weathering of lagoonal-supratidal shale. It is the capping unit of the Wumishan cycles and is a few cm to 20 cm thick. A high content of iron as shown in Figure 4c is the main cause of the special col-our, marking this unit off from the underlying lagoonal-supratidal dolomitic shale. Unit G (palaeosols) shows that the boundaries of the Wumishan cycles are characterized



Fig. 3 Photos showing the sedimentary features for the unit B and C of the Wumishan cycles. Photo (a) shows the thrombolitic grain with different size and various shapes that make up the unit B of the Wumishan cycles (arrowed); Photo (b) shows the interbedded tabu-lar calcirudites on scoured surfaces within unit C of the Wumishan cycles, which reflects an important action feature by strong currents.


Fig. 4 Photos showing some detail characteristics of the Wumishan cycles. Symbols from A to G refer to the lithofacies units of the Wumishan cycles described in the text. The arrows represent the boundaries of the Wumishan cycles. Photo (a) shows one Wumishan cycle with a thickness more than 10 metres that is composed of a succession of “D-A-B-A-B-A-C-D-E-F-G”; Photo (b) shows one Wumishan cycle with a thickness more than 1 metre that is composed of a succession of “D-C-D-E-F-G”; Photo (c) shows the cycle boundary expressed as the abrupt change from the unit G at the top of the underlying cycle to the unit E in the lower part of the overlying cycle, in which a high content of iron for the unit G is the main cause of the special colour, marking this unit off from the underlying lagoonal-supratidal dolomitic shale.



by an exposure-punctuated surface, which is a typical fea-ture of peritidal carbonate cycles (Read, 1985, 1995; Read and Goldhammer, 1988; Mei, 1993, 1995, 1996; Mei and Mei, 1997; Mei et al., 1997, 2000a; Tipper, 2000). Further, the upward-shallowing succession made up of lithofacies units D to G with strong features of meteoric diagenesis in the upper part of the Wumishan cycles is related to the formation of the exposure surfaces. The exposure surfaces of the Wumishan cycles also indicate that the effects of water-depth and sediment compaction need not be taken into account, as proposed by Read (1985, 1995) and Read and Goldhammer (1988), when evaluating the amplitude of the third-order relative sea-level change from a Fischer plot (see later section of this paper).

The lithofacies units mentioned above mostly occur in a particular succession in an approximately symmetrical ar-rangement (Figs. 5-6). In a typical cycle, stromatolite bi-ostromes, thrombolite-oncolite bioherms and microbially-laminated dolomites constitute the middle part; tidal-flat dolomites form the lower and upper parts, and dolomitic shales with the palaeosol cap constitute the topmost part. The upper boundary of the Wumishan cycles is character-ised by an exposure surface, indicated by such features of freshwater diagenesis as calcrete, silcrete and lenses of karst-breccia developed within the upper tidal-flat dolo-mites and lagoonal-supratidal dolomitic shales.

There is a regular stacking pattern for the Wumishan cycles within the third-order sequence that is reflected in the changing forms of the lithofacies successions, forming the spectrum shown in Figure 6. In the long-term deep-ening of the sedimentary environment that is a response to the third-order relative sea-level rise, thick-bedded to massive stromatolitic biostromes and thrombolite-oncolite bioherms develop. As shown in Figures 2j, 4a and 4b, the lithofacies succession of the Wumishan cycles is always symmetrical (e.g., a to c in Figure 6). On the other hand, in the long-term shallowing of sedimentary environment

that is a response to the third-order relative sea-level fall, with more frequent shallow-water and exposure, the litho-facies succession of the Wumishan cycles changes from symmetrical to asymmetrical (e to f in Fig. 6); stromato-lite biostromes and thrombolite-oncolite bioherms become thinner, while lagoonal-supratidal dolomitic shales be-come thicker.

2.2 Markov-Chain analysis of the Wumishan cycles

For a better understanding of the cyclicity in the Wum-ishan Formation, Markov-Chain analysis was used to de-termine the general pattern of this cyclicity, and two hun-dred lithofacies units were chosen from the strata of the third-order sequences SQ8 and SQ9 (see later section of this paper). The particular succession of lithofacies units (from A to G as described in the preceding section) is shown in Table 1.

In this specific part of the succession, the number of oc-currences of each lithofacies is: A = 31, B = 17, C = 29, D = 56, E = 32, F = 18, G = 17. The mean thickness of each unit is shown in Table 2. The aim of Markov-Chain analy-sis is to test the validity of the depositional model for the Wumishan cycles as shown in Figure 5. The calculation includes several steps.

The first step is to calculate the transition probability matrix, which can be used to give Matrix E of the theoreti-cal conjecture model. The second step is to obtain Matrix N of the transition probability matrix through calculating the number of occurrences of the contacts of various litho-facies in the section. In the third step, the Matrix P of the transition probability matrix can be obtained when each element is divided by its corresponding row sum of Ma-trix N. In the fourth step, the difference numerical matrix can be calculated through the subtraction of Matrix E from Matrix P.

The positive values of matrix P-E are selected, and

A B C D E F G

A 0.000 0.307 0.434 -0.029 -0.090 -0.051 -0.048

B 0.540 0.000 0.154 0.019 -0.090 -0.051 -0.048

C 0.165 0.022 0.000 0.551 -0.093 -0.052 -0.050

P-E = D 0.201 0.019 0.054 0.000 0.390 -0.021 -0.054

E -0.050 -0.050 -0.085 0.242 0.000 0.447 0.044

F -0.048 -0.048 -0.082 -0.053 0.067 0.000 0.689

G -0.048 -0.048 -0.082 0.666 0.086 -0.051 0.000


Fig. 5 A general model for the Wumishan cycles. A to G indicates the lithofacies units described in the text. The general characters are shown from A to G, as in Fig. 2. Explanations of (a) to (c) are as follows: (a) The changing curve of water depth; (b) The curve of high-frequency relative sea-level change; (c) A short-lived exposure surface. Interpretations of (1) to (19) are as follows: (1) Stromatolite, (2) Ooncolite, (3) Microbial laminite, (4) Dolomitic limestone, (5) Dolomite, (6) Sandy and muddy dolomite, (7) Dolomitic shale, (8) Thrombolite, (9) Oolite, (10) Halite pseudomorphs, (11) Karst breccia, (12) Silcrete, (13) Calcrete, (14) Palaeosol, (15) Mud cracks, (16) Chert nodule, (17) Tabular rudite, (18) Cross-bedding, (19) Scoured surface.

the simplified depositional model of the Wumishan cycles is constructed as shown by “the Markov-Chain Model” in Figure 7. The common lithofacies succession of the Wumishan cycles is marked by a succession of …DA-BACDEFG…, which is identical to the model shown in Figure 5 and also to “a” and “b” in Figure 6. The biggest value of transition probability (66.6%) from unit G to unit D indicates that this succession may represent the common pattern of lithofacies succession of the Wumishan cycles.

In addition, as shown by “c” and “d” in Figure 6, the suc-cession of …EDABACDEFG… or …EDEFG… can be discerned from Matrix P-E, which is characteristic of an approximately symmetrical lithofacies succession. It also demonstrates the elementary features of the Wumishan cycles. However, the value of the transition probability (8.6%) from units of lithofacies G to lithofacies E is much smaller than that from units of lithofacies G to D. This indicates that the occurrence of lithofacies E at the base of



the Wumishan cycles is not as common as that of lithofa-cies D. Some cycles are marked by an asymmetrical facies succession such as …DEFG… and …EFG… (the “e” and “f ” in Fig. 6), which are formed through the shallowing-up process of the environment resulting from a third-order sea-level fall. As a matter of fact, as shown in Figures 5 and 6, these changing characters agree with this condition.

2.3 Vertical stacking patterns related to Milanko-vitch rhythms

There has been a great deal of interest in cyclic sedi-mentation that is genetically related to Milankovitch rhythms in sedimentology and stratigraphy in recent years (e.g., Read, 1985, 1995; Read and Goldhammer, 1988; An-derson and Goodwin, 1989; Einsele, 1991, 1992; Osleger and Read, 1991; Drummond and Wilkinson, 1993; de Boer and Smith, 1994; D’Argenio et al., 1997; Banerjee, 2000; Hinnov, 2000; Tipper, 2000; Burgess, 2001, 2006; Van der Zwan, 2002; Zühlke et al., 2003; Helle, 2004; Blendinger, 2004; Poletti et al., 2004; Cozzi et al, 2005; Schwarzacher,

2005; Brett et al., 2006; Spence and Tucker, 2007; Tucker and Garland, 2010; Zecchin, 2007, 2010; Catuneanu and Zecchin, 2013; Zecchin and Catuneanu, 2013). The stack-ing pattern of cycles has often been taken to indicate this orbital forcing control; the 1:4 arrangement of Cambrian

Fig. 6 The general environmental spectrum of the Wumishan cycles. a indicates the mean low water (MLW), and b indicates the high water (MHW); a to f indicate different kinds of Wumishan cycle.

Fig. 7 State chart of genetic lithofacies units of the Wumishan cycles by Markov-Chain analysis. In this figure, A to G represent lithofacies units described in the text. The statistics are the values of transfer probabilities.


Table 1 Succession of lithofacies units that constitute the Wumishan cycles

Table 2 Statistics of each lithofacies unit and the mean thickness of the Wumishan cycles

Lithofacies units A B C D E F G

Bed number 31 17 29 56 32 18 17

Mean thickness (cm) 326.16 236.47 110.34 22.0 17.60 83.28 10.23

Percentage of bed number (%) 15.5 8.5 14.5 28.0 16.0 9.0 8.5

Percentage of thickness (%) 46.82 19.39 15.43 5.94 2.72 7.23 6.65

carbonate cycles in North America for example has been interpreted as indicating deposition controlled by the short eccentricity rhythms superimposed on long-eccentricity rhythms (Read, 1985, 1995; Read and Goldhammer, 1988; Osleger and Read, 1991; Berger et al., 1992). Goldham-mer et al. (1990), Fischer and Bottjer (1991), Schwar-zacher (1993, 2005) and others have suggested that cyclic sedimentation is commonly related to the superimposition of the precession on the short-eccentricity rhythm, produc-ing a 1:5 (the so-called “pentacycles” in the Triassic) to 1:7/8 in older strata (e.g., the Devonian, Chen and Tucker, 2003), since the precession rhythm was shorter in earlier

times. A similar cycle stacking is developed in the Cam-brian strata of North China (Mei, 1993, 1995, 1996; Mei and Xu, 1996; Mei et al., 1997; Mei et al., 2000a, 2000b), as well as in the Mesoproterozoic in Xinglong County of Hebei Province in North China (Mei et al., 1998a, 1998b, 1998c, 1998d; Mei et al., 2000a, 2000b). Many studies have indicated that the widespread occurrence of metre-scale sedimentary cycles is genetically related to Milankovitch rhythms. However, it does have to be borne in mind that autocyclic processes also operate on a similar timescale and random processes can apparently produce similar patterns (Pepper and Cloetingh, 1995; Wilkinson et



al., 1996; Hinnov, 2000; Burgess, 2001, 2006; Burgess etal., 2001; Van der Zwan, 2002; Zühlke et al., 2003; Helle, 2004; Blendinger, 2004; Poletti et al., 2004; Cozzi et al.,2005; Schwarzacher, 2005; Brett et al., 2006; Spence and Tucker, 2007; Zecchin, 2007, 2010; Tucker and Garland, 2010; Catuneanu and Zecchin, 2013; Zecchin and Catune-anu, 2013).

In the Wumishan Formation, four different types of cy-cle are illustrated in Figure 6 and they generally form a regular succession with systematic changes in thickness and facies (Fig. 8). The common stacking pattern of 1:4 suggests that each basic cycle resulted from environmen-tal fluctuations genetically related to short eccentricity rhythms, and that a unit or package composed of four cy-cles resulted from environmental fluctuations genetically related to the long eccentricity rhythm. According to the terminological system described by Brett et al. (1990), Mei (1993, 1995, 1996), and Mei et al. (1997a, 1997b, 2000a, 2000b), one Wumishan cycle can be referred to as a sixth-order parasequence, and a package of four parasequences would be a fifth-order parasequence set. In some cases, one parasequence can be divided into 5-8 beds (Fig. 9). Although this kind of stacking pattern is not universal, it could be that one bed is the result of cyclic sedimenta-tion controlled by the precession of the equinox rhythms, superimposed on the short-eccentricity rhythm which

generated the parasequences, as proposed by Berger et al.(1992) and Schwarzacher (1993, 2005).

Establishing a theory of astronomical control on Pre-cambrian sedimentation is much more difficult than estab-lishing this for Pleistocene “icehouse” sediments because the climatic variations were mostly less pronounced in the greenhouse conditions of the Mesoproterozoic as discussed by Catuneanu et al. (2005), Eriksson et al. (2005a, b) and Miall (2005). In addition, the absolute timing is more dif-ficult to determine and much less accurate in the Precam-brian. Despite the absence of precise radiometric dating, the regularity of the stacking patterns of the Wumishan cy-cles does indicate cyclic sedimentation controlled by long-eccentricity, short-eccentricity and precession rhythms.

3 Vertical stacking patterns of the Wumishan cycles into long-term sequences

The Wumishan Formation, together with the overlying

Fig. 8 The common 1:4 stacking pattern of the Wumishan cy-cles. This stacking pattern is interpreted as the result of environ-mental fluctuations controlled by the short-eccentricity rhythms superimposed on the long-eccentricity rhythm. The lithological marks are the same as those shown in Fig. 3. “a” to “f” indicate different kinds of Wumishan cycle as shown in Fig. 4.

Fig. 9 One single Wumishan cycle may consist of 5 to 8 beds. Although this kind of vertical stacking pattern is rare, it is in-terpreted as the result of the precession rhythms superimposed on the short-eccentricity rhythm. 1 to 5 represent the beds; C represents one single Wumishan cycle; SB = Subtidal facies, IT = Tidal-flat facies, SP = Supratidal-flat facies. The curve is the changing pattern of water depth. Lithofacies marks are the same as those in Fig. 4.


strata of the Hongshuizhuang Formation and the Tieling Formation, actually form one first-order cyclic succession. This could be genetically related to the galactic-year cycles (Gao et al., 1996; Mei et al., 1998a, 1998b, 1998c, 1998d, 2000b) or the Wilson cycle that is typical of continental breakup-accretion of the Phanerozoic (Miall, 1990, 2005; Read, 1995), whose formation period is about 300 million years (1310±20 Ma to 1000±10 Ma, Zhu et al., 1994).

3.1 Stacking patterns of the Wumishan cycles in third-order sequences

From the vertical stacking patterns of the Wumishan cycles, third-order sequences can be discerned (Fig. 10). In the transgressive systems tract (TST), the fifth-order parasequence sets, which usually consist of four cycles, form a retrogradational succession marked by upward-thickening stromatolite biostromes and thrombolite-onco-lite bioherms, capped by upward-thinning tidal-flat dolo-mites and lagoonal-supratidal dolomitic shales. A distinct condensed section (CS) cannot be recognised in this cyclic succession. In the highstand systems tract (HST) of the third-order sequences, a progradational succession of fifth-order parasequence sets or sixth-order cycles is recog-nised, marked by upward-thickening lagoonal-supratidal dolomitic shales and tidal-flat muddy dolomites as well as upward-thinning stromatolite biostromes and thrombolite-oncolite bioherms, within overall thinning-upward cycles. Towards the top part of the third-order sequences, there occur sixth-order cycles with an asymmetrical lithofacies succession, as in “e” or “f” in Figure 6, and well-developed exposure features, perhaps as a consequence of “missed beats”. Thus, it can be concluded that the boundaries of the third-order sequences in the Wumishan Formation are ma-jor exposure surfaces, similar to type 1 sequence bounda-ries defined by Vail et al. (1977). As shown in Figure 10, the regular vertical stacking patterns of the Wumishan cy-cles are the key to discern the third-order sequences.

3.2 Fischer plot of Wumishan cycles and duration and amplitude of sea-level change

From the regular vertical stacking patterns of the Wum-ishan cycles in Jixian, Tianjin area, shown in Figure 10, 26 third-order sequences are recognised which can be grouped into 6 second-order megasequences (or sequence sets; Fig. 11). In order to estimate the changing amplitude of third-order relative sea-level change and the duration of the third-order sequences, 626 well-exposed cycles in the middle and upper part of the Wumishan Formation (se-quences SQ8 to SQ26 shown in Fig. 11) were studied in

detail. The thickness of the cycles ranges from 0.6 m to 14.5 m with an average of 4.2 m (Table 3).

The Wumishan Formation is about 3300 m thick and was deposited over approximately 100 m.y. The subsid-ence rate of the crust during this depositional period would

Fig. 10 Facies succession of the third-order sequences of the Wumishan Formation, an example from the 12th third-order se-quence (SQ12). Five fifth-order parasequence sets are indicated by 1 to 5, the same as described in Fig. 6. In the figure, a to f represent different kinds of Wumishan cycle as shown in Fig. 4. According to the chronostratigraphic interpretation of the Wum-ishan cycles, the duration of this third-order sequence can be esti-mated tentatively as 2 m.y. The curve on the right of the figure is the Fischer plot, showing that the changing amplitude of relative sea level of this sequence is about 25 m.



Fig. 11 Simplified schematic depiction of the composite cyclic succession of the Wumishan Formation at the Jixian Section in Tian-jin, including 26 third-order sequences (SQ1 to SQ26) that can be grouped into 6 second-order megasequences (I to VI). Regular vertical stacking patterns of the Wumishan cycles (a to f, which are the same as those described in Fig. 4) and fifth-order parasequence sets (1 to 7 which are the same as those described in Fig. 6) in the long-term third-order sequences, show the nature of the Milankovitch rhythms in the stratigraphic record. Fischer plots are shown for Wumishan sequences SQ10 and SQ20.


Table 3 Number listing of the Wumishan cycles (Nr) with thickness in metres (m)



Fig. 12 Fischer plot from the fifth second-order megasequence of the Wumishan Formation composed of 5 third-order sequences from SQ17 to SQ21 as shown in Fig. 9. The general range of third-order relative sea-level change can be deduced from this plot.


Fig. 13 Fischer plot from the sixth second-order megasequence composed of 5 third-order sequences from SQ22 to SQ26 in the Wum-ishan Formation. The time-span of the third-order sequences can be inferred from the number of cycles. The Fischer plot serves as a tool for calculating the amplitude of the third-order sea-level changes.



have been the order of 3 m per 100 kyr. On the basis of these assumptions and according to the same method pro-posed by Read and Goldhammer (1988), a Fischer plot can be used to estimate the amplitude of the third-order sea-level changes. According to the nature of the Milankovitch rhythms in the stratigraphic record, demonstrated by the regular vertical stacking patterns of the Wumishan cycles as shown in Figures 6 and 7, the time-span of each cycle is around 100 kyr, that is equal to the period of the short-eccentricity rhythm. This generally tallies with the actual situation.

Enos and Samankassou (1998) pointed out that the well known peritidal Triassic Lofer cycles commonly lack evi-dence for significant subaerial exposure and rarely show clear deepening-up or shallowing-up trends. They sug-gested that the Lofer cycles simply are alternating peri-tidal (member B) and subtidal (member C) facies, better described as …BCBCB… rhythms, rather than true cy-cles. Hence, in a similar manner, the Wumishan cycles with their typical symmetrical lithofacies succession could represent another example of regular, rhythmically-alter-nating deposition.

Most of third-order sequences of the Wumishan Forma-tion can be divided into 2 or 3 fourth-order subsequences. For example, the 12th third-order sequence of the Wumis-han Formation contains 2 subsequences (Fig. 10), and the 10th and 20th can also be divided into 2 subsequences (Fig. 11). In addition, the 26 third-order sequences can be fur-ther grouped into more transgressive and regressive pack-ages which would be second-order sequences. There are 6 of these second-order sequences (or sequence sets; I to VI in Fig. 11).

Thus, six rank-orders of cyclicity can be discerned in the Wumishan Formation, namely a second-order megase-quence (or sequence set), a third-order sequence, a fourth-order subsequence, a fifth-order parasequence set, and a sixth-order parasequence. The latter are then composed of the beds. All of these indicate that Wumishan deposi-tion was controlled by a hierarchy of composite sea-level changes. The absence of clear condensed sections or maxi-mum flooding surfaces, and the regular vertical patterns of the six rank-orders of cycle, make it obvious that the depositional model of the third-order sequences in the Wumishan Formation is not identical to the sequence model defined by Vail et al. (1977). It is, however, closer to that proposed by Read and Goldhammer (1988), Tucker and Wright (1990), Montanez and Osleger (1993), Tucker (1993) and Read (1995) for cyclic platform carbonates. Without precise timing, the regularity of the cycles of dif-

ferent rank-orders becomes a very important argument in favour of an astronomical control (Figs. 8, 9, 10, 11).

The six orders of cyclicity discerned in the Wumishan Formation and their regular vertical superimposed rela-tionship can be used to estimate the general time-span of the third-order sequences developed in the Wumishan For-mation. Table 4 lists several parameters of the Wumishan sequences including the thickness, the number of cycles, and the inferred time-span. The maximum and the aver-age change of the third-order relative sea-level can be esti-mated from the results of the Fischer Plot shown in Figures 12 and 13.

As shown in Table 4, the above estimation is based on the thickness of 626 cycles (Table 3). These cycles consti-tute 19 third-order sequences (SQ8 to SQ26) and they can be further grouped into 4 second-order megasequences (or sequence sets) in the middle and upper parts of the Wumis-han Formation. Statistical results of the Fischer Plot show that the thickness of the third-order sequences varies from 79.1 m to 196.0 m with an average of 132.3 m. The maxi-mum third-order sea-level change varies from 6 m to 88 m with the mean value of 45 m. The general range of the third-order relative sea-level change varies from 6 m to 73 m with an average of 28 m. The number of cycles (parase-quences) in the third-order sequences varies from 12 to 41 with a mean value of 33. Therefore, assuming the parase-quences were of equal duration, the time-span of the third-order sequences varied from 1.2 m.y. to 4.1 m.y., with a mean value of 3.3 m.y. The average duration and ampli-tude of the third-order relative sea-level cycles are similar to those recorded in Phanerozoic strata (e.g., Osleger and Read, 1991; Wilkinson et al., 1996; Burgess, 2001, 2006; Burgess et al., 2001; Helle, 2004; Poletti et al., 2004; Brett et al., 2006; Spence and Tucker, 2007; Zecchin, 2007, 2010; Tucker and Garland, 2010; Catuneanu and Zecchin, 2013; Zecchin and Catuneanu, 2013).

The top boundary of SQ16 indicates an obvious third-order relative sea-level fall, and this corresponds to the boundary between the Mopanyu and Shanpoling stroma-tolite sub-assemblages (the boundary between A and B in Fig. 11). This coincidence could indicate a genetic rela-tionship between the changes in sedimentary environment and changes in micro-organisms, as suggested by Gebelein (1974). Further research along this line is necessary.

4 Conclusions

The Wumishan cycles with their approximately sym-metrical lithofacies succession might represent a classic


Serial number of sequence

Thicknessof sequence

(m)

Number of cycle in each sequence

Inferredtime-span of

sequence (Ma)

Maximum rise and fall of relative sea-level changes (m)

General rise of relative sea-level

changes (m)

SQ8

SQ9

SQ10

SQ11

SQ12

SQ13

SQ14

SQ15

SQ16

SQ17

SQ18

SQ19

SQ20

SQ21

SQ22

SQ23

SQ24

SQ25

SQ26

106.179.1145.3164.094.083.3131.7177.589.7124.9154.7134.985.8119.8137.8182.9142.7164.3196.0

22122942202334374340423325424036283941

2.21.22.94.22.02.33.43.74.34.04.23.32.54.24.03.62.83.94.1

4715641821638674010625727303488676988

40224724-14-63067-40-429501-71875585173

Mean 132.32 33.05 3.31 44.63 27.79

Table 4 Numbers of the Wumishan cycles of the third-order sequences (SQ8 to SQ26) according to the Fischer plots shown in Figures 10 and 11

case for true sedimentary cycles. The superimposed re-lationship of four cycles/parasequences constituting one fifth-order parasequence set is interpreted as reflecting environmental fluctuations genetically related to short eccentricity rhythms superimposed on long eccentricity rhythms. Some parasequences can be further divided into 5-8 beds, which could indicate environmental fluctua-tions controlled by precession rhythms superimposed on the short-eccentricity rhythm. Although it is difficult to af-firm the absolute time-span of the Milankovitch rhythms in the Precambrian, their ratio as reflected by the regular vertical stacking patterns of the Wumishan cycles is simi-lar to that in Phanerozoic cyclic strata. This indicates simi-lar durations of the eccentricity Milankovitch rhythms in Precambrian times, although the precession rhythm was shorter then.

Based on the regular vertical stacking patterns of the Wumishan cycles, 26 third-order sequences are recog-nised which can be further grouped into 6 second-order megasequences (or sequence sets). In the middle and up-per parts of the Wumishan Formation (from SQ8 to SQ26),628 cycles are discerned. These cycles (parasequences) are the basis for a Fischer plot analysis, to determine the long-term change in accommodation space or the pattern

of third-order relative sea-level change. The Fischer plot shows that the mean maximum amplitude of third-order sea-level change is about 45 m, that the mean general range of amplitude is about 28 m, and that the mean dura-tion of third-order sequences is about 3.3 m.y. The data indicate that the duration of the third-order sequences and the range of the third-order relative sea-level changes are both similar to those determined for the Phanerozoic. The six rank-orders of cyclicity and their regular vertical stack-ing patterns in the Wumishan Formation reflect a hierarchy of relative sea-level change in this Mid-Precambrian time.

Further research on the Wumishan cycles should throw light on such aspects as the mechanisms of episodic dol-omitisation and silicification and the petrology and geo-chemistry of these Precambrian carbonates, in the context of the high-frequency environmental fluctuations which were genetically controlled by the Milankovitch rhythms.

Acknowledgements

This study benefited from field discussions with Pro-fessor Zhu Shixing, Gao Lingzhi and Huang Xueguang. The funding for this research into the Middle and Upper Proterozoic strata of North China was provided by the



Natural Sciences Foundation of China (Grant 49802012, 40472065). Acknowledgements are also due to Profes-sor Wang Hongzhen and Shi Xiaoying, the hosts of Spe-cial Project (SSER), for their support in this research. We would like to thank Professor Zhou Hongrui for his sig-nificant fieldwork contributions. Finally we wish to thank Professor Tadeusz Peryt, Professor Santanu Banerjee and an anonymous reviewer for their helpful reviews of the manuscript.

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Milankovitch-driven cycles in the Precambrian of China