MIF - STICERD · The MIF is designed to measure inequality in individual well-being, reflecting the fact that our lives have many important dimensions: our health, our relationships,

MULTIDIMENSIONAL INEQUALITY FRAMEWORKMIF

RESEARCH PARTNERS ATLANTIC FELLOWS BASED AT

The Atlantic Fellows for Social and Economic Equity (AFSEE) programme, based at the International Inequalities Institute (III) at the London School of Economics and Political Science (LSE), is building a catalytic, values-led global community of Fellows who are committed to using collective leadership to work towards social and economic justice for all. Drawing on the insights of academic research, innovative social-change strategies and the Fellows’ own experience and expertise, the Atlantic Fellows for Social and Economic Equity programme is empowering a new generation of change-makers, including practitioners, activists, researchers, policy-makers and campaigners, to work together across disciplines, backgrounds and borders. AFSEE was established in 2017 with a landmark gift from Atlantic Philanthropies, and over the next 20 years will support over 400 Fellows drawn from both the global South and global North. It is one of seven interconnected Atlantic Fellows programmes, which together create a global community to advance fairer, healthier and more inclusive societies.

For further information about the Atlantic Fellows for Social and Economic Equity programme, please contact [email protected] or visit our website afsee.atlanticfellows.org.

AUTHORS

Academics: Abigail McKnight, Pedro Mendes Loureiro, Polly Vizard

Oxfam: Alex Prats, Ana Claver, Claire Kumar

Research assistants: Patricio Espinoza-Lucero, Cara Leavey, Laurie Mompelat

Advisors:Ben Fine, Ricardo Fuentes-Nieva, Naila Kabeer, Chiara Mariotti

PUBLISHED JULY 2019

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Introduction

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Background

ThisresearchwasmadepossiblebysupportfromtheAtlanticFellowsinSocialandEconomicEquityProgramme,administeredbytheInternationalInequalitiesInstituteattheLondonSchoolofEconomicsandPoliticalScience.Itseekstobridgeacademic,activistandpractitionerperspectiveswiththeaimtoprovideasystematicapproachtoanalysingmultidimensionalinequalityandsupportOxfamintheirambitiontodesignandimplementrelevant,solidandeffectiveprogrammesforthereductionofinequalitiesatnationalandlocallevels.TheMultidimensionalInequalityFrameworkisbeingmadewidelyavailablesothatallseekingtounderstandandtackleinequalitiescanbenefit.

Themainobjectiveoftheprojectwastodeveloparobustandpragmaticinequalityframeworkandtoolkitstoaidanalysts,activistsandpractitioners.Theybuildonthelatestacademicresearchoninequality,itsmeasurementandexistingframeworks,combinedwithpractitioner,activistandpolicyexpertiseheldwithinOxfam,toproduceatheoreticallygroundedyetpracticalframeworkwhichallowsresearchersandpractitionerstotakeasystematicapproachtomeasuringandunderstandinginequalities,anddevisingeffectiveinequalityreductionprogrammesandstrategies.

ThisdocumentoutlinestheMultidimensionalInequalityFrameworkwhichistheoreticallyunderpinnedbySen’scapabilityapproachtoevaluatingthequalityoflife.

Acknowledgements:WeareverygratefultothemanyindividualswhoparticipatedinseminarsattheLSEandinBarcelona,toallwhorespondedtotheinitialconsultationonthefirstdraft,colleaguesinOxfam(particularlyLaraContrerasatOxfamIntermón),CASE(especiallyTaniaBurchardt)andtheIIIattheLSE(principallyRanaZincir-Celal)whogenerouslygavetheirtimeandexpertisetoaidthedevelopmentoftheFramework.

Projectteam:Academics:AbigailMcKnight,Projectlead,AssociateDirectorCASE,LSE([email protected])PedroMendesLoureiro,ResearchOfficer,PhDcandidateSOAS;nowLecturerinLatinAmericanStudiesattheUniversityofCambridge

PollyVizard,AssociateDirectorCASE,LSEPractitioners:ÀlexPrats,Oxfamlead,InequalityLead,OxfamIntermónAnaClaver,Policyadvisor,OxfamIntermónClaireKumar,SeniorConsultantResearchassistants:PatricioEspinoza-Lucero,ResearchAssistant,CASE,LSE;nowanAtlanticFellowCaraLeavey,ResearchAssistant,CASE,LSE;nowatRethinkMentalIllnessLaurieMompelat,ResearchAssistant,CASE,LSE;nowatRunnymedeTrustAdvisors:BenFine,ProfessorofEconomics,SOASRicardoFuentes-Nieva,ExecutiveDirectorOxfamMexicoNailaKabeer,ProfessorofGenderandDevelopment,LSEChiaraMariotti,PolicyAdvisor,OxfamGB

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Introduction

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TableofContents

Non-technicalintroduction......................................................................................................................................3

Introduction....................................................................................................................................................................4

Understandinginequality.....................................................................................................................................4

Whyaframeworkformeasuringmultidimensionalinequality?........................................................5

Existingmultidimensionalframeworks.........................................................................................................6

Thechoiceoftheoreticalandconceptualfoundation:thecapabilityapproach...........................6

Whatdowemeanbyacapability-basedapproach?.................................................................................7

TheBuildingBlocksoftheCapabilityApproach........................................................................................9

OperationalisingtheCapabilityApproach.................................................................................................10

ApplyingtheCapabilityApproachtomeasuringcapability-inequality........................................11

KeyfeaturesoftheMultidimensionalInequalityFramework..........................................................12

Driversandpolicysolutions.............................................................................................................................14

References.....................................................................................................................................................................15

Domain1.Lifeandhealth:Inequalityinthecapabilitytobealiveandtoliveahealthylife..18

Domain1:Sub-domains,indicatorsandmeasures................................................................................21

Domain2.Physicalandlegalsecurity:Inequalityinthecapabilitytoliveinphysicalsafetyandlegalsecurity......................................................................................................................................................24


Domain3.Educationandlearning:Inequalityinthecapabilitytobeknowledgeable,tounderstandandreason,andtohavetheskillstoparticipateinsociety............................................32


Domain4.Financialsecurityanddignifiedwork:Inequalityinthecapabilitytoachievefinancialindependenceandsecurity,enjoydignifiedandfairwork,andrecognitionofunpaidworkandcare.............................................................................................................................................37


Domain5.Comfortable,independentandsecurelivingconditions:Inequalityinthecapabilitytoenjoycomfortable,independentandsecurelivingconditions..................................44


Domain6.Participation,influenceandvoice:Inequalityinthecapabilitytoparticipateindecision-making,haveavoiceandinfluence..........................................................................................50


Domain7.Individual,familyandsociallife:Inequalityinthecapabilitytoenjoyindividual,familyandsociallife,toexpressyourselfandtohaveself-respect.............................55


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Non-technicalintroductionTheMultidimensionalInequalityFramework(MIF)providesasystematicapproachtomeasuringandanalysinginequalities,andforidentifyingcausesandpotentialsolutions.IthasbeendevelopedthroughacollaborationbetweenacademicsintheCentreforAnalysisofSocialExclusion(CASE)attheLondonSchoolofEconomicsandtheSchoolofOrientalandAfricanStudies(SOAS),andpractitionersinOxfam.

TheMIFisdesignedtomeasureinequalityinindividualwell-being,reflectingthefactthatourliveshavemanyimportantdimensions:ourhealth,ourrelationships,ourabilitytohaveinfluence,ourknowledge,andmanyother.TheMIFoffersasystematicmultidimensionalapproachtoassessinginequalityinthequalityofindividuals’lives.

TheFrameworkdrawsonSen’scapabilityapproachtoprovideaclearmethodologyfortheassessmentofwell-beingthroughexaminingdifferencesinpeople’scapabilitiestolivethekindoflifetheyhavereasontovalue.Thecapabilityapproachrejectsanexclusivefocusonincomeorsubjectivewell-being,definingthequalityofpeople’slivesintermsofasetofvaluablethingsthattheycanbeordo;likebeingphysicallysecureorhavinginfluenceoverdecisionsaffectingtheirlives.

Ourapproachisinnovative,markingadeparturefromthemajorityofpreviousinstantiationsofSen’scapabilityapproachwhichhavetendedtofocusoncapability-deprivation(differencesinratesofdeprivationbetweengroups)ratherthancapability-inequalitywhichencompassesadvantageaswellasdisadvantage.Thedevelopmentofacapability-basedinequalitymeasurementframeworkisanaturalextensiontoworkalreadyundertakeninthisfield,offeringaninnovativeapproachtounderstandingandaddressingmultidimensionalinequality.

Table1:DomainsoftheMultidimensionalInequalityFramework

Domain Shorttitle Sub-titleDomain1 Lifeandhealth Inequalityinthecapabilitytobealiveandtolivea

healthylifeDomain2 Physicalandlegalsecurity Inequalityinthecapabilitytoliveinphysicalsafety

andlegalsecurityDomain3 Educationandlearning Inequalityinthecapabilitytobeknowledgeable,to

understandandreason,andtohavetheskillstoparticipateinsociety

Domain4 Financialsecurityanddignifiedwork Inequalityinthecapabilitytoachievefinancialindependenceandsecurity,enjoydignifiedandfairwork,andrecognitionofunpaidworkandcare

Domain5 Comfortable,independentandsecurelivingconditions

Inequalityinthecapabilitytoenjoycomfortable,independentandsecurelivingconditions

Domain6 Participation,influenceandvoice Inequalityinthecapabilitytoparticipateindecision-making,haveavoiceandinfluence

Domain7 Individual,familyandsociallife Inequalityinthecapabilitytoenjoyindividual,familyandsociallife,toexpressyourselfandtohaveself-respect

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Introduction

TheMultidimensionalInequalityFramework(MIF)providesasystematic,theoretically-underpinnedinstrumentformeasuringandanalysinginequalities,andforidentifyingcausesandpotentialsolutions.Thisbriefintroductionsetsoutthemotivation,thecontextinwhichtheMIFwasdevelopedandprovidesdetailsofitstheoreticalandconceptualfoundations.

TheMIFhasbeendevelopedaspartofacollaborationbetweenacademicsintheCentreforAnalysisofSocialExclusionattheLondonSchoolofEconomicsandtheSchoolofOrientalandAfricanStudies(SOAS)(AbigailMcKnightastheacademiclead),andpractitionersinOxfam(ledbyAlexPrats).Itisalsobeingmadeavailableonlinewithtailoredtoolkits,additionalresourcesondriversandcandidatepolicies,andtakingaction.

Understandinginequality

Thestudyofinequalityhaslargelytakenplacewithinsingledimensionssuchasincome,healthandeducation,reflectingthefactthatexpertspredominatelyconcentrateonaparticulardisciplineandfieldofstudy.Themajorityofdiscourseoninequalityhasfocusedoneconomicinequality,particularlyincomeinequality,andourknowledgeofincomeinequalityhasadvancedconsiderablyoverthelastfewdecades.Thishasbeenaidedbyfairlylongtimeseriesofincomedatawhicharenowreadilyavailableforalargenumberofcountries.However,evenwithinthisnarrowfieldithastakensometimetoestablishaclearpictureofthescaleofinequalityandwhetherinequalityhasbeenincreasingornot,withincountries,betweencountriesandacrosstheworld.Thisisbecausethestudyofinequalityisnotanexactsciencecombiningbothpositive(establishingthefacts)andnormative(involvingvaluejudgementsaboutfairness)aspects.Normativeaspectsareinfluencedbypositiveaspectsthroughthechoiceofinequalitymeasures,judgementonthetypesofinequalityweshouldbeconcernedaboutandwhatconstituteshigh,lowand‘acceptable’levelsofinequality.

Recentanalysisoftheglobalpictureofincomeinequalitytrendsunderlinestheimportanceofbeingclearabouthowweunderstandandmeasureinequality,asdifferentmeasuresshowcontrastingtrendsbothintermsofglobalinequality,andbetweenandwithincountries(Niño-Zarazña,RoopeandTarp,2017).Thisdetailedanalysisshowsthatrelativeglobalincomeinequality(measuredby,forexample,therelativeGiniordecileratios)declinedsubstantially1975-2010,mainlydrivenbyincomegrowthinChinaandIndia,butabsoluteincomeinequality(measuredby,forexample,thestandarddeviationandtheabsoluteGini)increasedconsiderablyoverthesameperiod.Insomeregionsoftheworld,inequalitytrendsassessedagainstthesetwoconceptsofinequalitymovedinthesamedirection(forexample,increasinginNorthAmericaanddecreasingintheMiddleEastandNorthAfrica)butdivergedinotherregionsoverthesameperiod(forexample,inLatinAmericaandtheCaribbean,EastAsiaandPacificrelativeinequalitydeclinedbutabsoluteinequalityincreased).Withinregionsthereisalsoconsiderableheterogeneitybetweencountriesinincomeinequalitytrends,evenwhenassessedusingthesamemeasure.Recentresearchhasshownthatalthoughrelativeincomeinequalityhasbeenontheriseinmanyrichandmiddle-incomecountriesoverthelastthreetofourdecades,thetimingandtheextentofanyincreasevariedsignificantlybetweencountries(Salverdaetal.,2014;Nolanetal.,2014;OECD,2008).

Thisexampleshowsthatevenwhenmeasuringinequalitywithinasingledimensionthereareimportantdifferencesbetweenmeasuresparticularlyintermsofhowchangesinincomesaffectinequalityestimates.Itisthereforeworthwhilespendingalittletimeclarifyingwhatformsof

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incomeinequalitydifferentmeasurescapture.Measurescanbebroadlydividedintothreeclasses:relativeinequalitymeasures,absoluteinequalitymeasuresand‘centrist’measures.Relativeinequalitymeasuresshownoincreaseininequalityifeveryone’sincomeincreasesproportionatelybythesameamount,forexampleeveryone’sincomedoubles.However,theabsolutedifferencebetweenpeople’sincomeswillhaveincreasedandabsoluteinequalitymeasureswillcomputeanincreaseininequality.Incontrast,absolutemeasuresofinequalitywillshownoincreaseininequalityifeveryone’sincomeincreasesbyafixedamount,sayby$100.However,relativeinequalitydeclinesas$100increaseisagreaterproportionateincreaseforthoseonalowincomethanforthoseonahighincome.Wemightbeinterestedinbothformsofinequalityandacompromisecanbefoundinso-called‘centristmeasures’whicharesensitivetobothtypesofchangesinincome(forexample,theintermediateGiniortheKrtscha).

Althoughwearefacedwithamixedpictureofincomeinequalitytrends,evidencesuggeststhatwhiletheuseofdifferentmeasuresofinequalitycanbeusedselectivelytopaintaparticularpicturewithinsomecountries,overdifferenttimeperiodsoracrosstheworld,peopleexpressconcernanddistasteforinequalityinallitsforms.Thereisnowenoughevidenceofincreasinginequality(beitabsoluteorrelative)toleadtoagrowingconcernabouttheharmfuleffectsofinequalityonsocieties.Aconsensusisemergingacrossanumberofhighprofileinternationalorganisationsandhighlyregardedexpertsthatmoreneedstobedonetohaltthistrend,toensurethatthebenefitsoffuturegrowtharesharedmoreequallyandthatsolutionsarefoundtolimitanyharmfulimpact(see,forexample,Stiglitz,2012;Oxfam,2014;Piketty2014;Atkinson,2015;OECD,2015;WorldBank,2016;IMF,2017).

Whyaframeworkformeasuringmultidimensionalinequality?

Thereisagrowingrecognitionthatinequalityandpovertyarebetterunderstoodasmultidimensionalconcepts.Althoughanincomepovertylineremainsauseful,short-hand,wayofidentifyingindividualsatriskofpoverty,anincomemeasureisinsufficienttopickuphowindividuals’deprivationvariesacrosskeyaspectsoftheirlives.Thishasledtothedevelopmentofmultidimensionalpovertymeasures,suchastheGlobalMultidimensionalPovertyIndex(AlkireandFoster,2011,seemorebelow),andmaterialdeprivationmeasures(forexample,theEU’smeasurewhichpicksuptheinabilitytoaffordsomeitemsconsideredbymostpeopletobedesirableorevennecessarytoleadanadequatelife),tocomplementincome-onlymeasures.

Whenusingmultidimensionalmeasures,oneapproachistosimplycomputehowmanypeopleorhouseholdsareclassifiedasdeprivedaccordingtothresholdssetineachdimension.Thisapproachwouldleadtoanumberofpovertyestimatesunlessthesamenumberofindividualswereclassifiedasdeprivedinalldimensions.Alternatively,individualsorhouseholdscouldbeclassifiedassufferingfrommultipledeprivationormaterialdeprivationiftheyaredeprivedinanumberofdimensions.Forexample,theEUmeasurestherateofseverematerialdeprivationastheproportionofpeoplelivinginhouseholdsthatcannotaffordatleastfouritemsfromalistofnineitems(includingnotbeingabletoaffordtopayhousingcosts,buyacar,ownatelephone,aweek’sholidayawayfromhome).Anotherapproachistoproduceasingleindexfromsummingdeprivationindicatorsacrossanumberofdomainsormeasures.TheglobalMultidimensionalPovertyIndex(MPI),developedbyAlkireandFosterattheOxfordPovertyandHumanDevelopmentInitiative(OPHI),isanexampleofthisapproach(AlkireandFoster,2011).TheMPIisdesignedtocapturethedeprivationsthateachpersonfacesatthesametimewithrespecttoeducation,healthandlivingstandards(muchliketheHumanDevelopmentIndex–seebelow).

Introduction

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Therearetwoindicatorsforeducationandforhealthandsixforlivingstandards.Eachindicatorisassignedaweightsothateachdimensionsisworthone-thirdintheoverallweighting.

Theseapproachesaredataintensiveastheyrequireaccesstodatasourceswhichcollectinformationacrossthedifferentdimensionsforarepresentativesampleofindividualsorhouseholds.Indicesalsorequireassignmentofweightsforthedifferentmeasuresincludedinanyindex.

Theconceptthatweareinterestedinisindividualwell-beingwhichisinherentlymultidimensional.Ifwepausemomentarilytoevaluatethequalityofourownlivesitisimmediatelyapparentthatmanydimensionsofourlivesareimportanttous:ourhealth,ourrelationships,oursafety,ourabilitytomakedecisionsonmattersthatareimportanttous,ourreputationaswellasmanyotherdimensionsincludingfinancialsecurity.TheMIFoffersasystematicmultidimensionalapproachtoassessinginequalityinthequalityofindividuals’lives.Fortheoverallassessmentofinequalitywearesuggestingadashboardapproachratherthanacompositeindex.Withanextensiveandvariedselectionofmeasures,carefulanalysisisrequiredtomakeaninformedassessmentofinequality.

Existingmultidimensionalframeworks

Anumberofmultidimensionalsocialindicatorframeworkshavebeendevelopedinrecentyears.Theseinclude:

• theUNHumanDevelopmentIndexwhichsummarisesaverageachievementinkeydimensionsofhumandevelopment:alongandhealthylife,beingknowledgeableandhavingadecentstandardofliving;

• theUNSustainableDevelopmentGoalsaresupplementedbyanindicatorframeworkformeasuringandmonitoringprogresstowardsreachingthe2030goals;

• theUK’sOfficeforNationalStatisticshasdevelopedamultidimensionalsetofindicatorsformeasuringandmonitoringNationalWell-being,;

• tomonitortheimplementationoftheEuropeanPillarofSocialRightsprogressismeasuredin12areaswithinthreedomainsthroughaseriesofindicators;

• theOECD’sBetterLifeIndexcovers11topicsintheareasofmateriallivingconditionsandqualityoflife;and,

• theWorldEconomicForumhasdevelopedanInclusiveDevelopmentIndexwhichcontainsthreepillarsand12keyperformanceindicatorstoassessinclusiveeconomicperformance.

Onthewholetheseframeworksarenottheoreticallygroundedandhavebeendevelopedwithaspecificpurposeinmind,whichincludeaspectsofpovertyandinequalitybutarenotgeneralmultidimensionalinequalityframeworks.Withoutastrongtheoreticallyfoundationanyframeworkcanappeartosimplycompriseanarbitrarylistofinequalityindicatorsandmeasures.

Thechoiceoftheoreticalandconceptualfoundation:thecapabilityapproach

TheMultidimensionalInequalityFrameworkdrawsonSen’scapabilityapproach(Sen,1993)toprovideaclearmethodologyforassessinginequalitiesinindividualwell-being.Thisprovidesafocustoexaminingdifferencesinpeople’scapabilitiestolivethekindoflifetheyhavereasontovalue.Itisdefinedintermsofasetofvaluablethingsthatpeoplecanbeordo;likebeingphysicallysecureorhavinginfluenceoverdecisionsaffectingtheirlives.Itoffersasystematicapproachtoassessingthequalityoflifeweleadandwhatwecanorcannotdo,andcanorcannotbe.

http://hdr.undp.org/en/content/human-development-index-hdihttps://unstats.un.org/sdgs/indicators/Global%20Indicator%20Framework_A.RES.71.313%20Annex.pdfhttps://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/wellbeing/articles/measuringnationalwellbeing/2015-09-29https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/web/european-pillar-of-social-rights/indicatorshttp://www.oecdbetterlifeindex.org/#/11111111111https://www.weforum.org/reports/the-inclusive-development-index-2018

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Acleartheoreticalunderpinningfacilitatesthesystematiccaptureofthecomplexnatureofinequality,whichcantakemanydifferentforms.Ourapproachisinnovative,markingadeparturefromthemajorityofpreviousinstantiationsofSen’scapabilityapproachwhichhavetendedtofocusoncapability-deprivation(measuringdifferencesinratesofdeprivationbetweengroups)ratherthancapability-inequalitywhichencompassesadvantageaswellasdisadvantage.Italsorepresentsanimportantdeparturefromotherinequalityframeworkswhichtendtosimplyassessoutcomeswithoutanyconsiderationoffactorsthatconstrainchoice.Thedevelopmentofacapability-basedinequalitymeasurementframeworkisanaturalextensiontoworkalreadyundertakeninthisfield,offeringanewandinnovativeapproachtounderstandingandaddressingmultidimensionalinequality.

Whatdowemeanbyacapability-basedapproach?

WebelievethatastrongtheoreticalfoundationisimportantforthecredibilityoftheFramework.However,thisdoesnotmeanthatadeepunderstandingofthetheorybehindtheapproachisnecessaryforitspracticalapplication.TheMIF,alongwiththeonlinestep-by-stepuserguides,havebeendesignedsothattheFrameworkcanbeusedwitheasebyspecialistsandnon-specialists.Forthoseinterestedinlearningabitmoreaboutthetheorybehindtheconceptualbasishereweprovideabriefintroductiontotheapproach.

AmartyaSenisaworldrenownedeconomistandphilosopher.In1998hewasawardedtheNobelPrizeinEconomicsforhiscontributiontowelfareeconomics.Inabodyofwork,Senoutlinesthecapabilityapproach;anevaluativeframeworkwhichcanbeusedtoassessindividualwell-being(keyreferencesinclude:Sen,1979;1985;1987;1992;1993;1999).Senfoundexistingframeworkswantingeitherduetonarrowfocusorbecauseofthelackofrecognitionforwhatreallymattersintermsofhowindividualsevaluateandvaluethequalityoftheirlives.Insteadoffocusingexclusivelyoneconomicmeansorsubjectivewell-being,thecapabilityapproachfocusesonthequalityoflifethatindividualsmanagetoliveandthefreedomtheyhavetochoosethekindoflifetheyhavereasontovalue,intermsofthevaluablethingstheycandoorbe.Forexample,beingadequatelynourished,beingfreefromavoidablediseases,beingabletotakepartinthelifeofthecommunityandhavingself-respect(Sen,1999,p.199).

Twokeyconceptsinthecapabilityapproachare‘capabilities’and‘functionings’.Sendescribescapabilitiesas“notionsoffreedom,inthepositivesense:whatrealopportunitiesyouhaveregardingthelifeyoumaylead”anddefinesafunctioningasanachievement,whereasacapabilityistheabilitytoachieve(Sen,1987:p.36).‘Functionings’arewhataperson‘managestodoorbe’(Sen,1985).Whilethelanguageofthecapabilityapproachcanbeabitmystifyingfortheuninitiated,insimpletermscapabilitiescanbelikenedtosubstantiveopportunitiesandfunctioningstoobservedoutcomes.Thereismoretoeachconcept,butthisoffersausefulstartingpoint.

Thecapabilityapproachcallsforamultidimensionalapproachtounderstandingindividualwell-being.Itrejectstheexclusivefocusonsubjectivemeasuresofwell-being(utility)oroneconomicresources(opulence).Althoughtheseapproachesarewidelyused,theyareseentohaveanumberoffundamentalweaknesses.

Oneoftheproblemsassociatedwithexclusivelyusingsubjectivemeasuresofwell-being(happinessorlifesatisfaction)toassessindividualwelfare,isthatsubjectiveassessmentscanbeaffectedbyexpectationsandpreferencesbeingadaptedbyexperience,andshapedbysocialand

https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/economic-sciences/1998/sen/biographical/https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/economic-sciences/1998/sen/biographical/

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culturalnorms.Forexample,overtimepeoplecanbecomeaccustomedtolivingonalowincome,orbeinginpoorhealthand,asaresult,expectations,andaspirationsfor,lifecanbeparedback.Similarly,aprivilegedupbringingcanleavepeopledisappointedwithwhattheymanagetoachieveintheirownlives.Senillustratestheinfluenceofnormsusingtheexampleofhowperceptionsofrelativeneedsofdifferentmembersofthefamilyrelatetosocialinfluence(forexample,amagnificationoftheneedsofamaleheadofhouseholdorunderplayingtheneedsoffemalehouseholdmembers),andhowtheseperceptionsleadtodifferentsubjectiveassessmentsof,forexample,theirownhealth,assessmentswhichconflictwithmedicalevidence(Sen,1999).ItisnotthatSenrejectshappinessasavaluableaspectofwell-being,hesimplysuggeststhatifitisconsideredimportantitshouldbeincludedasoneofanumberofaspectsinanyassessmentofwell-being(Sen,1985).

Therearealsoshortcomingsassociatedwithfocusingsolelyoneconomicresources(opulence)duetothefailuretocapturehowindividuals’needsandnon-economicresourcesdiffer,affectingindividuals’abilitytoconvertresourcesintovaluableoutcomes.Economicresourceslargelyprovidea‘meanstoanend’anditisthe‘end’whichweareinterestedin.“Thevalueofthelivingstandardliesintheliving,andnotinthepossessingofcommodities,whichhasderivateandvaryingrelevance”(Sen,1987,p.25),and“oursuccessinthematerialworldisoftenjudgedbyouropulence;butdespitethat,commoditiesarenotmorethanmeanstoanend”(Sen,1987,p.16).

Theabilitytoconvertresourcesandcommoditiesintovaluableoutcomescanbeaffectedbyarangeoffactors.Conversioncanoccuratdifferentratesdependingonvarious“conversionfactors”.Sensuggestsanumberofconversionfactorswhicharetypicallygroupedintothreemaincategories.Dang(2014)andRobeyns(2017)provideillustrativeexamplesofconversionfactorsineachcategory.Theseare:(a)personalconversionfactors(suchaspersonalcharacteristics:physicalandmentalaspects(forexample,disabilities),ageandgender);(b)socialconversionfactors(suchassocialinstitutions,socialnorms(gender,religious,cultural,moral),traditionsandthebehaviourofothers(sexism,homophobia,racism,etc.),and;(c)environmentalconversionfactors(includingclimate,pollution,deforestation,etc.).Thesefactorsinfluencetheconversionratefromindividualresourcesintofunctionings(outcomeorachievement)andcapabilities(realopportunitiesorpositivefreedoms)(Dang,2014,p.462).Conversionfactorsandconversionrateshavenotalwaysbeentreatedsystematicallyinthecapabilityliteraturebutthereareinterestingandinformativeattemptstodefineandmeasurethem(see,forexample,Chiappero-MartinettiandSalardi,2008;Comim,QizilbashandAlkire,2001;BrandoliniandD'Alessio,1998).ForthepurposesoftheMIF,conversionfactorsplayanimportantroleintheidentificationofinequalitydriversandcandidatepolicies,whichareavailableintheonlinetoolkits.

Anotherimportantaspectischoice.Whilespecialimportanceisgiventotheactuallifestylechosen,theavailabilityofotheroptionshasvaluetoo(Sen,1992).Senstressesthatitisimportanttobeabletodistinguishbetweenoutcomesthatariseduetolackofchoice(limitingcapabilities)fromthosewhicharechosen(theneedtobeabletodistinguishbetweenchoosingnottoworkfrominvoluntaryunemployment);recognisingthatbeingan‘author’ofyourownlifehasintrinsicvalue.ThemostcitedexamplethatSendescribesisthedifferencebetweenapersonchoosingtofastonreligiousgroundsandapersonwhoisstarvingasaresultoffamine.Ineachcase,measuredsimplyintermsofobservedoutcomesatapointintime,neitherpersonisreceivingnourishmentbutintheformercase,thisisaresultofchoicewhileinthelattercasenochoiceisavailable.Ideallywewouldwanttobeabletodistinguishbetweenthesetwocasesinevaluatingindividualwelfare.Choiceis

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assumedtohaveintrinsicvaluewherethechoiceisbetweenvalued(andachievable)alternatives.SenillustratesthisthroughanexamplewherepersonXenjoyshigherwelfarewhentheyaregivenachoicebetweenAandBandchooseA,thanthecasewheretheyhadnochoiceandonlyAwasavailable;eventhoughinbothcasespersonXendsupwithA(Sen,1992).

TheBuildingBlocksoftheCapabilityApproach

InCommoditiesandCapabilities(Sen,1985,pp.7-9),Senusesaseriesofsimpleequationstoformallysetouttherelationshipbetweenacommodityset,acapabilitysetandachievedfunctionings.Oneissuewiththestaticequationapproachisthatthedynamicnatureofcapabilitiesisnotrecognised.Analternativeapproachistouseaseriesofequationsoradiagram.Figure1presentsonewayofrepresentingthecapabilityapproachasaflowdiagram.Thetypicalstartingpointistoconsideranindividual’s‘commodityset’whichismadeupofresourcesintheformofgoodsandservices(someofwhichcannotbetradedintheconventionalsense).Thecommoditysetisnotrandomlygeneratedasitisaffectedbyendowments(suchasinnateability)andentitlements(whichcanbesetthroughlegislationandshapedbysocialandculturalnormswhichmay,forexample,setentitlementswithinfamiliesandcommunities).Agivencommoditysetcanbeconvertedintoacapabilitysetwitharangeoffactorsinfluencingtheconversionrate(personal,socialandenvironmental).

Fromthesubstantiveopportunitiesrepresentedbyagivencapabilityset,individualschoose/achieveanobservedsetoffunctions(functionings)–whatindividualsactuallydoandare(physicallysecure,well-nourished,ingoodhealth,enjoyingasociallife,etc.).Choiceandagencycanbecurtailed,narrowingthepossiblesetof“beings”and“doings”thatanindividualcanachievefromanygivencapabilityset.Themodelisdynamicsothatinthenexttimeperiod(t=2)achievedfunctioningsintheinitialperiodcandirectlyaffecttheavailablecommodityset(forexample,beingfinanciallysecure,achievinghighesteem,beingingoodhealth).

Notethatthisisastylizedrepresentationanditispossibleforsomecapabilitiestobeinthesetwithouttheneedforcommodities–forexample,behaviourofotherscanaffectthecapabilitytoachievehighesteem;illnessmyspreadfromonepersontoanother.

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Figure1:StylizedDynamicModeloftheCapabilityApproachBuildingBlocks

Althoughthecapabilityapproachisinherentlyanassessmentofindividualwell-being,anexpandingbodyofliteratureaddressestherolethatcollectiveactioncanplayinprocessesofcapabilityexpansion.Socialmovements,humanrightscampaigns,socialactiontopromotegroupidentity,recognitionandequality,includinggenderequalityandindigenouspeople’sstruggles,civilsocietyandNGOcampaigns,grass-rootsactionandself-helpinitiativescanbecriticalinfluencesonthecapabilitiesthataresecuredforindividualsandgroups.Aswehaveshown,thecapabilityapproachputsemphasisontheconceptofagencyaswellasthatofwell-being,andprocessesofcapabilityexpansionoftenoccurwhendisadvantagedpeoplecometogetherandactasagroup.Indeed,insomecontexts,collectivegroupactionofthistypemaybenecessaryinordertosecureandexpandcapabilities(Ibrahim2006,2017,Robeyns2017a,pp.99-103).

OperationalisingtheCapabilityApproach

OneofthemainchallengesinrelationtooperationalisingthecapabilityapproachisthatthereisnodefinitivelistofcapabilitiesandSengoestosomelengthexplainingwhyafixedlistisnotdesirable(Sen,2004).However,hedoesgivesomeguidanceonhowcapabilitylistsshouldbederivedandinhismanywritingshemakesreferencetoanumberofkeycapabilitieswhichheclearlyconsidersarevitalforwell-being(beingwell-nourished,physicallysecure,mobile,etc.).Othershaveattemptedtoconstructafixedlistofcapabilities.OneofthebestknownisNussbaum’swhoproposesaphilosophically-derivedcapabilitylistthatiscomprehensiveinthesensethatitaimstocaptureallcentralandvaluablecapabilities(Nussbaum,2003).

Thereisalsoawidedebateonwhethercapabilitiescanbemeasured(see,forexample,Sugden,1993),withmoreagreementonthefeasibilitytomeasure‘functionings’(seeBurchardtandVizard(2011)foradiscussionofthisliterature).Althoughthesechallengeswereinitiallyseenasbarriers

FUNCTIONINGSachieved functions (what you actually do or are)

AGENCY AND CHOICE

CAPABILITY SETreal opportunities in terms of what you can do or be

Entitlements Endowments

CONVERSION FACTORS

(t=2)COMMODITY SETresources (t=1)

Introduction

11

tooperationalisation,considerableprogresshasbeenmadeandtherearenowexamplesofsuccessfulpracticalapplications(seeDang(2014)forarecentreviewofquantitativeapplications,orComimetal.,2010).

ExamplesoflargescaleoperationalisationofthecapabilityapproachincludetheUnitedNations’HumanDevelopmentIndex(HDI)whichwasdesignedtocapturecapabilitiesinthreedomains(alongandhealthylife,beingknowledgeableandhavingadecentstandardofliving).Theindexwascreatedtoemphasizethatpeopleandtheircapabilitiesshouldbetheultimatecriteriaforassessingthedevelopmentofacountry,noteconomicgrowthalone(UNDP,1990).TheHDIhasbeenusedasabasisforanalysisintheUN’sannualHumanDevelopmentReportssincethe1990sandfrom2010aninequality-adjustedHumanDevelopmentIndex(IHDI)hasbeenpublished.

AnotherexampleistheEqualityMeasurementFramework(EMF).TheEMFisaframeworkforequalitymonitoring(seeBurchardtandVizard,2011)whichhasbeenextendedtocoverchildren(Cleryetal.,2014)andinthecontextofhumanrights(Vizard,2012).TheframeworkshavebeenusedbytheBritishEqualityandHumanRightsCommissionasabasisforequalityandhumanrightsmonitoring(Alkireetal(2009),Candleretal(2011),EHRC(2011,2015),VizardandSpeed(2015))andhavenowbeenreplacedbyasingleframework(EHRC,2017).TheEMFwasdevelopedthroughfirstidentifyinga‘minimumcore’capabilitylistderivedfromtheinternationalhumanrightsframework.Thiswasfollowedbyadeliberativeexercisetorefine,expandandorientatethelist.

Inadditiontothelargescaleexamples,researchershavesuccessfullyoperationalisedthecapabilityapproachtoassesswell-being.InterestedreaderscouldusefullystartbyexploringarticlespublishedintheJournalofHumanDevelopmentandCapabilities.

ApplyingtheCapabilityApproachtomeasuringcapability-inequality

Afurtherchallengewefaceisthatwewanttodesignacapability-inequalityframeworkwhileSen’scapabilityapproachhasbeenmainlyusedtomeasurecapability-deprivation;whetherornotindividualsachievebasiccapabilitiesorminimumfunctioningandhowratesdifferbetweenpopulationgroups,suchasdifferencesbetweenmenandwomen.Thesearesometimesreferredtoas‘horizontalinequality’andStewart(2016)providesausefuldiscussionontheimportanceofanalysingandaddressinghorizontalinequalities,andKabeer(2016)discussesthechallengesofanalysingintersectinginequalities.Weareconcernedwiththeseformsofinequalitybutwearealsointerestedinthevarianceincapabilities,suchasdistinguishingbetweenpeoplewhohavegreaterandlessercapabilitytoinfluenceotherpeople,concentrationofproductiveresources,orsocialgradientsinlifeexpectancy,orunequalaccesstothetopjobs,whichcanbethoughtofasformsof‘verticalinequality’.

Thisisnotthefirsttimethatexpertshaveconsideredhowthecapabilityapproachcanbeusedtoassessinequality.Robeyns(2017b)makesthecasethatthecapabilityapproachcanbeusedtoidentify“toomuch”aswellas“toolittle”.Whereindividualshavemoreresourcesthanareneeded,Robeynsoutlinesthemoralpositionthattheseindividualshave“toomuch”.Concentrationofincomeandwealthcanhaveanegativebearingonotherindividuals’capabilities;forexample,wheremoney‘buys’power,orlimitstheopportunitiesofothers.Robeyns(2017a)suggeststhatitispossibletoconceptualisea“richesline”toidentify“therich”,tocomplementthewell-establishedconceptofapovertyline.BurchardtandHickarguethatthecapabilityapproachcouldbeemployedtoprovidearicherunderstandingofinequality,andof‘advantage’inparticular,noting

https://www.equalityhumanrights.com/en/publication-download/measurement-framework-equality-and-human-rights

Introduction

12

that“Sen’searlyessay[Sen,1979]onthecapabilityapproachwasentitled‘Equalityofwhat?’,not‘Povertyofwhat?’,yetmuchofwhatfollowed,includingcontributionsbySenhimself,focusedontheextenttowhichpeopleareabletoenjoybasiccapabilities”(BurchardtandHick,2017,p.4).

Thereisnoreasonwhyattentionshouldberestrictedtoexaminingdisadvantageasthesameassessmentofwell-beingcanbeappliedacrossanydistribution.BurchardtandHick(2017)explainhowtheconceptofcapability-inequalitycanberenderedconsistentwiththenatureofinequalityaswetendtounderstandit,extendingbeyondunequaldistributionsofincomeandwealthtoinequalitiesinthecapabilitiesenjoyedacrossarangeofcriticalareasoflife.Othershavealsomadethecasethatthecapabilityapproachcanbeusedtoexploreinequalities.Forexample,Therborn(2013)drawsinspirationfromthecapabilityapproachtomakethecasethatweshouldbeconcernedwithmorethaneconomicinequalitiesandthatinequalitiesbetweenandwithingroupscan(andhave)variouslymovedinoppositedirectionsacrosstimeandplace,andbyhorizontalandverticaldimensions.

Afocusoncapability-inequalityallowsustoanalyseandcovercertaindimensionsthatafocusoncapability-povertydoesnot.Forexample,lackofpoweramongtheleastwell-offcansignalaformofcapability-povertybutconcentrationofpoweramongasmallelitewouldbemissedwithsuchafocus.Inaddition,wideningtheconceptofcapabilitytoincludeinequalityandadvantageintroducesthepossibilitythatthesetofcapabilitiescouldincludethosethatharmotherpeople,particularlytheabilitytoexercisecontroloverothers.Forexample,advantagecanbesecuredthroughexploitingotherpeople’slabour,manipulationofpoliticalandlegalsystemsandthroughthreatsofviolence.SomehavearguedthatcapabilitiesthatharmothersdonotbelonginthesetbutSenrejectsthenotionthatcapabilitiesarebydefinitiongoodcapabilities,oronlythosethatarenotharmfultoothers(Sen,2009).

Fromapracticalpointofview,empiricalmeasurementofcapability-inequalityratherthancapability-povertythrowsupadditionalchallenges.Measuresofeconomicinequality(forexample,earnings,income,wealth,andconsumption)arenowwell-established,withrecogniseddifferencesinthestrengthsandweaknessesofeachinequalitymeasure,andthetypesofinequalitythattheycapture.Themeasurementofinequalityofnon-economicdimensionsofwell-beingislessdevelopedalthoughadvancesarebeingmade(see,forexample,CowellandFlachaire,2017)andmeasuresarenowfairlywelldevelopedforeducationandhealth.Thisisanactiveareaofresearchandweexpectsignificantadvancestobemadeinthenearfuture.

KeyfeaturesoftheMultidimensionalInequalityFramework

TheMultidimensionalInequalityFrameworkisstructuredaroundsevenlifedomains,reflectingcorecapabilitiescriticaltowell-being.Eachdomainisdescribedbyashort-titleandasub-titlewhichprovidesabitmoreinformationonthecapabilitiescoveredineachdomain(Table1).FulldetailsoftheMIFcanbefoundinthefinalpartofthispaper.Inthissectionwedescribethemainfeaturesandhowtheyrelatetothetheoreticalfoundation.

Introduction

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Table1:DomainsoftheMultidimensionalInequalityFramework

Domain Shorttitle Sub-titleDomain1 Lifeandhealth Inequalityinthecapabilitytobealiveandtolivea

healthylifeDomain2 Physicalandlegalsecurity Inequalityinthecapabilitytoliveinphysicalsafety

andlegalsecurityDomain3 Educationandlearning Inequalityinthecapabilitytobeknowledgeable,to

understandandreason,andtohavetheskillstoparticipateinsociety

Domain4 Financialsecurityanddignifiedwork

Inequalityinthecapabilitytoachievefinancialindependenceandsecurity,enjoydignifiedandfairwork,andrecognitionofunpaidworkandcare

Domain5 Comfortable,independentandsecurelivingconditions

Inequalityinthecapabilitytoenjoycomfortable,independentandsecurelivingconditions

Domain6 Participation,influenceandvoice

Inequalityinthecapabilitytoparticipateindecision-making,haveavoiceandinfluence

Domain7 Individual,familyandsociallife

Inequalityinthecapabilitytoenjoyindividual,familyandsociallife,toexpressyourselfandtohaveself-respect

TheselectionofdomainswasinformeddirectlybydedicatedresearchduringthecourseofthisprojectwhichbuiltonworkundertakeninthedevelopmentoftheEMF(whichhasitsrootsintheinternationalhumanrightsframework),andtookintoaccountthepracticalneedsofOxfam.Withineachofthedomainsaseriesofsub-domainshavebeenidentifiedandwithineachsub-domain,thereareanumberofinequalityindicatorsandinequalitymeasureswhichcanbeusedtomeasureandmonitormultidimensionalinequality.TheMIFisflexibleandeasilyadaptedtodifferentcontext,inkeepingwithSen’sviewthatanycapabilitylistshouldnotbedefinitivebutadaptedtodifferentcontextanduses.Itisnotenvisagedthatallofthemeasureswillbeapplicableineverycountrysetting.Thetoolkits,whichareavailableintheonlineversion,provideadviceandtipsonhowtheMIFcanbemodifiedfordifferentsettings(aprocesswerefertoas“Countrification”).

Theselectionofsub-domains,inequalityindicatorsandinequalitymeasuresreflectkeyaspectsofcapability-inequalitythattheMIFisdesignedtocapture.Themeasuresarepredominatelyindividuals’achievedoutcomes(functionings)ratherthanthefullsetofsubstantiveopportunities(capabilities)thatindividualswereabletochoosebetween;althoughsomemeasuresareincludedtotrytoilluminatecriticalaspectsofcapability-inequalities.Theselectionincludesinequalitymeasuresthathelptoidentify:

(a)wherechoicehasbeenconstrained;

(b)evidenceofharmfulcapabilitiesthatcanconstrainthechoiceofothers;

(c)autonomy;

(d)treatmentbyothers;

(e)thenotionthatitispossibletohavetoomuchaswellastoolittle.

Introduction

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AnumberofdifferenttypesofinequalityarecapturedintheMIF.Measuresofinequalitywithineachdomainincludeacombinationof:differencesinprevalenceofadvantageanddisadvantagebetweengroups(forexample,victimsofviolencebygenderorpercentageofprivatelyeducatedinthetopprofessions);socio-economicgradients(forexample,healthylifeexpectancybysocialclassoreducationalattainmentbyfamilyincome);ordinalinequalitymeasureswhereoutcomesareratedonanordinalscale(forexample,lifesatisfactionorsubjectivegeneralhealthstatus);dispersionmeasures(relativeandabsoluteincomeinequalityorinequalityinlifeexpectancy);measuresofconcentration(top1%shareofprivatewealthholdings).Theindividualoutcomemeasuresincludesubjectiveaswellasobjectivemeasuresofinequality,includingmeasuresofeconomicresourcesandsubjectivewell-being.Asshownearlier,comparisonbetweensubjectiveandobjectivemeasurescanhelptohighlightwherecapabilitieshavebeenconstrained.

Intheonlineversion,themeasuresareaccompaniedbytailoredadviceonwhichbreakdownsshouldbeconsideredtomeasuredifferencesbetweengroups.Ingeneralterms,wesuggestthat,whereinformationisavailable,measuresshouldbebrokendownbygender,agegroup,socialclass/caste,ethnicgroupanddisabilitystatus.

Driversandpolicysolutions

Inthissectionwebrieflydescribetheworkwehavebeendoingonidentifyingmaindrivercategoriesandcandidatepolicies.Thedetailisnotpresentedherebutisavailableonourwebsites.AnotheroriginalfeatureoftheMIFisthatwehaveoperationalisedwhatarereferredtoas‘conversionfactors’inthecapabilityapproach,toguidetheidentificationofinequalitydriversineachdomain.Thesearefactorswhichcanincreaseinequalitiesbyconstrainingcapabilitiesforsomeindividualsorgroupsandenhancingandexpandingcapabilitiesforothers.Forexample,socialandculturalnormswhichfavourboy’seducationovergirl’scandriveinequalitiesineducationattainmentbetweenmenandwomen,andcontributetogenderinequalitiesinotherdomainssuchashealth,financialindependenceandlegalsecurity.Corruptionmaydriveinequalitiesinlegalsecurity,politicalinfluenceandfinancialsecurity.Inadequateinvestmentsinsecurityinpoorneighbourhoodscandriveinequalitiesinphysicalsecurityandpersonalsafety.Weakdesignandimplementationofinstitutionalandpolicyframeworkscanleadtodiscriminationanddriveinequalitiesinemployment,self-confidenceandself-esteem,physicalsecurity,educationandhealth.Weaklabourmarketinstitutionscandrivewageinequalityleadingtohighratesofpayformanagersandexecutivesandextremelowpayforlowskilledworkers.

Theidentificationofmaindrivercategoriesisprovidedasaguideandsupportedbyasetofguidingquestionsforanalysisandotherresourcesforeachcategory.ThefirststepshouldalwaysbetoapplytheMIF,measureandanalyseinequalitieswithinyourcountryorregion.Theidentificationofinequalitydriverscanbeapproachedthroughavarietyofmethodsusingthemaindrivercategoriesandguidingquestionsasameansto:1)conductevidencereview;2)conductorcommissionnewresearch;3)organisebrainstormingsessionsandroundtableswithexperts.Policymakersandpoliticalactorscanbeincludedinthisprocesstobuildconsensusandpromotebuy-in.Toaidthisprocess,guidingquestionsareaccompaniedbyaselectionofdriverindicatorswhichcanalsobeusedtoassistwiththeidentificationofdrivers.

Followingtheidentificationofdrivers,thenextstepisthecriticalstageoffindingpolicysolutions.Foreachofthemaindrivercategoriesaselectionofcandidatepolicieshavebeensuggested.ThisinformationisavailableintheonlineversionoftheMIF.

Introduction

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References

Alkire,S.,andFoster,J.E.(2011).‘Understandingsandmisunderstandingsofmultidimensionalpovertymeasurement’,JournalofEconomicInequality,9,289-314.

Alkire,S.,Bastagli,F.,Burchardt,T.,Clark,D.,Holder,H.,Ibrahim,S.,Munoz,M.,Terrazas,P.,Tsang,T.,andVizard,P.(2009)DevelopingtheEqualityMeasurementFramework:selectingtheindicators,EqualityandHumanRightsCommission,https://www.equalityhumanrights.com/en/equality-measurement-framework

Atkinson,A.B.(2015).Inequality:Whatcanbedone?Cambridge,Massachusetts:HarvardUniversityPress.

Brandolini,A.,andD'Alessio,G.(1998).‘Measuringwell-beinginthefunctioningspace’,Bancad'ItaliaRome.

Burchardt,T.andHick,R.(2017).‘InequalityandtheCapabilityApproach’,CASEpaper201,CentreforAnalysisofSocialExclusion,LondonSchoolofEconomics.

Burchardt,T.andVizard,P.(2011).‘‘Operationalizing’theCapabilityApproachasaBasisforEqualityandHumanRightsMonitoringinTwenty-first-centuryBritain’,JournalofHumanDevelopmentandCapabilities,12(1):91-119.

Candler,J.,Holder,H.,HosaliS.,Payne,A.M.,Tsang,T.,andVizard,P.(2011).TheHumanRightsMeasurementFramework:PrototypePanels,IndicatorSetandEvidenceBase,EHRCResearchreport81.

Chiappero-Martinetti,E.andSalardi,P.(2008).‘Well-beingprocessandconversionfactors:anestimation’HDCP-IRCWorkingPaperSeries03/2008HumanDevelopment,CapabilityandPovertyInternationalResearchCentre.

ClearyC.,TsangT.,andVizardP.(2014).‘TheChildren’sMeasurementFramework:anewindicator-basedtoolformonitoringchildren’sequalityandhumanrights’,ChildIndicatorsResearch,7(2):321–349.

Comim,F.,Qizilbash,M.,andAlkire,S.(2010).TheCapabilityApproach:Concepts,MeasuresandApplications,Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.

Cowell,F.A.,andFlachaire,E.(2017).‘InequalitywithOrdinalData’,Economica,84,290-321.

Dang,A.(2014).‘AmartyaSen'sCapabilityApproach:AFrameworkforWell-BeingEvaluationandPolicyAnalysis?’,ReviewofSocialEconomy,72(4):460-484,DOI:10.1080/00346764.2014.958903

EHRC[EqualityandHumanRightsCommission](2011).HowfairisBritain?Equality,humanrightsandgoodrelationsin2010:TheFirstTriennialReview.London:EqualityandHumanRightsCommission.

EHRC[EqualityandHumanRightsCommission](2015).IsBritainfairer?Thestateofequalityandhumanrights2015.London:TheStationeryOffice.

EHRC[EqualityandHumanRightsCommission](2017).MeasurementFrameworkforEqualityandHumanRights,https://www.equalityhumanrights.com/en/publication-download/measurement-framework-equality-and-human-rights

https://www.equalityhumanrights.com/en/publication-download/measurement-framework-equality-and-human-rightshttps://www.equalityhumanrights.com/en/equality-measurement-15https://www.equalityhumanrights.com/en/publication-download/measurement-framework-equality-and-human-rights

Introduction

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Ibrahim,S.(2006).‘FromIndividualtoCollectiveCapabilities:TheCapabilityApproachasaConceptualFrameworkforSelf-help’,JournalofHumanDevelopment,7(3):397-416,DOI:10.1080/14649880600815982.

IbrahimS.(2017).‘HowtoBuildCollectiveCapabilities:The3C-ModelforGrassroots-LedDevelopment’,JournalofHumanDevelopmentandCapabilities,18(2):197-222,DOI:10.1080/19452829.2016.1270918.

IMF[InternationalMonetaryFund](2017).IMFFiscalMonitor:TacklingInequality,InternationalMonetaryFund,http://www.imf.org/en/Publications/FM/Issues/2017/10/05/fiscal-monitor-october-2017

Kabeer,N.(2016).‘Leavingnoonebehind:thechallengeofintersectinginequalities’,inISSC,IDSandUNESCO,WorldSocialScienceReport2016,ChallengingInequalities:PathwaystoaJustWorld,UNESCOPublishing,Paris.

Niño-Zarazña,M.,Roope,L.,andTarp,F.(2016).‘Globalinequality:relativelylower,absolutelyhigher’,ReviewofIncomeandWealth,63(4):661-684.

Nolan,B.,Salverda,W.,Checchi,D.,Marx,I.,McKnight,A.,Tóth,I.G.,andvandeWerfhorst,H.G.(eds)(2014).ChangingInequalitiesandSocietalImpactsinRichCountries:ThirtyCountries’Experiences.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.

Nussbaum,M.C.(2003).‘Capabilitiesasfundamentalentitlements:Senandglobaljustice’,FeministEconomics,9(2-3):33-59.

OECD[OrganisationforEconomicCo-operationandDevelopment](2015).InItTogether:WhyLessInequalityBenefitsAll,Paris:OECDPublishing.

OECD[OrganisationforEconomicCo-operationandDevelopment](2008).Growingunequal?IncomedistributionandpovertyinOECDcountries.Paris:OECDPublishing.

Oxfam(2016).AnEconomyforthe1%:Howprivilegeandpowerintheeconomydriveextremeinequalityandhowthiscanbestopped.OxfamBriefingPaper210.Availableat:https://www.oxfam.org/sites/www.oxfam.org/files/file_attachments/bp210-economy-one-percent-tax-havens-180116-en_0.pdf

Oxfam(2014).Evenitup:Timetoendextremeinequality.Availableat:https://www.oxfam.org/sites/www.oxfam.org/files/file_attachments/cr-even-it-up-extreme-inequality-291014-en.pdf

Piketty,T.(2014).Capitalinthetwenty-firstcentury.Cambridge,MA:TheBelknapPressofHarvardUniversityPress.

Robeyns,I.(2017a).Wellbeing,FreedomandSocialJustice:TheCapabilityApproachRe-Examined.https://www.openbookpublishers.com/product/682/

Robeyns,I.(2017b).‘HavingTooMuch’,inJ.KnightandM.Schwartzberg(eds.)NOMOSLVI:Wealth.YearbookoftheAmericanSocietyforPoliticalandLegalPhilosophy,NewYorkUniversityPress.

http://www.imf.org/en/Publications/FM/Issues/2017/10/05/fiscal-monitor-october-16https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/FM/Issues/2017/10/05/fiscal-monitor-october-2017http://www.imf.org/en/Publications/FM/Issues/2017/10/05/fiscal-monitor-october-16https://www.oxfam.org/sites/www.oxfam.org/files/file_attachments/bp210-economy-one-percent-tax-havens-180116-en_0.pdfhttps://www.oxfam.org/sites/www.oxfam.org/files/file_attachments/cr-even-it-up-extreme-inequality-291014-en.pdfhttps://www.openbookpublishers.com/product/682/

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Salverda,W.,Nolan,B.,Checchi,D.,Marx,I.,McKnight,A.,Tóth,I.G.,andH.G.vandeWerfhorst(eds)(2014).ChangingInequalitiesandSocietalImpactsinRichCountries:AnalyticalandComparativePerspectives.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.

Sen,A.K.(1979).‘EqualityofWhat?’TheTannerLectureonHumanValues,deliveredatStanfordUniversity.

Sen,A.K.(1985).CommoditiesandCapabilities,North-Holland,Amsterdam.

Sen,A.K.(1987).‘TheStandardofLiving’inG.Hawthorn(ed),TheStandardofLiving,Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.

Sen,A.K.(1992).InequalityReexamined,Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.

Sen,A.K.(1993).‘CapabilityandWell-being’,inNussbaum,M.andSen,A.(ed)TheQualityofLife,Oxford:ClarendonPress.

Sen,A.K.(1999).DevelopmentAsFreedom,Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.

Sen,A.K.(2004).‘Capabilities,Lists,andPublicReason:ContinuingtheConversation’,FeministEconomics,10(3):77–80.

Sen,A.K.(2009).TheIdeaofJustice,London:AllenLane.

Stewart,F.(2016).‘Horizontalinequalities’,inISSC,IDSandUNESCO,WorldSocialScienceReport2016,ChallengingInequalities:PathwaystoaJustWorld,UNESCOPublishing,Paris.

Stiglitz,J.(2012).Thepriceofinequality:howtoday’sdividedsocietyendangersourfuture,NewYork:W.W.NortonandCo.

Sugden,R.(1993).‘Welfare,Resources,andCapabilities:AReviewofInequalityReexaminedbyAmartyaSen’,JournalofEconomicLiterature,31,194762.

Therborn,G.(2013).TheKillingFieldsofInequality,Cambridge:PolityPress.

UNDP[UnitedNationsDevelopmentProgramme](1990).HumanDevelopmentReport1990:ConceptandMeasurementofHumanDevelopment,UnitedNationsDevelopmentProgramme,http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/global/hdr1990

Vizard,P.(2012).'EvaluatingComplianceusingQuantitativeMethodsandIndicators:LessonsfromtheHumanRightsMeasurementFramework',NordicJournalofHumanRightsSpecialIssue-QuantifyingHumanRights,3(12):30.

Vizard,P.andSpeed,L.(2015).‘ExaminingmultidimensionalinequalityanddeprivationinBritainusingthecapabilityapproach’,SpecialissueonCapabilityApproachandMultidimensionalWell-beinginHigh-incomeCountries,ForumforSocialEconomics,45(2-3):139-169.

WorldBank(2016).PovertyandSharedProsperity2016:TakingonInequality,Washington:WorldBankPublications.https://doi.org/10.1596/978-1-4648-0958-3_ch1

http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/global/hdr1990https://doi.org/10.1596/978-1-4648-0958-3_ch1

Domain1:Lifeandhealth

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Domain1.Lifeandhealth:Inequalityinthecapabilitytobealiveandtoliveahealthylife

Thelifeandhealthdomaincoversthecapabilitytobealive,toenjoylongevityandavoidprematuredeath.Inequalitymeasurescapturedifferencesinmortalityriskwhichmaybeduetodifferencesinexposuretodangeroussituations,lifestylefactorsanddifferencesinmedicaltreatment.Italsocaptureskeyhealthinequalitiesacrossphysicalandmentalhealthoutcomes.

Inrelationtoinequalityinprematuredeath,thisdomaincoversinstancesofdeathfromviolationsandinfringementsofpeople’ssafetyandsecuritybyindividuals,organisationsandthestate.Itincludesdeathfromnon-naturalcausesininstitutions(policecustody,prisons,carehomes,etc.)andasaresultofwar,conflictandprotest.Italsoincludesmeasuresthatcaptureunequalexposuretodeathasaresultofnaturaldisasters,climatechangeandotherenvironmentalfactors.

Oneofthemaincausesofprematuredeathisdisease.Inequalitiesexistduetodifferencesinexposure,lifestylefactorsanddifferencesinmedicaltreatment.Measuresareincludedforcommunicableandnon-communicablediseasemortality,withdifferencesinmortalityratescomputedacrosspopulationsub-groups.

Sub-domains:

1.A:Avoidprematuremortalitythroughdisease,neglect,injuryorsuicide

1.B:Beprotectedfrombeingkilledormurdered

1.C:Beprotectedfromnaturaldisastersandnon-naturalcausesofmortality

1.D:Achievethehighestpossiblestandardofgeneralhealth

1.E:Enjoygoodmentalhealth

1.F:Havegoodsexualandreproductivehealth


19

Forcedmigrationputssomepeopleatmuchgreaterriskofmortalityduringperiodsofflightandtransit.Thefailureofthestateinprotectingasylumseekers,refugeesandothersfacingforcedmigration(dueto,forexample,flood,famine,conflictorotherdisasters)canputsomeindividualsatmuchgreaterriskofmortality.Theinternationalcommunityhasaroletoplayhereandmanyactorshavearesponsibilityforkeepingsuchindividualssafe.

Gang-relatedhomicides,deathsresultingfrom‘terrorist’activityandsuspecteddeathsreportedas‘disappearances’arealsoincludedinthisdomain.AllegationsdatacollectedbyNGOscanbeusedtosupplementorreplaceofficialstatisticsorestimatessurveydatawhereofficialsourcesareknowntobeunreliable.

Thereareanumberofmeasuresdesignedtopick-upkeygenderinequalities:maternalmortality,livebirths,suicide,homicideanddomestichomicide.Fromaninequalityperspectivethereareimportantfactorsaffectingdifferencesbetweenmenandwomen:“Genderbiasesinpower,resources,entitlements,normsandvalues,andthewayinwhichorganizationsarestructuredandprogrammesarerundamagethehealthofmillionsofgirlsandwomen.Thepositionofwomeninsocietyisalsoassociatedwithchildhealthandsurvival–ofboysandgirls.”(WHO,2008).

Thehealthoutcomesincludedinthisdomainmakereferencetokeycapabilitiesrelatedtolivingalongandhealthylife.Theseincludeoverallsummarymeasuresofhealthylifeexpectancy,objectiveandsubjectivemeasuresofhealthstatus.Thecapabilitytoliveahealthylifeisaffectedbybiological,physicalandmentalfactors,economicresourcesandsocialconditionsintheenvironment,andtheirinteraction(Venkatapuram,2011).Unequaldistributionsofthesefactorsplayanimportantroleinshapinghealthinequalities(Marmot,2016).Peopleneedtobenefitequallyfromaccesstoqualityhealthservices,medicaladvancesinthetreatmentofdisease,shouldtheneedarise,andbeprotectedfromcommunicablediseases.Womenneedtoreceivetherighttreatmentandprotectionduringpregnancy,childbirthandinthepost-natalperiod.Thetreatmentandprotectionofchildren,particularlyduringthefirstfiveyearsoflife,isacriticalelement.

Medicaladvanceshavemadeconsiderableprogressinimprovinghealthoutcomesthroughthepreventionandtreatmentofdiseasesandthroughadvancesintraumaandneonatalcare.Thishascontributedtoincreasesinaveragelifeexpectancyinmanycountriesbuttheseadditionalyearsoflifearenotalwayshealthyandinequalitiesinhealthoutcomesremainhigh(McKnightandCowell,2014).Inaddition,thecostofmedicaladvancesandnewtreatmentsandtechnologiesputtheseoutofthereachofmany;contributingfurthertohealthinequalities.Also,someaspectsofhealth(forexample,mentalhealth)havenotreceivedthesamelevelofattentionorinvestmentandnewtypesofepidemic,suchasobesity,areontherise.

TheWorldHealthOrganisation(WHO)viewshealthinequitiesasavoidableinequalitiesinhealthbetweengroupsofpeoplewithinandbetweencountries.“Theseinequitiesarisefrominequalitieswithinandbetweensocieties.Socialandeconomicconditionsandtheireffectsonpeople’slivesdeterminetheirriskofillnessandtheactionstakentopreventthembecomingillortreatillnesswhenitoccurs.”(WHO,2008).


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Referencesandselectedreadings

Bartley,M.(2016).HealthInequality:AnIntroductiontoConcepts,TheoriesandMethods,PolityPress.

Marmot,M.(2016).TheHealthGap:TheChallengeofanUnequalWorld,Bloomsbury.

McKnight,A.andCowell,F.(2014)‘SocialImpacts:Health,HousingandIntergenerationalMobility’inSalverda,W.,Nolan,B.,Checchi,D.,Marx,I.,McKnight,A.,Tóth,I.G.,andH.G.vandeWerfhorst(eds)(2014)ChangingInequalitiesandSocietalImpactsinRichCountries:AnalyticalandComparativePerspectives,Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.

Spinakis,A.,Anastasiou,G.,Panousis,V.,Spiliopoulos,K.,Palaiologou,S.,andYfantopoulos,J.(2011).ExpertReviewandProposalsforMeasurementofHealthInequalitiesintheEuropeanUnion–FullReport.Luxembourg:EuropeanCommissionDirectorateGeneralforHealthandConsumers.

Venkatapuram,S.(2011).HealthJustice:AnArgumentfromtheCapabilitiesApproach,PolityPress.

WHO(2013).HandbookonHealthInequalityMonitoringwithaspecialfocusonlow-andmiddle-incomecountries.Luxembourg.

Measurementconsiderations

Manyoftheinequalitymeasuresinthisdomaincompareincidenceratesbetweenpopulationsub-groups.Forexample,livebirthsbygender,homicideratesbyagegroup,prevalenceofkeydiseases(suchasmalaria)bysexandage,ratesofobesitybysocio-economicgroup.Somemeasureordinalinequalitysuchasinequalityinself-reportedcurrenthealthstatus,andsomemeasureinequalityincontinuousvariablessuchasinequalityinmentalhealthscoreandinequalityinlifeexpectancy.

Thereisgenerallygoodqualitydataavailablefortheinequalitymeasuresincludedinthisdomain.ThisishelpedthroughanoverlapwithindicatorsthatformpartofUNSDGmonitoring.ThemappingbetweentheUNSDGindicatorsandMIFinequalitymeasurescanbefoundintheonlineversionoftheMIF.Inaddition,theworkoftheWHOhasalsohelpedtofacilitateaccesstogoodqualitydataonhealthandlifeinequalities.


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Domain1:Sub-domains,indicatorsandmeasures

Sub-domain1.A:Avoidprematuremortalitythroughdisease,neglect,injuryorsuicide

Indicator1.1:Inequalityinlifeexpectancy

Measure1.1.1:Livebirthsbygender

Measure1.1.2:Perinatal,infantandunder5mortalityrates

Measure1.1.3:Inequalityinage-mortalityrates

Measure1.1.4:Periodlifeexpectancyatbirth,andages20,65and80

Indicator1.2:Specific-causemortalityrates

Measure1.2.1:Mortalityratesduetothetop5communicablediseases(countryspecific–e.g.influenza,HIV,malaria,tuberculosis,hepatitis)

Measure1.2.2:Mortalityratesduetothetop5non-communicablediseases(countryspecific–e.g.cardiovasculardisease,cancer,diabetes,chronicrespiratorydisease,hypertension,diseaserelatedtodietandnutrition)

Measure1.2.3:Maternalmortalityratio-thenumberofmaternaldeathsduringayearper100,000livebirths

Measure1.2.4:Mortalityrateattributedtounsafewater,unsafesanitationandlackofhygiene

Measure1.2.5:Age-standardizeddeathrateattributabletoairpollution(per100,000)

Measure1.2.6:Deathratedueto:(a)roadtrafficaccidentinjuries;(b)otherunintentionalinjuries

Measure1.2.7:Suicidemortalityrate

Sub-domain1.B:Beprotectedfrombeingkilledormurdered

Indicator1.3:Homicide

Measure1.3.1:Homiciderate

Measure1.3.2:Domestichomiciderate(withseparatereportingofrelationshipofvictimtoprincipalsuspect,includingpartnerhomicide)

Measure1.3.3:Raciallymotivated,religiouslymotivatedandhomophobichomiciderate


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Sub-domain1.C:Beprotectedfromnaturaldisastersandnon-naturalcausesofmortality

Indicator1.4:Deathfromnaturaldisasters

Measure1.5.1:Deathsfromnaturaldisasters–earthquakes;volcaniceruptions;flood;fire;famine;draught;hurricane(typhoon/cyclone)

Indicator1.5:Deathratesfromnon-naturalcausesofmortality

Measure1.5.1:Deathsfromnon-naturalcausesduringorfollowingpolicecustody

Measure1.5.2:Deathsinprisons:(a)fromnon-naturalcauses;(b)self-inflicted

Measure1.5.3:Deathsfromnon-naturalcausesforpeopleresidentinhealthorsocialcareestablishments

Measure1.5.4:Deathsfromtortureandpoliticaloppression(Guidance–oktouseallegationsdatacollectedbyNGOs)

Measure1.5.5:Civiliandeathsasaresultofwar,conflict,unrestandprotest(Guidance-includesdisappearances–oktouseallegationsdatacollectedbyNGOs)

Sub-domain1.D:Achievethehighestpossiblestandardofgeneralhealth

Indicator1.6:Subjectiveevaluationofcurrenthealthstatusandtreatment

Measure1.6.1:Percentagewhoreportpoorcurrenthealthstatus

Measure1.6.2:Inequalityinself-reportedcurrenthealthstatus

Measure1.6.3:Percentagewhoaretreatedwithdignityandrespectinhealthtreatment

Indicator1.7:Prevalenceofkeydiseasesassociatedwithdeprivationandlowincome

Measure1.7.1:Prevalenceofnewinfectionsamonguninfectedpopulation,bysex,ageandkeypopulations:

(a)NumberofnewHIVinfectionsper1,000uninfectedpopulation;(b)Tuberculosisincidenceper100,000population;(c)Malariaincidenceper1,000population;(d)HepatitisBincidenceper100,000population

Measure1.7.2:Percentagerequiringinterventionsagainstneglectedtropicaldiseases

Indicator1.8:Healthylife

Measure1.8.1:Inequalityinhealthylifeexpectancy

Measure1.8.2:Prevalenceof:(a)Stuntinginyoungchildren;(b)undernourishment

Measure1.8.3:Ratesofobesity/PrevalenceofTypeIIdiabetes

Measure1.8.4:Percentagediagnosedwitheatingdisorders


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Measure1.8.5:Ratesof:(a)alcoholism;(b)drugaddiction;(c)tobaccouse

Measure1.8.6:Prevalenceofasthma

Measure1.8.7:Percentagewhoreportparticipationinsport/physicalactivityonregularbasis

Indicator1.9:Limitingillnessanddisability

Measure1.9.1:Percentagewhoreportalong-standinghealthproblemordisabilitythatsubstantiallylimitstheirabilitytocarryoutnormalday-to-dayactivities

Sub-domain1.E:Enjoygoodmentalhealth

Indicator1.10:Mentalhealth

Measure1.10.1:Percentagewhoreportpoormentalhealthandwell-being

Measure1.10.2:Inequalityinmentalhealthscore

Sub-domain1.F:Havegoodsexualandreproductivehealth

Indicator1.11:Sexualandreproductivehealth

Measure1.11.1:Ratesofsexuallytransmittedinfections

Measure1.11.2:Percentageofwomenwithunmetneedforfamilyplanning

Measure1.11.3:Percentageofwomenwhohavegivenbirthinthelastfiveyearshavingdeliveryattendedbyaqualifiedhealthprofessional

Measure1.11.4:Percentageofwomenwhohavegivenbirthinthelastfiveyearswhoweregiventhechoiceofwheretogivebirthandbirthingmethod

Measure1.11.5:Percentageofwomeninthelastfiveyearswhohaveundergoneanunofficial,unregulatedabortion(agestandardisedrateper1,000womenaged15-44)

Domain2:Physicalandlegalsecurity

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Domain2.Physicalandlegalsecurity:Inequalityinthecapabilitytoliveinphysicalsafetyandlegalsecurity

Thisdomaincoversthekeyelementsofphysicalsecuritythroughindicatorsandmeasuresthathighlightabsenceofphysicalsecurityaswellassubjectivemeasuresreportingindividuals’senseofphysicalsecurityandsafety.Toavoidinequalitiesinlegalsecurity,peopleneedtobeprotectedandtreatedequallyandfairlybythelaw.Thisdomaincoversinequalitiesintreatmentbeforethelawandwithincriminaloradministrativesystems.

Thedomaincoversbothobjectiveandsubjectivemeasuresofphysicalsecurity.Objectivemeasuresincludereportsoftheexperienceofphysicalviolencewhereincidentsaremeasuredinhouseholdsurveysaswellaspolicerecordedcrimesfromofficialstatistics.Specialattentionisgiventoviolenceagainstwomen(physical,sexualandpsychological).Inrecenttimesconsiderableprogresshasbeenmadeincollectingdataonthesetypesofviolence(WHO,2005).Subjectivemeasuresincludewhetherpeoplefeelphysicallysecureathome,intheirneighbourhoodandtheextenttowhichpeopleworryaboutphysicalattacks.Thesemeasuresareimportantforcapturingpeople’sactualexperiencesofviolenceandinsecurityandcanhelptoovercomesomeofthe

Sub-domains:

2.A:Befreefromviolenceincludingsexualandgender-basedviolence,domesticviolenceandviolencebasedonwhoyouare

2.B:Befreefromidentitybasedviolenceandhatecrimes

2.C:Befreefromcruel,inhumanordegradingtreatmentorpunishment

2.D:Livewithoutfearofhumiliation,harassment,orabusebasedonwhoyouare;feelabletogooutandtousepublicspacessafelyandsecurelywithoutfear

2.E:Knowyouwillbetreatedwithequality,fairnessandnon-discriminationbeforethelaw,withinthecriminaloradministrativesystems;includingtheabsenceofcorruption

2.F:Havefairandhumaneconditionsofdetention

2.G:Havethehumanrighttoidentity,name,genderandnationality


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problemsrelatingtounder-reportingofcrimestothepolice;particularlysomeformsofphysicalviolencesuchasdomesticviolence,sexualassault,rapeandviolenceperpetratedagainstchildren.

Thephysicalmistreatmentofthoselivingininstitutions(carehomes,hospitals,etc.),includingthoseindetention(prison,securehospitals,policecustody)areidentifiedseparately,highlightingthespecialcircumstancesandvulnerabilityofpeopleinthesesituations.Thebehaviourofothersplaysanimportantroleinthecapabilityapproachasitcanbothconstrainaswellasenhanceindividuals’capabilities.

Otherformsofphysicalandpsychologicalviolationinfluencingpeople’scapabilitytobeandfeelphysicallysecureinclude:theincidenceoftortureandotherformsofinhumanordegradingtreatmentorpunishment,femalegenitalmutilation,harassment,kidnap,‘disappearance’,humantraffickingandarbitrarydetention.EvidenceintheformofreportedincidenceofthesetypesofcrimescollectedbyNGOsmaybeusedandcangiveamoreaccuratepicturethanofficialstatisticsinsomecountries.

Thelegalsystem,whichincludesthelawitselfaswellasbroaderlegalinstitutionsandpublicadministration,shouldtreatallmembersofthepopulationequallyandwithoutdiscrimination.Legalsecurityinmanysettingsisnotonlyinfluencedbyformallegalmechanismssuchasthestatejudiciary,anddifferentbranchesoftheformallegalsystem(constitutionallaw,domesticlaw,internationallaw,customarylaw,civillaw,etc.)butalsobybroaderlegalarrangementsandinstitutions(thequasi-legalsystem,forexample,complaintsmechanisms,tribunalsandombudsmen)andinformallegalsystems(forexample,theformalandinformalenforcementofreligiouscodessuchasSharialawandotherinformallegalcodes,customsandpractices).Asaresult,thisdomainisbroadlyconceptualisedinordertoincorporatethesedifferentfactors.

Thisdomaincapturesnotjusttheextenttowhichsomeindividualsaredisadvantagedbythelegalsystembutalsohowsomeadvantagedpeoplecanreceivepreferentialtreatment.Thismaybethroughthenature,scopeandrangeofbehavioursthatarecriminalised;disproportionatepowerandinfluenceinthesettingoflawsandhowlawsareenforced;howthosefoundguiltyofcommittingacrimearepunished(beingletoffwithoutchargeorthroughmorelenientsentences).Economicresourcesoftenplayakeyroleindeterminingaccesstojusticeandinequalitiesinlegaljustice.Thereissomeevidencethatincreasinginequalityhasbeenlinkedtoincreasesinsometypesofcrime(HaganandPeterson,1995;Rufrancos,etal.,2013),canunderminetheruleoflaw(Stiglitz,2012)andleadtoincreasesforpunitivepunishmentinsomecountries(Côté-Lussier,2016).Insomecountriesandcontextsthejudicialandlegalsystemcanbeweak,underdevelopedandbiased.Inothercountries,thedomesticlegalsystemisatoddswithinternationallyrecognisedhumanrights.Highqualitylegalrepresentationiscostlyandoftenfaroutofthereachofthemajority,andinsomecountriesreformingthelegalsystem,particularlyinrelationtolegalaid,isresultinginlessratherthanmoreaccesstojustice.Anumberofinequalitymeasuresareincludedtocapturetheseformsofinequality.

Thelegaltreatmentofchildrenintermsofparentalrights,rightsofchildrenandthetreatmentofminorsbeforethelawareallimportantaspectsoflegalsecurity.TheprinciplesdevelopedinthecontextoftheUNConventionontheRightsoftheChildprovideimportanceguidanceforbalancingtherightsofparentsontheonehand,andtherightsofthechild,togetherwiththeneedforlegalspecialprotectionofthechild,ontheother.


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Thedevelopmentofinequalityindicatorsandtheirinterpretationofmeasuresofinequalityinthisdomaincanbecomplicatedbythefactthatsomeofthemeasuresrelatetoillegal,covertandconcealedactivities,forexample,torturebythestateandhumantrafficking.Thisincreasestheneedtotriangulatethroughtheuseofmultiplesources(forexample,inthecontextoftorture,usingNGOandhumanrightsallegationsdata).

Intermsofinequalityinphysicalsecurityandpersonalsafety,mostoftheindicatorsprovidemeasuresonwhetherornotindividualshaveexperiencedaformofphysicalviolence,maltreatmentorintimidation(includingbullyingandidentity-basedviolence).Inequalitymeasuresadoptedtypicallyquantifydifferencesintheincidenceofphysicalviolenceandmaltreatmentbetweenpopulationsub-groupscoveringthemainareasofviolentcrime,sexualanddomesticviolence,hatecrimes,cruelty,physicalpunishmentanddegradingtreatment.Ifpossible,andwhereappropriate,measuresofinequalityshouldincludebreakdownsforkeypopulationgroups.Ifinformationonthenumberofincidentsisavailablethiscanbeusedtocomputeaninequalitymeasuretocapturerepeatvictimisation,whichisoftenanimportantfeatureof,forexample,domesticandsexualviolence.

Whereinformationisavailableasanordinalscale(forexample,forperceptionsofsafetyavailablefromsurveyswhereindividualsindicatewhethertheyfeel:verysafe/quitesafe/notsafe/veryunsafe),anordinalinequalitymeasurecanbecomputed.

Insomecountriesitwillbeimportanttoincorporatequasi-legalsystems:villagecouncilsetc.;roleofeldersandreligious‘courts’andlaws.


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Côté-Lussier,C.(2016).“HowRisingSocialInequalityMayBeFuelingPublicDemandsforIncreasinglyHarshCriminalJusticePolicies.”LSEUSAPPBlog.

Diprose,R.(2007).‘Safetyandsecurity:Aproposalforinternationallycomparableindicatorsofviolence’.OPHIWorkingPaper1,UniversityofOxford.

Hagan,J.,andPeterson,R.D.(eds.)(1995).CrimeandInequality.Stanford,California:StanfordUniversityPress.

Lacey,N.,andSoskiceD.(2015).‘Crime,punishmentandsegregationintheUnitedStates:Theparadoxoflocaldemocracy’.PunishmentandSociety.17(4):454–481

Rufrancos,H.G.,Power,M.,Pickett,K,E.andWilkinson,R.(2013).‘IncomeInequalityandCrime:AReviewandExplanationoftheTime–seriesEvidence’,SociologyandCriminology-OpenAccess.

Stiglitz,J.(2012).‘JusticeforAll?HowInequalityisErodingtheRuleofLaw’,inThePriceofInequality,AllenLane.

Vizard,P.(2012).'EvaluatingComplianceusingQuantitativeMethodsandIndicators:LessonsfromtheHumanRightsMeasurementFramework',NordicJournalofHumanRightsSpecialIssue-QuantifyingHumanRights,3(12):30,239–278.

Vizard,P.,andSpeed,L.(2015)‘ExaminingmultidimensionalinequalityanddeprivationinBritainusingthecapabilityapproach’,SpecialissueonCapabilityApproachandMultidimensionalWell-beinginHigh-incomeCountries’,ForumforSocialEconomics,45(2-3):139-169,DOI:10.1080/07360932.2014.997267

WHO[WorldHealthOrganisation](2005).WHOmulti-countrystudyonwomen'shealthanddomesticviolenceagainstwomen,http://www.who.int/reproductivehealth/publications/violence/9241593512/en/

http://www.who.int/reproductivehealth/publications/violence/9241593512/en/http://blogs.lse.ac.uk/usappblog/2016/01/28/how-rising-social-inequality-may-be-fueling-public-demands-for-increasingly-harsh-criminal-justice-policies/http://www.ophi.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/OPHI_wp01.pdf


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Sub-domain2.A:Befreefromviolenceincludingsexualandgender-basedviolence,domesticviolenceandviolencebasedonwhoyouare

Indicator2.1:Violentcrime

Measure2.1.1:Percentageofpopulationsubjectedtophysical,psychologicalorsexualviolenceintheprevious12months,withseparatereportingofphysicalassault,rapeandassaultbypenetration(includingattempts)andothersexualviolence,andbygenderandage

Measure2.1.2:Percentageofever-partneredwomenandgirlsaged15yearsandoldersubjectedtophysical,sexualorpsychologicalviolencebyacurrentorformerintimatepartnerintheprevious12months,byformofviolence,andbyage

Measure2.1.3:Percentageofwomenandgirlsaged15yearsandoldersubjectedtosexualviolencebypersonsotherthananintimatepartnerintheprevious12months,byageandplaceofoccurrence

Measure2.1.4:Percentageofchildrenaged0-17yearswhoexperiencedanyphysicalpunishmentand/orpsychologicalaggressionbycaregiversinthepastmonth

Measure2.1.5:Percentageofchildrenaged0-15yearswhoexperiencedanysexualviolenceintheprevious12months

Sub-domain2.B:Befreefromidentifybasedviolenceandhatecrimes

Indicator2.2:Hatecrime

Measure2.2.1:Percentagethatarevictimsofhatecrimeby:(a)race;(b)religion;(c)genderidentity;(d)overall

Sub-domain2.C:Befreefromcruel,inhumanordegradingtreatmentorpunishment

Indicator2.3:Bodilyandpsychologicalintegrity,andphysicalsecurity

Measure2.3.1:Percentageofgirlsandwomenaged15-49yearswhohaveundergonefemalegenitalmutilation/cutting,byage

Measure2.3.2:Percentageofpopulationvictimofphysical,psychologicalorsexualharassment,bysex,age,disabilitystatusandplaceofoccurrence,intheprevious12months

Measure2.3.3:Numberofvictimsofhumantraffickingper100,000population,bysex,ageandformofexploitation(Guidance-cansupplementthroughuseofdatacollectedbyNGOsandhumanrightsbodies)


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Measure2.3.4:Numberofverifiedcasesofkidnapping,enforceddisappearance,arbitrarydetentionandtortureofjournalists,associatedmediapersonnel,tradeunionistsandhumanrightsadvocatesintheprevious12months(Guidance-cansupplementthroughuseofallegationsdatacollectedbyNGOsandhumanrightsbodies)

Indicator2.4:Physicalsecurityforpeopleresidentordetainedinpublicandprivateinstitutions

Measure2.4.1:Ratesofphysicalassaultsin:policedetention;prison;refugeecamps;immigrationdetentioncentres;childreninresidentialcare;youngoffenderinstitutions;mentalhealthinstitutions

Measure2.4.2:Ratesofelderabuseandotherabuseofthenon-privatehouseholdpopulation

Sub-domain2.D:Livewithoutfearofhumiliation,harassment,orabusebasedonwhoyouare;feelabletogooutandtousepublicspacessafelyandsecurelywithoutfear

Indicator2.5:Fearforpersonalsafety

Measure2.5.1:Percentagethatfeelveryunsafeorunsafebeingaloneathomeand/orinlocalarea(duringthedayandafterdark)

Measure2.5.2:Percentagethatfeelveryworried/worriedaboutphysicalattack,sexualassault,intimidationandacquisitivecrime

Measure2.5.3:Percentageconcernedabouttheirpersonalsafetyusingpublictransport(duringthedayandafterdark)

Measure2.5.4:Percentagepayingforsecurity:(a)forpersonalprotection;(b)securityguardsprotectingprivateproperty;(c)toliveingatedcommunities

Sub-domain2.E:Knowyouwillbetreatedwithequality,fairnessandnon-discriminationbeforethelaw,withinthecriminaloradministrativesystems;includingtheabsenceofcorruption

Indicator2.6:Equaltreatmentbythepoliceandthelegalsystem

Measure2.6.1:Percentageofpopulationaged16+byage,sexandkeypopulations,whothepolicehave:(a)stoppedonfootorinvehicles;(b)stoppedandsearched;(c)conductedunannouncedproperty/dwellingsearch

Measure2.6.2:Percentagewhoareconfidentthatthecriminaljusticesystem(police,courts,prisonandprobationservice):(a)meetstheneedsofvictims;(b)respectstherightsofthoseaccusedofanoffenceandtreatsthemfairly

Measure2.6.3:Shareofthepopulationwhobelievethatthepublicadministrationmakefairandimpartialdecisions


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Indicator2.7:Offencesreportedandbroughttojustice:Rape,domesticviolenceandhatecrime

Measure2.7.1:Numberofcasesofrapeestimatedfrompopulationsurveysources,comparedwiththenumberofcasesreportedtoandrecordedbythepolice,andthenumberoflegalcasessuccessfullyprosecuted

Measure2.7.2:Numberofcasesofdomesticviolenceestimatedfrompopulationsurveysources,comparedwiththenumberofcasesreportedtoandrecordedbythepolice,andthenumberoflegalcasessuccessfullyprosecuted

Measure2.7.3:Numberofcasesofhatecrimeestimatedfrompopulationsurveysources,comparedwiththenumberofcasesreportedtoandrecordedbythepolice,andthenumberoflegalcasessuccessfullyprosecutedby:(a)race;(b)religion;(c)genderidentity;(d)overall

Indicator2.8:Fairandequaltreatmentwithinthelegalsystem

Measure2.8.1:Percentageofthepopulationwhobelievethatpoorpeoplearetreatedworsebythepolice

Measure2.8.2:Percentageofthepopulationwhobelievethatthepolicemakefairandimpartialdecisions

Measure2.8.3:Perceptionofhowfairthecourtsaretomajorityversusminorityrace/ethnicgroup

Measure2.8.4:Trustinthecriminaljusticesystem:(a)trustincourts’proceduralfairnessandtrustintheircompetence;(b)trustinthepolice

Measure2.8.5:Perceptionsofjudicialandpolicecorruptions:(a)howoftenthepolicetakebribes;(b)howoftenjudgestakebribes

Measure2.8.6:Sentencingdisparities:evidencebygender,race/ethnicgroup,economicorsocialstatus


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Sub-domain2.F:Havefairandhumaneconditionsofdetention

Indicator2.9:Detention:Numbers,physicalconditionsandrightsofdetainees

Measure2.9.1:Detentionnumbersandconditionsinprisons(includesprisonpopulationnumbers,lifesentences,numbersfacingadeathpenaltyandprisonconditionssuchasovercrowding,sanitationandvisitingrights)

Measure2.9.2:Detentionandconditionsinotherestablishments:(a)Youngoffenderinstitutions;(b)Securehospitals;(c)Immigrationcentres;(d)Militaryprisons;(e)Housearrest

Measure2.9.3:Percentageofthepopulationheldwithoutcharge

Sub-domain2.G:Havethehumanrighttoidentity,name,genderandnationality

Indicator2.10:Enjoyrighttoidentity,name,genderandnationality

Measure2.10.1:Percentageofchildrenunder5yearsofagewhosebirthshavebeenregisteredwithacivilauthority,byage

Domain3:Educationandlearning

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Domain3.Educationandlearning:Inequalityinthecapabilitytobeknowledgeable,tounderstandandreason,andtohavetheskillstoparticipateinsociety

Thecapabilitytobeknowledgeable,tounderstandandreason,andtohavetheskillstoparticipateinsocietyisacriticallifedomain.Thecapabilitytofunctionasaknowledgeablelearnerisbothimportantinitsownrightbutalsocontributestotheexpansionandequalityofcapabilitiesinotherspheresoflife.

Thecapabilityapproachmotivatesustolookbeyondsimplehumancapitalstylemeasuresofeducationoutcomesasitrecognisesthatknowledgebestowsarangeofnon-pecuniarybenefits.Forexample,ayearofschoolingisaproblematicunitformeasuringeducation,asitdoesnotreflectthequalityorcontentofwhatwaslearntinthatyear(FerreiraandGignoux,2013).Thisdomainalsocapturesoutcomeswhichreflecttheextenttowhichindividualsarefulfilledandstimulatedintellectually,includingbeingcreative.Expandingeducationalcapabilitycanenhancethequalityoflifeforindividualsbyenablingthemtoparticipateinactivitiessuchasreadingabookorenjoyinganartexhibition,whichbrings‘intrinsicpleasure’(OECD,2011).

Thisdomaincoversinequalitiesineducationcapabilitiesoverthelife-course,fromearlydevelopmentthroughtoadulthood,throughproxymeasuresofparticipation,accessand

Sub-domains:

3.A:Attainthehighestpossiblestandardofknowledge,understandingandreasoningthroughaccesstoeducation,trainingandlifelonglearningthatmeetsindividualneeds

3.B:Evidenceoffinancialconstraintslimitingattainmentandunequalaccesstoeliteeducationopportunities

3.C:Accessinformationandtechnologynecessarytoparticipateinsociety

3.D:Developcriticalthinking,activeandglobalcitizenship,knowledgeandunderstandingofhumanrights

3.E:Betreatedwithdignityandrespectineducationandlearningestablishments


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attainment(achievedfunctionings)andknowledge.Thedomainincludesmeasuresofbasicskillsandlowlevelsofeducationalattainment(includinglackofeducationalqualifications)butalsomeasuresofhighattainment,unequalaccesstoeliteeducationopportunities,andinformationandcommunicationtechnologyskills.

Thedomaincoversthepreparednessofyoungchildrensettoentertheformaleducationsystemtomeasuredifferencesbetweenchildrenintermsoftheirpositiontobenefitfullyandequallyfromformalschooling.Researchhasaffirmedthesignificanceofearlychildhooddevelopmentforfuturehealth,behaviourandlearning(ShonkoffandRicther,2013).Theearlyyearsarecriticalasthebraindevelopsmostrapidlyinthefirstfewyearsofachild’slife.Nurturingcare,aswellasadequatenutritionandasafeenvironment,areallnecessaryelementsthatallowforhealthycognitivedevelopment,andcontributetotheschoolreadinessofyoungchildren.

Theunequaltreatmentofpupilswithinschools,includingbullyingfromotherchildrenandilltreatmentbyteacherscanbeimportantdeterminantsofeducationoutcomesandsuchexperiencescanhavealongtermnegativeimpactonattitudestolearningandoutcomesinadulthood(WolkeandLereya,2015).Thedomainalsolooksbeyondschoolingtoincludelifelonglearningandknowledgerequiredtoparticipateinsociety;includingtechnologicalskills;skillsrelatedtoaccessinginformationheldontheinternetandtheskillstodistinguishbetweeninformationofdifferingquality.

Thecapabilityapproachrecogniseshumandiversitybothintermsofresources(thismaybeinnateability)andintermsofdiversityintastesandpreferences,andindividualchoice(Sen,1992).Wearealsointerestedinunderstandingeducationandlearninginequalitieswhicharedrivenbydifferencesintheabilityofindividualstoconvertresourcesintooutcomesratherthansimplylookingatinequalitiesinoutcomes.

Autonomytochoose(agency)ismorecomplexinthisthaninmanyotherdomainsasparentstypicallymakechoicesonbehalfoftheirchildren.AsWalker(2006)notes,educationplaysacriticalroleinthedevelopmentofadultcapabilitiesacrossanumberofspheres.Thisthereforeprovidessomeconflictbetweenvaluingchildren’sfreedomtochoosewhetherornottoattendschoolandthefreedomstheywillhaveintheiradultlives;achildmay,giventhechoice,decidenottoattendschoolwithoutfullycomprehendingthatthiswillreducetheiropportunitiesinadultlifeandleadtorestrictedfutureindividualfreedomsandagency.Furthermore,improvingeducationwithinsocietyalsofacilitatesgreaterdemocracyandenablesdisadvantagedgroupsto'increasetheirabilitytoresistinequalitiesandgetafairerdealinandthrougheducation'(VaughanandWalker,2012).


Inequalitiesinthisdomainincludedifferencesinattainmentbetweengroups-age,gender,ethnicity,religion,indigenouspeople,childreninvulnerablesituations–aswellasfamilybackground.Inequalityisalsoassessedthroughmeasuresofoverallinequalityineducationalattainment,ordinalinequalitymeasuresbasedonhighestlevelofeducationalattainmentandevidenceofelitism.


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Antoninis,M.,Delprato,M.andBenavot,A.(2016).‘Inequalityineducation:Thechallengeofmeasurement’,inISSC,IDSandUNESCO,WorldSocialScienceReport2016,ChallengingInequalities:PathwaystoaJustWorld,UNESCOPublishing,Paris.

Ferreira,F.H.G.,andGignoux,J.(2013).‘TheMeasurementofEducationalInequality:AchievementandOpportunity’,TheWorldBankEconomicReview,28(2):210-246.DOI:10.1093/wber/lht004

OECD(2011).EducationataGlance2011,Paris:OECD.https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/education/education-at-a-glance-2011_eag-2011-en

Shonkoff,J.P.,andRicther,L.(2013).‘Thepowerfulreachofearlychildhooddevelopment:ascience-basedfoundationforsoundinvestment’,inBritto,P.R.,Engle,P.L.,Super,C.S.(eds.)HandbookofEarlyChildhoodDevelopmentResearchanditsImpactonGlobalPolicy.NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,1-23

Vaughan,R.,andWalker,M.(2012).‘Capabilities,valuesandeducationpolicy’,JournalofHumanDevelopmentandCapabilities,13(3):495-512

Walker,M.(2006).‘Towardsacapability-basedtheoryofsocialjusticeforeducationpolicy-making’,JournalofEducationPolicy,21(2):163-185.

Wolff,J.,andDe-Shalit,A.(2007).Disadvantage,NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress.

Wolke,D.,andLereya,S.T.(2015).‘Long-termeffectsofbullying’,ArchivesofDiseaseinChildhood,100(9):879–885.http://doi.org/10.1136/archdischild-2014-306667

https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/education/education-at-a-glance-2011_eag-2011-enhttps://adc.bmj.com/content/100/9/879


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Sub-domain3.A:Attainthehighestpossiblestandardofknowledge,understandingandreasoningthroughaccesstoeducation,trainingandlifelonglearningthatmeetsindividualneeds

Indicator3.1:Basicskills

Measure3.1.1:Percentageofpeopleofworkingageachievingfunctionalliteracyandnumeracyskills

Measure3.1.2:Inequalityinmathsandreadingskills(measuredbyage15)

Measure3.1.3:Percentageofchildrenunder5yearsofagewhoaredevelopmentallyontrackinlearning

Indicator3.2:Educationalattainmentandschooling

Measure3.2.1:Percentageofeachagegroupcompleting:(a)primaryeducation;(b)secondaryeducation;(c)furthereducationoryouthtraining;(d)highereducation

Measure3.2.2:Inequalityineducationalattainment(ISCED20110-8levels)forpopulationaged25+years(yearsofschoolingifattainmentismissing)

Measure3.2.3:Educationalattainmentbyfamilybackground

Measure3.2.4:Percentageof16-18yearoldsnotineducation,employmentortraining

Indicator3.3:Participationinlifelonglearning

Measure3.3.1:Percentageofpopulationaged25+yearswhohaveparticipatedinformalorinformallearninginlast12months

Sub-domain3.B:Evidenceoffinancialconstraintslimitingattainmentandunequalaccesstoeliteeducationopportunities

Indicator3.4:Evidenceofeducationelitism

Measure3.4.1:Percentageofyoungpeopleunabletopursuefurtherorhighereducationduetofinancialconstraints

Measure3.4.2:Percentageofsecondaryschoolpopulationattendingprivatefee-payingschools

Measure3.4.3:Evidenceofunequalaccesstoprestigiouseducationinstitutionsduetodiscriminatoryadmissionsproceduresbygender,race/ethnicity,socio-economicstatus


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Sub-domain3.C:Accessinformationandtechnologynecessarytoparticipateinsociety

Indicator3.5:Useoftheinternetandtechnology

Measure3.5.1:Percentageofpopulationwhohaveusedtheinternetforanypurposewithinthelast3months,byage

Measure3.5.2:Percentageofyouthandadultswithinformationandcommunicationstechnology(ICT)skills,bytypeofskill

Sub-domain3.D:Developcriticalthinking,activeandglobalcitizenship,knowledgeandunderstandingofhumanrights

Indicator3.6:Criticalthinkingandawarenessofrights

Measure3.6.1:Percentagewhohaveknowledgeandunderstandingofhumanrightsandconsumerrights,etc.,through:(a)inclusiononschoolcurriculum;(b)campaigns,literatureandpublicevents

Sub-domain3.E:Betreatedwithdignityandrespectineducationandlearningestablishments

Indicator3.7:Treatmentineducationandlearningestablishments

Measure3.7.1:Percentageofthoseattendingwhosaytheyare:(a)treatedwithrespectatschoolorcollege;(b)haveexperiencedbullyingorviolenceataneducationalestablishment

Domain4:Financialsecurityanddignifiedwork

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Domain4.Financialsecurityanddignifiedwork:Inequalityinthecapabilitytoachievefinancialindependenceandsecurity,enjoydignifiedandfairwork,andrecognitionofunpaidworkandcare

Thecapabilitytobefinanciallysecureandenjoyfinancialindependenceisanimportantelementofwell-being.Inaddition,economicinequalitiesplayakeyroleinshapinginequalitiesinotherlifedomains.Measuresincludeincomeandwealthinequality,ratesofpovertyandmaterialdeprivation,incomeinsecurityandfinancialresilience,includingmeasuresdesignedtocaptureadvantageaswellasdisadvantage.Thisdomainalsocoversaspectsofwork;animportantelementofwell-beingnotjustbecauseitprovidesanincomebutbecauseworkerscanenjoyarangeofnon-pecuniarybenefits.Inequalitiesincludedifferencesinworkingconditionsandunequalaccesstothetopjobs.

Manyhavearguedforexaminingeconomicinequalitiesalongsidearange

Documents

MIF - STICERD · The MIF is designed to measure inequality in individual well-being, reflecting the fact that our lives have many important dimensions: our health, our relationships,