Race, Rates, and Religion

The Relationship Between Black Graduation Rates and Evangelical Religious Affiliation at Private

Colleges and Universities

Michael C. Smith, Ed.D. Azusa Pacific University

Problem

The average six-year graduation rate in 2007 was 56.1%. The average for African Americans* was 40.5% (U.S. Department of Education, 2009).

On average, private universities have higher overall and African American graduation rates than other institutions (U.S. Department of Education, 2009).

Protestant universities have lower African American graduation rates than all other private universities (Oseguera, 2006).

Specifically, the members of the Council of Christian Colleges and Universities (CCCU) have lower African American graduation rates than other private institutions. Even lower than the national average of 40.5% (U.S. Department of Education, 2009).*Terms used to define a racial or ethnic group raise issues of sensitivity and preference. The literature

cited in this study regarding people of African ancestry uses both the terms “African American” and “Black.” This study will use both terms interchangeably. No difference in meaning, sensitivity, or definition of the group referenced is intended.

Problem

2004 2005 2006 200730

35

40

45

50

Figure 1.1: African American Graduation Rates at 4-year Institutions

Private Institutions

All Institutions

CCCU Institutions

U.S. Department of Education, 2009

Problem

Given the fact that those with a four-year college degree earn almost twice as much those without one, not graduating with a degree is a major socio-economic setback (Carey, 2004).

If African Americans are not as likely to graduate from CCCU/Protestant institutions, those institutions perpetuate longstanding inequalities in American society.

The inequality at CCCUs is greater than at other private institutions. Not only are Black graduation rates lower at CCCUs, the gap between Black and overall graduation rates is also larger.

Inequality in outcomes is a sign of injustice, and, injustice is incompatible with an evangelical mission (Kinoshita, 2006).

Purpose

The purpose of this study was to see if CCCU institutions have a unique and significant relationship to Black graduation rates that partly explains why they are lower compared to other private institutions and to use the findings to inform future research and practice.

While the primary subjects of interest were the CCCU institutions, comparing the findings about CCCU institutions and Black graduation rates to findings about other Protestant and private institutions put the findings in context.

Institutions

Background: Graduation rates disaggregated by race

This study comes from the perspective that institutions have some responsibility for their aggregate student outcomes.

New initiatives to make graduation rate data and other outcome measures disaggregated by race is putting pressure on institutions to change (Bensimon, 2004; Carey, 2005; Carey, 2008; Hess, Schneider, Carey, & Kelly, 2009).

Institutions that employ empirical study and take initiative to act on what they find improve Black graduation rates by reaching out to students in ways that serve Black students best (Carey, 2008).

CCCU institutions are rooted in evangelical culture which has a major impact on the educational culture. Unlike many Protestant-affiliated institutions, all employees must identify as Christians. This exclusivity combined with the conservative theological stance of most of the institutions is very common among evangelicals (Emerson and Smith, 2000).

Evangelicals prioritize individualism, relationalism, and anti-structuralism more than other White Americans. These values impede the ability to perceive and to desire to improve historic inequalities in American society, especially that of African Americans. While half of White Americans believe that lack of access to education is partly to blame for the White-Black socio-economic gap, only one third of White evangelicals believe this to be true. Evangelicals were more likely to blame the individual motivation of Black Americans for the gap in socio-economic status. (Emerson and Smith, 2000; Hinjosa and Park, 2004; Kratt, 2004)

Background: Evangelical Culture

Methods

This quantitative study examined the relationship between religious affiliation (CCCU or Protestant) and African American graduation rates while controlling for other institutional characteristics: classification, size, wealth, diversity, and selectivity. (Volkwein and Szelest, 1995; Sjoberg, 1999; Oseguera, 2006).

All data were from the Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS) at the National Center for Education Statistics. Publicly accessible database.

Primary purpose was to determine if there is a significant relationship between CCCU affiliation and Black graduation rates and then to determine if such a relationship has a stronger predictive power for Black graduation rates than overall.

Methods: Groups/Sample

3 groups– CCCU, Protestant (non-CCCU), and private (non-Protestant, non-CCCU)

All institutions are four-year or above, private, not-for-profit, with at least some undergraduate population.

The only other limiting factor is the presence of SAT or ACT test score data and graduation rate data. 917 out of 1330 possible institutions met this criteria.

95 out of 101 CCCU institutions (US only as of 2005)

313 out of 425 Protestant institutions

509 out of 814 private institutions

Method: Variables

Dependent variables -- Black and overall graduation rates averaged from 2004-2007

Independent variables (see Appendix A) Classification Size Wealth Diversity Selectivity Religious Affiliation

Analysis

Regression analyses were used to determine the degree to which CCCU or Protestant religious affiliation related to Black and overall graduation rates while controlling for the other institutional characteristics.

T-tests were also used to compare the extent to which the religious affiliation and other variables related to Black or overall graduation rates

Limitations (see Appendix B)

Finding: Gap in graduation ratesAverage Overall and Black Graduation Rates (n= 917)

PrivateProtestant CCCU

 Overall Graduation Rate 61.3% 52.3% 54.8% Black Graduation Rate 50.7% 39.7% 35.6% Overall minus Black +10.6%+12.6% +19.2%

Finding: CCCU membership is related to lower Black graduation rates

CCCU and Protestant affiliation were significant predictors of Black graduation rates (1.8% of variance).

CCCU Black graduation rates are -9.5% lower than other private institutions due to CCCU membership alone.

Fewer faculty of color and lower expenses on academic support partly explained the lower Black graduation rates at CCCUs.

Finding: The difference between Black and overall graduation rates is significant only at CCCU institutions

CCCU membership was associated with 9.5% lower Black graduation rates and 3.7% lower overall graduation rates than other private colleges (p=.013)

CCCU membership was the only variable to have a statistically significant difference between its relationship to Black and overall graduation rates when looking at all private institutions in the study.

While it is impossible to ascertain a single factor that would explain this phenomenon that CCCU affiliation has a more negative relationship with Black graduation rates than overall graduation rates, the design of this study has ruled out some of the institutional factors by controlling for them.

Other findings at CCCUs

Selectivity as measured by SAT and ACT scores had a positive association with Black graduation rates.

Expenses on instruction were associated with an increase in Black graduation rates.

Diversity as measured by Black enrollment had a negative association with overall graduation rates.

CCCUs with a higher Black enrollment have lower graduation rates in part because such schools also tend to be less selective.

Recommendations: Change the negative to

positive There are many biblical and historic mandates for

racial justice Tap in to the 19th century evangelical progressive

movement, abolitionists, schools for freed slaves, etc. Biblical mandates for justice as the precursor to

“unity” “The starting point will not be the discipline of

diversity as prescribed by federal government or institutional law, but rather, a passion for discovering one of the elemental principles of the Kingdom of God” (Hoff, 2004).

Recommendations: Pragmatic

Seize the opportunity of increased Black enrollment and sincere interest in diversity issues to take action to improve Black graduation rates. Hire more faculty of color. Target expenses on instruction and academic

support to African American students (retention, summer bridge programs, etc).

Think differently about selectivity.

Recommendations: Study

Individual CCCUs need to study their campus culture as it relates to Black graduation rates. Investigate the campus climate related to Black

graduation rates to find out why CCCU affiliation is associated with lower rates.

Comparative study of “best practices” at CCCU institutions by examining institutions where Black graduation rates meet or exceed overall graduation rates.

Study intervention efforts, such as the impact of introducing more faculty of color, greater expenses on academic support, or admitting Black students to more selective institutions.

Conclusion

For race to matter over time, the way it is addressed has to evolve as the campus demographics change (Park, 2009). CCCU institutions are beginning to witness some demographic change that will require intentionality in addressing racial injustice and inequality.

The evangelical mission for justice will never change, but the tactics necessary to achieve that mission certainly will change over time.

Appendix A:Independent Variables

Institutional Characteristic Variables and Years VariablesYear(s) Used

ClassificationCarnegie Classification 2005: Enrollment Profile 2005

(labeled “Percent Undergraduate Enrollment’) 

SizeFTE enrollment

2002-2006FTE staff2005-2006 

WealthExpenses on instruction per FTE2004-2007Expenses on academic support per FTE 2004-2007Expenses on student services per FTE 2004-2007 

DiversityFaculty: Percentage of faculty of color 2003Fall enrollment: Percentage Black, non-Hispanic 2003-2006Fall enrollment: Percentage Hispanic and Native American 2003-2006

(labeled “Percentage Minority Enrollment”) 

SelectivitySAT/ACT Composite 75th percentile 2001-2005 BLOCK 2 

Religious AffiliationProtestant affiliation 2005CCCU affiliation2005

Appendix B: Limitations

By focusing narrowly on institutional characteristics without individual student data, the institutional impact is somewhat over-represented.

Impossible to know if all the correct environmental effects have been indentified (Astin, 1991).

References

Astin, A. (1991). Assessment for excellence : The philosophy and practice of assessment and evaluation in higher education. New York: American Council on Education: Macmillan.

Bensimon, E. M. (2004). The diversity scorecard: A learning approach to institutional change. Change (January / February 2004), 44-52.

Carey, K. (2004). A matter of degrees : Improving graduation rates in four-year colleges and universities. Washington D.C.: Education Trust.

Carey, K. (2005). One step from the finish line: Higher college graduation rates are within reach. Washington DC: Education Trust.

Carey, K. (2008). Graduation rate watch: Making minority student success a priority. Washinton DC: Education Sector.

Emerson, M. O., & Smith, C. (2000). Divided by faith: Evangelical religion and the problem of race in America. New York: Oxford University Press.

Hess, F. M., Schneider, M., Carey, K., & Kelly, A. P. (2009). Diplomas and dropouts: Which colleges actually graduate their students (and which don't). Washington D.C.: American Enterprise Institute.

Hinojosa, V. J., & Park, J. Z. (2004). Religion and the paradox of racial inequality attitudes. Journal of The Scientific Study of Religion, 43 (2), 229-238.

References

Hoff, C. (2004). Imago Dei: The image of God. Retrieved July 7, 2010, from http://www.apu.edu/articles/15625/

Kinoshita, G. (2006). Diversity in higher education: An interview with Will Kratt. La Mirada: Biola Univeristy.

Kratt, W. (2004). Diversity in Christian higher education. Claremont Graduate University, Claremont, CA.

Oseguera, L. (2006). Four and six-year baccalaureate degree completion by institutional characteristics and racial/ethnic groups. The Journal of College Student Retention, 7 (1-2), 19-59.

Park, J. J. (2009). When race and religion hit campus: An ethnographic examination of a campus religious organization. Unpublished Dissertation, University of California, Los Angeles.

Sjoberg, C. E. (1999). The relationship of environmental predictors and institutional characteristics to student persistence. Unpublished Dissertation, Oklahoma State, Stillwater.

U.S. Department of Education (2009). Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System. Retrieved January 2009, from National Center for Education Statistics: http://nces.ed.gov/ipeds/

Volkwein, J. F., & Szelest, B. P. (1995). Individual and campus characteristics associated with loan default. Research in Higher Education, 36 (1), 41-72.