MGMT 371:MGMT 371:Individual Differences: Self-Individual Differences: Self-Concept and Personality and Concept and Personality and Social PerceptionsSocial Perceptions

Self-concepts Self-Management Personality Social Perceptions

Variables Influencing Individual Behavior

An OB Model for Studying Individual Differences

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Personalitytraits

Self Concept• Self-esteem• Self-efficacy

• Self-monitoring

The Unique Individual Forms of Self- Expression

Attitudes

Abilities

Emotions

Self-Management

Propositions of Interactional Psychology

Behavior is a function of continuous, multidirectional interaction between the person and the situation.

The person is active in this process and both changes situation and is changed by them.

People vary in many characteristics, including cognitive, affective, motivational and ability factors.

Two aspects of a situation are important: the objective situation and the person’s subjective view of the situation.

Self-Concepts

Self-esteemSelf-efficacySelf-monitoringAffectSelf-ManagementLocus of Control

Self-Esteem

Success tendsto increaseself-esteem

Failure tendsto decreaseself-esteem

Self-Efficacy Beliefs Pave the Way for Success or Failure

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Priorexperience

Behaviormodels

PersuasionFrom

Others

AssessmentOf PhysicalEmotional

State

Sources of Self-Efficacy Beliefs

Feedback Results

High

“I know I can do this job

Self-efficacy

Beliefs

Low

“I don’t think I can get the job

done.”

BehaviorPatterns

BehaviorPatterns

Success

Failure

Self-Monitoring

Behavior and cues

High self monitors flexible: adjust

behavior according to the situation and the behavior of others

can appear unpredictable and inconsistent

Low self monitors act from internal

states rather than from situational cues

show consistency less likely to respond

to work group norms or supervisory feedback

The Role of Affect

Positive Affect – an individual’s tendency to accentuate the positive aspects of oneself, other people, and the world in general

Negative Affect – an individual’s tendency to accentuate the negative aspects of oneself, other people, and the world in general

Self-Management

Social Learning Model Situational cues Cognitive supports Self-talk Self-reinforcement

A Social Learning Model of Self-Management

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Person

(Psychological self)

Situational cues Consequences

Behavior

Locus of Control

Internal External

I control what happens to me!

People and circumstances control my fate!

Personality

The relatively stable set of

characteristics that influences an

individual’s behavior and lend it

consistency.

Personality

Stable personal identity The Big Five Proactivity Locus of Control Ideal Personality?

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Personality Theories

Trait Theory – understand individuals by breaking down behavior patterns into observable traits

Psychodynamic Theory – emphasizes the unconscious determinants of behavior

Humanistic Theory – emphasizes individual growth and improvement

Integrative Approach – describes personality as a composite of an individual’s psychological processes

Big Five Personality Traits

Personality Characteristics in Organizations

A strong situation can

overwhelm the effectsof individual personalitiesby providing strong cuesfor appropriate behavior

Strong personalitieswill dominate

in a weaksituation

Personality Characteristics in Organizations

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator

In the 1940’s, Myers and Briggs

developed the MBTI to understand

individual differences by analyzing

the combinations of preferences.

Cognitive Abilities

Intelligence: Capacity for constructive thinking, reasoning, problem solving

Seven Major Mental Abilities General and specific

Seven Major Mental Abilities

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Able to perceive spatial patterns and to visualize how geometric shapes would look if transformed in shape and position

Spatial

Ability to make quick and accurate arithmetic computations such as adding and subtracting

Numerical

Ability to produce isolated words that fulfill symbolic or structural requirements

Word fluency

Understanding what words mean and readily comprehending what is read

Verbal comprehension

DescriptionAbility

Seven Major Mental Abilities (Cont.)

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Ability to reason from specifics to general conclusions

Inductive reasoning

Ability to perceive figures, identify similarities and differences, and carry out tasks involving visual perception

Perceptual speed

DescriptionAbility

Having good memory for paired words, symbols, lists of numbers, or other associated items

Memory

Stage 1: Selective Attention/Comprehension- Attention is the process of becoming aware of something or someone- People pay attention to salient stimuli

Stage 2: Encoding and Simplification- Encoding = interpreting environmental stimuli by using info in cognitive schemata-Each individual encodes uniquely

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Social Information Processing ModelOf Perception

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STEREOTYPES

Traditional Stereotypes: Sex roles, Age, Race, Disability, etc. Managerial Implications

Why do we stereotype?

Self-Fulfilling Prophecy

Stage 3: Storage and Retention- Encoded info stimuli is sent to long-term memory- Long-term memory: three compartments of info about events, semantic materials, and

people

Stage 4: Retrieval and Response- Information is retrieved from memory to make judgments and decisions

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Social Information Processing Model of Perception (Cont.)

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Commonly Found Perceptual Errors

The tendency to avoid all extreme judgments and rate people and objects as average or neutral.

Central Tendency

A personal characteristic that leads an individual to consistently evaluate other people or objects in an extremely positive fashion.

Leniency

A rater forms an overall impression about an object and then uses the impression to bias ratings about the object.

Halo

DescriptionPerceptual Error

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Commonly Found Perceptual Errors (Cont.)

The tendency to evaluate people or objects by comparing them with characteristics of recently observed people or objects.

Contrast Effects

The tendency to remember recent information. If the recent information is negative, the person or object is evaluated negatively.

Recency Effects

DescriptionPerceptual Error

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Positive and Negative Emotions

Negative emotions (Goal incongruent):- Anger - Fright/anxiety- Guilt/shame - Sadness- Envy/jealousy - Disgust

Positive emotions (Goal congruent)- Happiness/joy - Pride- Love/affection - Relief

PERCEPTION IS REALITY!

Info Processing Model1. Selective Attention/Comprehension2. Encoding & Simplification3. Storage & Retention4. Retrieval & Response

Social Perception Model

Social Perception

Target Characteristics• Physical appearance• Verbal communication• Nonverbal cues• Intentions

Perceiver Characteristics• Familiarity with target• Attitudes/Mood • Self-concept• Cognitive structure

Situational Characteristics• Interaction context• Strength of situational cues

Barriers • Selective perception• Stereotyping• First-impression error• Projection• Self-fulfilling prophecies

Barriers to Social Perception

Impression Management

Stereotype

First Impression Error

Projection

Self-fulfilling prophecy

Impression Management

The process by which individuals try to control the impression others have of them Name dropping Appearance Self-description Flattery Favors Agreement with opinion

ATTRIBUTIONS: Inferring Cause and Effect1. Kelly’s Model

3 dimensions of behavior assessed1. Consensus2. Distinctiveness3. Consistency

Internal Attributions External Attributions

Consensus

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People

Ind

ivid

ual P

erf

orm

anc

e

A B C D EPeople

Ind

ivid

ual P

erf

orm

anc

eA B C D E

Low High

Source: KA Brown, “Explaining Group Poor Performance: an Attributional Analysis,” Academy of Management Review, January 1984, p 56. Used with permission.

McGraw-Hill/Irwin

Distinctiveness

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Source: KA Brown, “Explaining Group Poor Performance: an Attributional Analysis,” Academy of Management Review, January 1984, p 56. Used with permission.

Tasks

Ind

ivid

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A B C D ETasks

Ind

ivid

ual P

erf

orm

anc

e

A B C D E

Low High

McGraw-Hill/Irwin

Consistency

McGraw-Hill © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Source: KA Brown, “Explaining Group Poor Performance: an Attributional Analysis,” Academy of Management Review, January 1984, p 56. Used with permission.

Time

Ind

ivid

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erf

orm

anc

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Time

Ind

ivid

ual P

erf

orm

anc

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Low High

McGraw-Hill/Irwin

ATTRIBUTIONS: Inferring Cause and Effect2. Weiner’s Model (Process)

Individual performs a task He/she judges it successful or non Causal analysis (Internal vs. External) Influence on self-esteem, future

performance

ATTRIBUTIONS: Inferring Cause and Effect

Fundamental Attribution Bias

Self-Serving Bias

Managerial Implications