Methods All

Grammar translation methodGrammar translation methodGrammar TranslationGrammar Translation appeared in the first appeared in the first half of the 19half of the 19thth century and was one of the century and was one of the nonscientificnonscientific methods. methods.Grammar Translation was used to help Grammar Translation was used to help students appreciate L2 literature.students appreciate L2 literature.L2 grammar helps them learn L1 grammar & L2 grammar helps them learn L1 grammar & grow mentally.grow mentally.

Grammar translation methodGrammar translation method1.1. Learning to read L2 literature – written Learning to read L2 literature – written

language is superior to spoken language. language is superior to spoken language. L2 culture was literature and fine arts.L2 culture was literature and fine arts.

2. Translation from L2 to L1 and vise versa: a 2. Translation from L2 to L1 and vise versa: a central goalcentral goal

3. Communication: not emphasized3. Communication: not emphasized4. Reading and writing: superior4. Reading and writing: superior5. Authority and fussy corrections5. Authority and fussy corrections

Grammar translation methodGrammar translation method6. L1 equivalents for L2 words6. L1 equivalents for L2 words7. L1/ L2 similarities: emphasized7. L1/ L2 similarities: emphasized8. Form superior to content8. Form superior to content9. Deduction over Induction9. Deduction over Induction10. L2 learning: a mental exercise 10. L2 learning: a mental exercise 11. Explicit and conscious knowledge of L2 11. Explicit and conscious knowledge of L2

Grammar Grammar 12. Memorization of grammatical paradigms12. Memorization of grammatical paradigms

Grammar translation methodGrammar translation method

Activity:Activity:Explain the differences between learning Explain the differences between learning

about L2 and learning to use L2.about L2 and learning to use L2.

Grammar Translation method was Grammar Translation method was challenged by:challenged by:

1.1. Natural methodologistsNatural methodologists2.2. Linguists interested in phoneticsLinguists interested in phonetics3.3. The reform movementThe reform movement

Natural method gave rise to the Direct Natural method gave rise to the Direct method – the next chapter. However, method – the next chapter. However, Grammar Translation still has its own Grammar Translation still has its own proponents and is used in some parts proponents and is used in some parts of the world. Why?of the world. Why?

Direct methodDirect methodThe Direct Method (DM) rose to prominence The Direct Method (DM) rose to prominence

at the beginning of the 20at the beginning of the 20thth century and it is century and it is one of the nonscientific methods, similar to one of the nonscientific methods, similar to Grammar Translation.Grammar Translation.

Direct method is a movement toward a Direct method is a movement toward a scientific method. Gouin started a method scientific method. Gouin started a method based on child language acquisition. based on child language acquisition.

Direct methodDirect method

Saussure made a distinction between language Saussure made a distinction between language and substance. and substance.

To Saussure language is form not substance.To Saussure language is form not substance.In addition, Sauveur banned translation and In addition, Sauveur banned translation and

use of mother tongue in the classroom.use of mother tongue in the classroom.


The weaknesses of Grammar Translation The weaknesses of Grammar Translation made Direct Method very popular.made Direct Method very popular.

Basic principle: The use of L1 is not allowed Basic principle: The use of L1 is not allowed and the connection between L2 and and the connection between L2 and meaning should be direct. meaning should be direct.


PrinciplesPrinciples 1.1. Language is mainly speech. Culture Language is mainly speech. Culture

includes more than fine arts. Reading is includes more than fine arts. Reading is taught from the beginning. taught from the beginning.

2. Concrete objects are used to make the 2. Concrete objects are used to make the direct link between form (language) and direct link between form (language) and meaning.meaning.

3. Mother tongue is not allowed.3. Mother tongue is not allowed.

4. Demonstration is preferred to explanation and 4. Demonstration is preferred to explanation and translation.translation.

5. Vocabulary in use is emphasized to boost 5. Vocabulary in use is emphasized to boost thinking in English. (Real use in context)thinking in English. (Real use in context)

6. Oral communication is the goal. 6. Oral communication is the goal. 7. Pronunciation receives primary attention - 7. Pronunciation receives primary attention -

focus on form.focus on form.8. Self correction is preferred to teacher’s 8. Self correction is preferred to teacher’s

correction.correction.


9. Lessons should provide the chances for real 9. Lessons should provide the chances for real life conversation. life conversation.

10. Grammar is taught inductively or implicitly.10. Grammar is taught inductively or implicitly.11. Like reading, writing is practiced from 11. Like reading, writing is practiced from

beginning. Four language skills developed beginning. Four language skills developed together.together.

12. Lessons are topic based and not structurally 12. Lessons are topic based and not structurally designed.designed.


13. Language and culture are interwoven.13. Language and culture are interwoven.Notes on Direct Method:Notes on Direct Method:Fluency over accuracy (different from Fluency over accuracy (different from

Grammar Translation) Grammar Translation) Immediate correction:Immediate correction: self correction is self correction is

encouraged from beginning or teacher’s encouraged from beginning or teacher’s indirect correction. An error is like a sin.indirect correction. An error is like a sin.

Students’ knowledge Students’ knowledge aboutabout L2 is not evaluated L2 is not evaluated (as it was in GT). (as it was in GT).


The weaknesses of Direct MethodThe weaknesses of Direct MethodOver emphasized natural language Over emphasized natural language

acquisition usage for classroom learning acquisition usage for classroom learning situation.situation.

Placing so much emphasis on the teacher Placing so much emphasis on the teacher rather than textbook.rather than textbook.

Language Language Teaching:DMTeaching:DM

By 1920s, Direct Method (Berlitz Method in By 1920s, Direct Method (Berlitz Method in the U. S.) started to decline. Direct Method the U. S.) started to decline. Direct Method led to Audio-lingual Method in the United led to Audio-lingual Method in the United States. States.

At the same time Situational Language At the same time Situational Language Teaching (Oral Approach) was popular in Teaching (Oral Approach) was popular in Europe and Contrastive Analysis gained Europe and Contrastive Analysis gained importance.importance.

Language Language Teaching:DMTeaching:DM

About the same time Eclecticism – the idea About the same time Eclecticism – the idea that language teaching should undergo that language teaching should undergo ongoing reform – was also proposed and ongoing reform – was also proposed and supported.supported.

Grammar Translation and Direct Method Grammar Translation and Direct Method were popular until World War II. The were popular until World War II. The Audio-lingual Method was developed in the Audio-lingual Method was developed in the U. S. during World War II. Why?U. S. during World War II. Why?

Language Teaching: ALMLanguage Teaching: ALMAudio-Lingual Method (ALM) is the Audio-Lingual Method (ALM) is the first first scientific methodscientific method since it has its roots in since it has its roots in both psychology and linguistics. both psychology and linguistics.

Psychology:Psychology:SkinnerSkinner(1930s-50s)(1930s-50s)BehaviorismBehaviorism

Linguistics:Linguistics:BloomfieldBloomfield(1930s-50s)(1930s-50s)Structuralism Structuralism

Language Teaching: ALM

Principle: Principle: 1.1. Form appears inside the context, not in Form appears inside the context, not in

isolation. For example, a dialogue is used isolation. For example, a dialogue is used to introduce a new structure.to introduce a new structure.

2.2. L1 and L2 have two systems and they are L1 and L2 have two systems and they are treated separately treated separately to avoid interferenceto avoid interference..

3.3. The teacher is the model. By listening The teacher is the model. By listening teacher to how it is supposed to sound, teacher to how it is supposed to sound, students should be able to mimic the students should be able to mimic the model. model.

Language Language Teaching:ALMTeaching:ALM

4.4. Language learning is habit formation and Language learning is habit formation and habits should be repeated to get fixed in habits should be repeated to get fixed in mind.mind.

5.5. It is important to prevent errors as they It is important to prevent errors as they lead the formation of bad habits. lead the formation of bad habits.

Language Teaching: ALMLanguage Teaching: ALM

6.6. Communication is the prior goal.Communication is the prior goal.7.7. A sentence includes several slots and each A sentence includes several slots and each

slot needs a special part of speech. This is slot needs a special part of speech. This is necessary for students to know in order to necessary for students to know in order to create new sentences.create new sentences.

8. Positive reinforcement is preferred to 8. Positive reinforcement is preferred to no/negative reinforcement.no/negative reinforcement.

Note: Behaviorism: stimulus, response and Note: Behaviorism: stimulus, response and reinforcement. reinforcement.


Stimulus → Organism →Stimulus → Organism → Response Behavior → Response Behavior →

1. Positive Reinforcement, or1. Positive Reinforcement, or2. No / Negative Reinforcement2. No / Negative Reinforcement


Stimulus = a dialogue, a passage, … Stimulus = a dialogue, a passage, … Organism = L2 learnerOrganism = L2 learnerResponse Behavior= verbal behaviorResponse Behavior= verbal behaviorPositive Reinforcement = 1.approval by Positive Reinforcement = 1.approval by

teacher/peers, 2.self satisfactionteacher/peers, 2.self satisfaction


9. Stimuli can be verbal/nonverbal9. Stimuli can be verbal/nonverbalNote: Behaviorism, like linguistic Note: Behaviorism, like linguistic

Structuralism, is an Structuralism, is an anti-mentalistanti-mentalist, , empirically basedempirically based approach. approach.


10. Language is a set of patterns or structures. 10. Language is a set of patterns or structures. Pattern practice leads to the over-learning Pattern practice leads to the over-learning of a desired verbal behavior (habit of a desired verbal behavior (habit formation). formation).

11. Automatic repetition is the result of 11. Automatic repetition is the result of overlearning - Drilling and mechanical overlearning - Drilling and mechanical repetition. repetition.

12.The teacher is an orchestra leader.12.The teacher is an orchestra leader.


From the three language learning activities – From the three language learning activities – 1. Mechanical drills, 2. meaningful 1. Mechanical drills, 2. meaningful exercises, and 3. communicative activities – exercises, and 3. communicative activities – the first one is practiced.the first one is practiced.


13. Learning the structural patterns comes 13. Learning the structural patterns comes before vocabulary. Students sometimes before vocabulary. Students sometimes repeat unknown or meaningless words repeat unknown or meaningless words (Form is more important).(Form is more important).


14. L2 learning is equal to L1 acquisition. 14. L2 learning is equal to L1 acquisition. Rules are induced (implicit) from examples.Rules are induced (implicit) from examples.

15. Contrastive analysis of L1 and L2 shows 15. Contrastive analysis of L1 and L2 shows the areas of difficulty. the areas of difficulty.


16. The “Natural Order”( the order children 16. The “Natural Order”( the order children follow when learning their native language) follow when learning their native language) is to be adopted for L2 acquisition.is to be adopted for L2 acquisition.

Note: In ALM acquisition is preferred to Note: In ALM acquisition is preferred to learning. The former is implicit.learning. The former is implicit.

17. Culture is discussed within the context of 17. Culture is discussed within the context of language. Culture is everyday behavior of language. Culture is everyday behavior of the people who use the target language.the people who use the target language.

Language Teaching:ALMLanguage Teaching:ALMTechniques:Techniques:

Dialogue memorizationDialogue memorizationBackward build up drillsBackward build up drillsRepetition drillsRepetition drillsChain drills Chain drills Single-slot substitution drillsSingle-slot substitution drillsMultiple slot substitution drillsMultiple slot substitution drills

Language Teaching:ALMLanguage Teaching:ALM

Transformation drillsTransformation drillsQuestion and answer drillsQuestion and answer drillsUse of minimal pairsUse of minimal pairsCompleting the dialogueCompleting the dialogueGrammar gameGrammar game

Language Language Teaching:SWTeaching:SW

Although Audiolingualism was widely used all Although Audiolingualism was widely used all over the world, it was heavily criticized in over the world, it was heavily criticized in the early 1960s. the early 1960s.

Both Behaviorism (psychological foundation) Both Behaviorism (psychological foundation) and Structuralism (linguistic foundation) and Structuralism (linguistic foundation) were attacked by linguists and were attacked by linguists and psychologists.psychologists.


Behaviorism was followed by Behaviorism was followed by Cognitive Cognitive PsychologyPsychology..

Structuralism was followed by Structuralism was followed by Transformational-generative linguisticsTransformational-generative linguistics..

Caleb Gattegno says “teaching is Caleb Gattegno says “teaching is subordinated to learning….teacher subordinated to learning….teacher construct challenges for students to conquerconstruct challenges for students to conquer

Language Teaching: SWLanguage Teaching: SW

1.1. Human is creative, so mimicry, Human is creative, so mimicry, memorization, repetition and parrot memorization, repetition and parrot learning (Behaviorism) learning (Behaviorism) do not lead to real do not lead to real learninglearning. .

2.2. Language is not confined to a limited Language is not confined to a limited number of structures (as opposed to number of structures (as opposed to Structuralism). Best evidence: new Structuralism). Best evidence: new sentences that children make in early lifesentences that children make in early life


3. Language learning is not the outcome of 3. Language learning is not the outcome of habit formation (Behaviorism). It is the habit formation (Behaviorism). It is the process of creative rule formation process of creative rule formation (Cognitive Psychology). (Cognitive Psychology).

4. 4. Cognitive psychologyCognitive psychology puts more emphasis puts more emphasis on thoughtful, mentalist and creative on thoughtful, mentalist and creative processes. Learners form hypothesis to processes. Learners form hypothesis to discover the rules of L2discover the rules of L2


5. Language learning is not the passive 5. Language learning is not the passive process of stimulus → response → behavior. process of stimulus → response → behavior. Learners are actively involved in discovering Learners are actively involved in discovering L2 rules.L2 rules.


Note: In general, Cognitive science deals with Note: In general, Cognitive science deals with the scientific study of thinking, reasoning the scientific study of thinking, reasoning and the intellectual processes of the mind. and the intellectual processes of the mind. It is interdisciplinary scientific study of the It is interdisciplinary scientific study of the mind and its processes. mind and its processes.


6.a. Generative Transformational theory 6.a. Generative Transformational theory (proposed by Chomsky in 1957) is a model (proposed by Chomsky in 1957) is a model for the description of all languages.for the description of all languages.

6.b. Generative Transformational theory, 6.b. Generative Transformational theory, with a system of rules, shows the knowledge with a system of rules, shows the knowledge that a native speaker uses in forming that a native speaker uses in forming grammatical sentences. grammatical sentences.

Language Teaching: SWLanguage Teaching: SW6.c. In Generative Transformational theory internalized 6.c. In Generative Transformational theory internalized

grammar of a language – Competence – enables one grammar of a language – Competence – enables one to create and understand totally new sentences.to create and understand totally new sentences.

6.d. Competence enables us to tell which are and which 6.d. Competence enables us to tell which are and which are not possible sentences in a language (implicit are not possible sentences in a language (implicit knowledge).knowledge).

6.e. 6.e. CompetenceCompetence is different from is different from PerformancePerformance which is which is the actual use of the language by individuals.the actual use of the language by individuals.


7. Errors are inevitable, natural signs of 7. Errors are inevitable, natural signs of learning/acquisition. They show the learner learning/acquisition. They show the learner is testing his hypotheses. The progress is is testing his hypotheses. The progress is gradual and step by step.gradual and step by step.

8. All four skills are worked on from the 8. All four skills are worked on from the beginning. In addition. Form and meaning beginning. In addition. Form and meaning are both important.are both important.


Gattegno’s “Silent Way” Gattegno’s “Silent Way” was notwas not the outcome the outcome of Cognitive Psychology, but it is in line of Cognitive Psychology, but it is in line with the theory; because both assign an with the theory; because both assign an active role to the learner.active role to the learner.

In both Silent way and Cognitive Psychology, In both Silent way and Cognitive Psychology, teaching is subordinate to learning: Both of teaching is subordinate to learning: Both of them are learning and learner centeredthem are learning and learner centered, not , not teaching centered.teaching centered.


Principles:Principles:1.1. The teacher goes The teacher goes from familiar to unfamiliarfrom familiar to unfamiliar. For . For

example, he starts with L2 sounds which are example, he starts with L2 sounds which are similar to L1 sounds. similar to L1 sounds.

2. The teacher speaks very little, only when needed. 2. The teacher speaks very little, only when needed. His silence motivates the learners to participate His silence motivates the learners to participate more and be active.more and be active.

3. The teacher is not the model. Students develop 3. The teacher is not the model. Students develop their “inner criteria” for correctness. The student their “inner criteria” for correctness. The student takes the responsibility of learning.takes the responsibility of learning.


4. Students’ actions show if they have learned.4. Students’ actions show if they have learned.5. Students help each other.5. Students help each other.6. The teacher uses gestures and L1 to help them 6. The teacher uses gestures and L1 to help them

learn. learn. 7.Teacher makes use of what students already 7.Teacher makes use of what students already

knows. The teacher’s interference is very little.knows. The teacher’s interference is very little.8. Students’ familiar knowledge (old context) 8. Students’ familiar knowledge (old context)

helps them learn the unfamiliar (new context). helps them learn the unfamiliar (new context).

Language Teaching:SWLanguage Teaching:SW9. Reading is worked on from the beginning

but after speaking.10. The teacher's silence leads to the student's

autonomy: learner centeredness. 11. Meaning is achieved through perceptions

(senses), not translation.12.Group cooperation is the norm.13. Little praise and punishment.


14. Errors are important. They are the road 14. Errors are important. They are the road signs.signs.

15. Self correction over teacher’s correction.15. Self correction over teacher’s correction.16. Students listen to each other.16. Students listen to each other.17. Learning rates are different. Perfection is 17. Learning rates are different. Perfection is

not the target.not the target.18. The teacher frees his time by his silence 18. The teacher frees his time by his silence

(observe students).(observe students).19. Students’ attention is a key to learning.19. Students’ attention is a key to learning.


20. Meaningful practice is preferred to 20. Meaningful practice is preferred to repetition.repetition.

21. Logical presentation of language elements 21. Logical presentation of language elements from familiar to unfamiliar.from familiar to unfamiliar.

22.Autonomy is gained by exploring and 22.Autonomy is gained by exploring and making choices.making choices.

23. Language is for self expression.23. Language is for self expression.24. Feedback from students informs the 24. Feedback from students informs the

teacher.teacher.


25.No homework: sleeping practice25.No homework: sleeping practice26. Syllabus is structure based. 26. Syllabus is structure based. 27. Structures are not presented in a linear 27. Structures are not presented in a linear

way.way.28. Skills (speaking, reading and writing) 28. Skills (speaking, reading and writing)

reinforce one another.reinforce one another.

Language Language Teaching:SUGTeaching:SUG

Suggestopedia (Super learning): psychological Suggestopedia (Super learning): psychological barriers are the main causes of failure in barriers are the main causes of failure in language learning. These barriers should be language learning. These barriers should be removed.removed.

These barriers are fear of bad performance, These barriers are fear of bad performance, limited ability to learn, and failure, so our limited ability to learn, and failure, so our full mental powers are not revealed. full mental powers are not revealed.


Suggestology: how to harness and redirect Suggestology: how to harness and redirect mental capacity for maximum learning. It is mental capacity for maximum learning. It is based on Desuggestion and Suggestion.based on Desuggestion and Suggestion.

Desuggestion: unloading mental reserves of Desuggestion: unloading mental reserves of unwanted memories.unwanted memories.

Suggestion: loading the reserves with Suggestion: loading the reserves with facilitating memories.facilitating memories.


Principles:Principles:1.1. Learning is facilitated in comfortable Learning is facilitated in comfortable

environment.environment.2.2. Peripheral learning is valued.Peripheral learning is valued.3. Students must respect and trust the 3. Students must respect and trust the

teacher’s authority.teacher’s authority.4. The teacher “desuggests” the barriers: L2 4. The teacher “desuggests” the barriers: L2

learning is fun. learning is fun.


5. Students’ imagination is activated 5. Students’ imagination is activated 6. Students’ confidence is raised (Suggestion).6. Students’ confidence is raised (Suggestion).7. Choosing new names and biographies enhances 7. Choosing new names and biographies enhances

feeling of security (suggestion).feeling of security (suggestion).8. Easy to handle dialogs come first.8. Easy to handle dialogs come first.9. Students’ attention is off the Form (structure) and on 9. Students’ attention is off the Form (structure) and on

communication.communication.10. The lessons indirectly enhance positive Suggestions.10. The lessons indirectly enhance positive Suggestions.

Language Teaching:SUGLanguage Teaching:SUG11. Grammar and vocabulary are taught very 11. Grammar and vocabulary are taught very

superficially. superficially. 12. Mother tongue and translation are used to 12. Mother tongue and translation are used to

transfer meaning.transfer meaning.13.Double plane: language message is the 13.Double plane: language message is the

conscious level; music is the subconscious conscious level; music is the subconscious level. They go together. When there is unity level. They go together. When there is unity between conscious and subconscious, between conscious and subconscious, learning is enhanced. Decoration of the learning is enhanced. Decoration of the environment is very important.environment is very important.


14. To overcome the barriers, a pseudo-14. To overcome the barriers, a pseudo-passive state is needed.passive state is needed.

15. Homework is done at night and in the 15. Homework is done at night and in the morning.morning.

16. Dramatization and fantasy reduce the 16. Dramatization and fantasy reduce the barriers to learning.barriers to learning.

17. Fine arts (music, drama, … ) should be 17. Fine arts (music, drama, … ) should be part of the teaching process.part of the teaching process.


18. Novelty aids acquisition (learning 18. Novelty aids acquisition (learning activities are varied).activities are varied).

19. “Infantilization” is the key factor. A 19. “Infantilization” is the key factor. A childlike attitude to learning helps a lot.childlike attitude to learning helps a lot.

20. In some activities the conscious attention 20. In some activities the conscious attention focuses on using L2, not on the structure focuses on using L2, not on the structure and form. and form.

21.Errors are tolerated and corrected 21.Errors are tolerated and corrected indirectly later. indirectly later.


22.The texts should be emotionally and 22.The texts should be emotionally and motivationally powerful. They have literary motivationally powerful. They have literary value.value.

23. Musical background leads to relaxed body 23. Musical background leads to relaxed body and alert mind. and alert mind.

Language Language Teaching:CLLTeaching:CLL

Community Language Learning: Students as Community Language Learning: Students as “whole persons”“whole persons”feelings + intellect + physical reactions + feelings + intellect + physical reactions + instinctive protective reactions + desire to instinctive protective reactions + desire to learn learn


Counseling Learning → Community Counseling Learning → Community Language LearningLanguage Learning

(By: Charles A. Curran)(By: Charles A. Curran)His theory is based on adult learningHis theory is based on adult learning..Adults feel frightened in a new learning Adults feel frightened in a new learning

situation: the inherent change and chances situation: the inherent change and chances of making mistakes frightens them. So the of making mistakes frightens them. So the teacher should play as a counselorteacher should play as a counselor..


Community Language Learning is a Community Language Learning is a humanistic approach taken from Carl humanistic approach taken from Carl Rodger’s approach (1950): the focus is on Rodger’s approach (1950): the focus is on Affective (emotional) DomainAffective (emotional) Domain; it is client ; it is client (learner) centered.(learner) centered.

Language process is not justLanguage process is not just: : sender → message → receiversender → message → receiver

It is interactional and communicative. It is a It is interactional and communicative. It is a social processsocial process..


CLL is a holistic approach: Cognitive + CLL is a holistic approach: Cognitive + Affective factorsAffective factors

Classroom interaction is between peers Classroom interaction is between peers (symmetrical) or learner-knower (symmetrical) or learner-knower (asymmetrical)(asymmetrical)


Principles:Principles:1.1. The teacher starts a friendly relationship.The teacher starts a friendly relationship.2.2. The teacher’s explanation of the activities The teacher’s explanation of the activities

brings security.brings security.3. Language is for communication.3. Language is for communication.4. The teacher’s standing position can be 4. The teacher’s standing position can be

effective in reducing tension and fostering effective in reducing tension and fostering interaction.interaction.


5. The teacher is caring about the students 5. The teacher is caring about the students limitations and fears. They learn with limitations and fears. They learn with different paces.different paces.

6. Time limits are revealed; security follows! 6. Time limits are revealed; security follows!


7. The teacher and students are whole persons 7. The teacher and students are whole persons (Affective + Cognitive factors).(Affective + Cognitive factors).

8. Learners have different strategies, paces 8. Learners have different strategies, paces and styles of learning. The teacher makes and styles of learning. The teacher makes them feel relaxed (Affective factors).them feel relaxed (Affective factors).

9. The teacher is a counselor. Negative 9. The teacher is a counselor. Negative feelings block learning.feelings block learning.

10. L1 is part of the process of learning. 10. L1 is part of the process of learning. Understanding should be guaranteed.Understanding should be guaranteed.


11. Activities should be clear /clarified 11. Activities should be clear /clarified (Affective factors).(Affective factors).

12. The tasks are given one by one to reduce 12. The tasks are given one by one to reduce the barriers. the barriers.

13. Students go from total dependence 13. Students go from total dependence on the teacher to independence and on the teacher to independence and initiative.initiative.

14. Relaxed reflection and thinking 14. Relaxed reflection and thinking fosters the process. fosters the process.


15. Having a choice results in developing an 15. Having a choice results in developing an inner wisdom. inner wisdom.

16. Careful listening is needed to learn to 16. Careful listening is needed to learn to discriminate and see the similarities and discriminate and see the similarities and differences.differences.

17. Group work and cooperation is preferred 17. Group work and cooperation is preferred to competition.to competition.

18. Indirect correction reduces tension.18. Indirect correction reduces tension.


19. Interaction among the peers (students) 19. Interaction among the peers (students) leads to trust and less threat.leads to trust and less threat.

20. Learning takes place if the task neither too 20. Learning takes place if the task neither too new nor too familiar. new nor too familiar.

21. Thinking about learning experiences is as 21. Thinking about learning experiences is as positive as reflecting on L2.positive as reflecting on L2.

22. In early stages, the syllabus is learner 22. In early stages, the syllabus is learner dependent (oriented). dependent (oriented).


According to Curran there are six According to Curran there are six elements elements for nondefensive learningfor nondefensive learning:Security, aggression :Security, aggression (assertiveness), attention, reflection, retention (assertiveness), attention, reflection, retention (integration), discrimination. (integration), discrimination. Evaluation in CLL is not fixed, but it should Evaluation in CLL is not fixed, but it should be in line with the principles. The test is be in line with the principles. The test is mainly integrative, not discrete point. Self mainly integrative, not discrete point. Self evaluation is also valued. evaluation is also valued.


In CLL culture and language are inseparable. In CLL culture and language are inseparable. The teacher and students form a The teacher and students form a community (learning is persons). They trust community (learning is persons). They trust each other and the process.each other and the process.

Language Language Teaching:TPRTeaching:TPR

Total Physical Response is an example of Total Physical Response is an example of “Comprehension Approach”.“Comprehension Approach”.

The importance is given to Listening The importance is given to Listening Comprehension.Comprehension.

The idea of Comprehension Approach comes The idea of Comprehension Approach comes from child language acquisition. Speaking is from child language acquisition. Speaking is

a natural product of listening.a natural product of listening.


Many methods are based on L1 acquisition. Many methods are based on L1 acquisition. Krashen and Terrell’s “natural Approach”: Krashen and Terrell’s “natural Approach”: communication through pictures and words communication through pictures and words is fostered, but L1 is also used. Natural is fostered, but L1 is also used. Natural Approach is similar to Direct Method, but Approach is similar to Direct Method, but in former L1 is allowed. in former L1 is allowed.


In Winitz and Reed’s In Winitz and Reed’s self instructional self instructional programprogram and in Winitz’ and in Winitz’ The LearnablesThe Learnables, , students listen and look at relevant pictures. students listen and look at relevant pictures.


In Asher’s TPR students listen and In Asher’s TPR students listen and respond with actions. respond with actions. TP is based on “Trace Theory”: the more a TP is based on “Trace Theory”: the more a memory connection is traced, the storage of memory connection is traced, the storage of

memory associations is easiermemory associations is easier (Heb’s Law).(Heb’s Law).


Tracing and retracing can be both verbal Tracing and retracing can be both verbal (language) and motor (actions). The (language) and motor (actions). The combination of the two fosters the recall. combination of the two fosters the recall. TPR is humanistic in saying that gamelike TPR is humanistic in saying that gamelike movements reduce stress. TPR is basically movements reduce stress. TPR is basically structuralist (imperative verbs at the structuralist (imperative verbs at the center).center).


TPR claims that nonabstractions (verbs and TPR claims that nonabstractions (verbs and concrete nouns) help us learn abstractions.concrete nouns) help us learn abstractions.

Language chunks are practiced rather than Language chunks are practiced rather than single items. single items.

No grammar explanation is given.No grammar explanation is given.The theory of psychology is BehavioristThe theory of psychology is Behaviorist::

Verbal Stimulus → ResponseVerbal Stimulus → Response


The learning hypotheses:The learning hypotheses:1.1. Innate bio program: listening before Innate bio program: listening before

speaking (Natural Approach) and speaking (Natural Approach) and synchronized with body.synchronized with body.

2. Affective Filter: meaning through 2. Affective Filter: meaning through movementsmovements

3. Brain Lateralization: motor activities are 3. Brain Lateralization: motor activities are right brain centered (following Piaget). right brain centered (following Piaget).


Students master L2 through right hemisphere Students master L2 through right hemisphere motor activities while the left one (language motor activities while the left one (language center!) is watching and learning.center!) is watching and learning.


Principles:Principles:1. Meaning is transferred through actions. 1. Meaning is transferred through actions.

Right brain (nonverbal center) is involved. Right brain (nonverbal center) is involved. Chunks are preferred to single words.Chunks are preferred to single words.

2. Listening before speaking.2. Listening before speaking.3. Actions accompany the language. The 3. Actions accompany the language. The

teacher acts first.teacher acts first.4. The basic structure is imperative (only 4. The basic structure is imperative (only

volunteers act).volunteers act).


5. Students first observe and then perform the 5. Students first observe and then perform the actions. actions.

6. Feeling of success and little anxiety 6. Feeling of success and little anxiety facilitate learning. facilitate learning.

7.Changing order of commands blocks sheer 7.Changing order of commands blocks sheer memorization.memorization.

8. Correction should be indirect and through 8. Correction should be indirect and through actions. actions.


9. Novelty of commands can be motivating.9. Novelty of commands can be motivating.10. Language learning should be fun (funny 10. Language learning should be fun (funny

commands).commands).11. Spoken language comes first.11. Spoken language comes first.12. Speaking emerges very naturally. They 12. Speaking emerges very naturally. They

choose to speak.choose to speak. 13. The teacher is tolerant to errors. Delicate 13. The teacher is tolerant to errors. Delicate

syllabus and details are put off for later and syllabus and details are put off for later and higher levels. higher levels.

Language Teaching: Language Teaching: CLTCLT

The Communicative Language The Communicative Language TeachingTeaching

This is a British Approach that This is a British Approach that followed Oral Approach or followed Oral Approach or

Situational Language Teaching Situational Language Teaching (simultaneous with Direct Method). (simultaneous with Direct Method).

Language Teaching:CLTLanguage Teaching:CLTMany methods claim to be Many methods claim to be

communicative.communicative.They also say that structure and They also say that structure and

vocabulary are important. These are vocabulary are important. These are good but not enough. We can not get good but not enough. We can not get ready for communication if just ready for communication if just vocabulary and structure are worked vocabulary and structure are worked on. on.

Language Teaching:CLTLanguage Teaching:CLTCommunication includes functions. Functions Communication includes functions. Functions

are what we do with the language: arguing, are what we do with the language: arguing, persuading, promising, rejection or persuading, promising, rejection or accepting an invitation, … accepting an invitation, …

All these functions happen inside a social All these functions happen inside a social context. Wilkin’s Functional Notional context. Wilkin’s Functional Notional Approach formed the basis of Approach formed the basis of Communicative Approach.Communicative Approach.

Language Teaching:CLTLanguage Teaching:CLTFunctions are what we do with the language, Functions are what we do with the language,

but Notional categories are: time, sequence, but Notional categories are: time, sequence, quantity, location, frequency. quantity, location, frequency.

Communicative Approach, Communicative Communicative Approach, Communicative Language Teaching, functional Approach Language Teaching, functional Approach and Notional Functional Approach have and Notional Functional Approach have almost the same goals.almost the same goals.

Language Teaching:CLTLanguage Teaching:CLTKnowledge of forms, meanings and functions Knowledge of forms, meanings and functions

can be positive if they help the learner in can be positive if they help the learner in the process of the process of meaning exchangemeaning exchange . .

Language Teaching:CLTLanguage Teaching:CLTThere are two versions of Communicative There are two versions of Communicative

Approach: Approach: 1. Weak Version (standard): the goal is to 1. Weak Version (standard): the goal is to

provide chances to use English for provide chances to use English for communication. This is called ‘learning to use’ communication. This is called ‘learning to use’ or ‘language for communication’.or ‘language for communication’.

2. Strong Version: language as communication – 2. Strong Version: language as communication – using language to learn.using language to learn.

Language Teaching:CLTLanguage Teaching:CLTThe linguistic theory behind Communicative The linguistic theory behind Communicative

Approach is Dell Hymes’ communicative Approach is Dell Hymes’ communicative competence (1972). competence (1972).

He believed that Chomsky’s ‘linguistic He believed that Chomsky’s ‘linguistic competence’ was too limited. Linguistic competence’ was too limited. Linguistic competence doesn't justify social and competence doesn't justify social and functional rules of the language. functional rules of the language.

Hymes’ competence deals with both Hymes’ competence deals with both knowledge (knowledge (usageusage) and ) and useuse..

Language Teaching:CLTLanguage Teaching:CLTPrinciples:Principles:1. Authentic language in real context: sports 1. Authentic language in real context: sports

columns from a recent newspaper.columns from a recent newspaper.2. Ability to figure out someone’s intentions: 2. Ability to figure out someone’s intentions:

communicative competence.communicative competence.3.Language: a vehicle for communication, not 3.Language: a vehicle for communication, not

the object of study (language for the object of study (language for communication).communication).

Language Teaching:CLTLanguage Teaching:CLT4. One function can have many different 4. One function can have many different

linguistic forms (the goal is to convey linguistic forms (the goal is to convey meaning with a many possible and suitable meaning with a many possible and suitable forms).forms).

5. Language use at higher levels (supra 5. Language use at higher levels (supra sentential, text or discourse level , cohesion, sentential, text or discourse level , cohesion, coherence).coherence).

Language Teaching:CLTLanguage Teaching:CLTNote: Discourse or communication has three Note: Discourse or communication has three elements: elements: Real communication (information gap), Real communication (information gap), Task based activities, Task based activities, Meaningfulness (authenticity)Meaningfulness (authenticity)In discourse analysis:In discourse analysis:cohesion (physical connectedness)cohesion (physical connectedness)coherence (connectedness in meaning)coherence (connectedness in meaning)

Language Teaching:CLTLanguage Teaching:CLT6. The importance of games as real 6. The importance of games as real

communication (task based activities)communication (task based activities)Note: Immediate feedback ensures the learner Note: Immediate feedback ensures the learner

of the result. of the result. 7. Opportunities for self expression7. Opportunities for self expression8. Errors as natural outcome of development 8. Errors as natural outcome of development

of communication skills.of communication skills.

Language Teaching:CLTLanguage Teaching:CLT9. Establishment of situations to promote 9. Establishment of situations to promote

communication (strip story). communication (strip story). 10. Cooperation and team work as a chance to 10. Cooperation and team work as a chance to

negotiate meaning.negotiate meaning.11. Role play as an example of social context 11. Role play as an example of social context

(language for communication)(language for communication)12. Language forms with respect to social 12. Language forms with respect to social

communicative norms (talking to your boss communicative norms (talking to your boss vs. talking to your colleague) vs. talking to your colleague)

Language Teaching:CLTLanguage Teaching:CLT13. The teacher as an advisor giving 13. The teacher as an advisor giving

guidelines to groupsguidelines to groups14. A choice about what to say (linguistic 14. A choice about what to say (linguistic

competence) and how to say competence) and how to say (communicative one).(communicative one).

15. Grammar and vocabulary from functions, 15. Grammar and vocabulary from functions, situational context and roles. situational context and roles.

Language Teaching:CLTLanguage Teaching:CLT16. Listening to authentic language as 16. Listening to authentic language as

homework.homework.

Language Teaching:CLTLanguage Teaching:CLTWhat is the goal of the teacher?What is the goal of the teacher?To develop communicative competence in the To develop communicative competence in the

learners. Form, meaning and function are learners. Form, meaning and function are all critical.all critical.

What are the roles of the teacher?What are the roles of the teacher?1. Facilitator of learning process, 2. Manager 1. Facilitator of learning process, 2. Manager

of classroom activities, 3. Advisor, 4. Co-of classroom activities, 3. Advisor, 4. Co-communicatorcommunicator

Language Teaching:CLTLanguage Teaching:CLTWhat is the role of the student?What is the role of the student?The learner is a communicator, actively The learner is a communicator, actively

engaged in transferring meaning and a engaged in transferring meaning and a responsible manager of the social activities.responsible manager of the social activities.

Characteristics of the process?Characteristics of the process?Usage and use are both important. Activities – Usage and use are both important. Activities –

role play, problem solving tasks, games – role play, problem solving tasks, games – are communication oriented.are communication oriented.

Language Teaching:CLTLanguage Teaching:CLTNote: information gap is a critical issue: a real Note: information gap is a critical issue: a real

interaction is made to exchange meaning – interaction is made to exchange meaning – to reveal make unknown information.to reveal make unknown information.

The teacher is the initiator of activities. The The teacher is the initiator of activities. The interaction is basically student-student.interaction is basically student-student.

How about the student’s feelings?How about the student’s feelings?The students are more motivated if they do The students are more motivated if they do

something real and purposeful with the something real and purposeful with the language.language.

Language Teaching:CLTLanguage Teaching:CLTNote: Team work and cooperation also fosters Note: Team work and cooperation also fosters

the feeling of security. They integrate L2 the feeling of security. They integrate L2 with their personality.with their personality.

How are language/culture viewed?How are language/culture viewed?Language: form, meaning and function. Language: form, meaning and function.

Culture is part of real communication (e.g., Culture is part of real communication (e.g., the use of nonverbal behavior).the use of nonverbal behavior).

Language Teaching:CLTLanguage Teaching:CLTFunctions over forms. The syllabus is Functions over forms. The syllabus is

functional and a variety of form are functional and a variety of form are introduced in each function.introduced in each function.

At first easier functions are used to introduce At first easier functions are used to introduce easier forms. In general function determines easier forms. In general function determines form not the other way round. form not the other way round.

Language Teaching:CLTLanguage Teaching:CLTStudents learn about cohesion and coherence Students learn about cohesion and coherence

in real communication, not in an explicit in real communication, not in an explicit way (by scrambling and unscrambling the way (by scrambling and unscrambling the text). text).

L1 has almost no role. Communication L1 has almost no role. Communication happens in L2 context.happens in L2 context.

Both accuracy and fluency are evaluated. The Both accuracy and fluency are evaluated. The ideal learner is a the best communicator. ideal learner is a the best communicator. The use of forms is not valuable by itself.The use of forms is not valuable by itself.

Language Teaching:CLTLanguage Teaching:CLTEvaluation here is informal and happens in Evaluation here is informal and happens in

the process of acting communicatively. But the process of acting communicatively. But the test is a communicative test which deals the test is a communicative test which deals with functions.with functions.

The tests are integrative such as writing a The tests are integrative such as writing a letter to a friend which is a function and letter to a friend which is a function and conveys meaning. It is also a social activity. conveys meaning. It is also a social activity.

Language Teaching:CLTLanguage Teaching:CLTErrors of form are tolerated as a natural Errors of form are tolerated as a natural

outcome. Linguistic knowledge is not very outcome. Linguistic knowledge is not very critical for communicative ability.critical for communicative ability.

Techniques and materials:Techniques and materials:1. Authentic materials (real world)1. Authentic materials (real world)2. Scrambled sentences (cohesion and 2. Scrambled sentences (cohesion and

coherence)coherence)

Language Teaching:CLTLanguage Teaching:CLT3. Language games (information gap, choice 3. Language games (information gap, choice

and feedback)and feedback)4. Picture strip story (information gap, team 4. Picture strip story (information gap, team

work, problem solving and negotiating work, problem solving and negotiating meaning)meaning)

5. Role play (different social contexts lead to 5. Role play (different social contexts lead to different roles and each role uses certain different roles and each role uses certain forms for each function).forms for each function).

Language Teaching:Content based...Language Teaching:Content based...

Content-based, task-based, and Participatory Content-based, task-based, and Participatory ApproachesApproaches

Three approaches that make communication Three approaches that make communication central: central: •Content based instructionContent based instruction•Task-based approachTask-based approach•Participatory approach Participatory approach These approaches do not focus on form or function. These approaches do not focus on form or function. They give more importance to process of learning They give more importance to process of learning over linguistic content. over linguistic content.


Here instead of ‘learning to use English’ we Here instead of ‘learning to use English’ we try to ‘use English to learn’.try to ‘use English to learn’.Here instead of ‘English for Here instead of ‘English for communication’ we try to gain ‘English as communication’ we try to gain ‘English as communication’.communication’.ESP (English for special purposes) is ESP (English for special purposes) is content oriented or content based. English content oriented or content based. English for pilots, nurses, businessmen are some for pilots, nurses, businessmen are some examples.examples.


What is the special contribution of ESP?What is the special contribution of ESP?It integrates language and content.It integrates language and content.What was the purpose of ‘language across What was the purpose of ‘language across the curriculum’ movement?the curriculum’ movement?

It was for native speakers in England (1970s) It was for native speakers in England (1970s) to integrate reading and writing into all to integrate reading and writing into all other subjects. other subjects.


In ESP, the selection and sequence of In ESP, the selection and sequence of language items arise from communicative language items arise from communicative needs, not predetermined syllabi (plural of needs, not predetermined syllabi (plural of syllabus). syllabus). The subject matter (content) is the platform The subject matter (content) is the platform for language learning. Language learning is for language learning. Language learning is not happening in general English text and not happening in general English text and discourse.discourse.


Previous knowledge is the basis. It helps Previous knowledge is the basis. It helps them learn better. them learn better. Relevance of language to the students’ Relevance of language to the students’ academic needs motivates them. This is a academic needs motivates them. This is a means to an end, not an end in itself.means to an end, not an end in itself. In other words, here the language is the In other words, here the language is the medium of instruction and not the purpose medium of instruction and not the purpose (end) of that.(end) of that.


If the content of communication is If the content of communication is interesting to the students, learning happens interesting to the students, learning happens with greater speed and depth. with greater speed and depth. With the presence of contextual clues, With the presence of contextual clues, vocabulary learning is easier. (cloze test and vocabulary learning is easier. (cloze test and fill in the blanks)fill in the blanks)Authenticity means content + use.Authenticity means content + use.Even with authentic texts, the learners need Even with authentic texts, the learners need support by providing examples.support by providing examples.


Learners work with meaningful, cognitively Learners work with meaningful, cognitively demanding, and authentic demanding, and authentic texts and tasks texts and tasks (learning by doing)(learning by doing). . They work within the framework of all They work within the framework of all language skills, not just conversationally. language skills, not just conversationally. This is what real communication is. This is This is what real communication is. This is an example of an an example of an immersion programimmersion program..


ADJUNCT MODEL:ADJUNCT MODEL:In adjunct model, the students take a normal In adjunct model, the students take a normal

academic course and a language course academic course and a language course related to that academic course. Content related to that academic course. Content teacher and language teacher teach their teacher and language teacher teach their courses in a way to help the other course courses in a way to help the other course too.too.


Sheltered language instruction (content Sheltered language instruction (content based):based):

Both native and non native speakers of a Both native and non native speakers of a language take academic courses but for non language take academic courses but for non native speakers ‘sheltered’ instruction is native speakers ‘sheltered’ instruction is provided to help them through the difficult provided to help them through the difficult process of studying content in a foreign process of studying content in a foreign language. language.


Whole Language Approach:Whole Language Approach:Language is taught holistically not in pieces Language is taught holistically not in pieces

like grammar and vocabulary (it comes like grammar and vocabulary (it comes from Gestalt psychology where the whole is from Gestalt psychology where the whole is emphasized rather than the pieces and emphasized rather than the pieces and segments).segments).

Holistic approaches are ‘top down’ in the Holistic approaches are ‘top down’ in the sense that they work from meaning to sense that they work from meaning to linguistic form.linguistic form.


In ‘bottom up’ methods, the students start In ‘bottom up’ methods, the students start with pieces and then try to put the pieces with pieces and then try to put the pieces together to make a whole together to make a whole (Audiolingualism). (Audiolingualism). In ‘whole language learning’ errors are In ‘whole language learning’ errors are natural parts of learning process. Here natural parts of learning process. Here Vygotsky’s idea about social nature of Vygotsky’s idea about social nature of learning is encouraged.learning is encouraged.


In ‘language experience approach’, which is In ‘language experience approach’, which is an example of ‘holistic learning’, students an example of ‘holistic learning’, students read texts about their own life experience. read texts about their own life experience. Students mention their stories in the first Students mention their stories in the first language and the teacher converts them into language and the teacher converts them into L2. This is done to facilitate learning. L2. This is done to facilitate learning.

Language Teaching:Content based...Language Teaching:Content based...Process writing and journal keeping Process writing and journal keeping are also are also examples of Whole Learning. examples of Whole Learning.

In the former, writing is seen as a process in which In the former, writing is seen as a process in which the teacher and students collaborate to build up the teacher and students collaborate to build up ideas. It is not just an assignment to be done by ideas. It is not just an assignment to be done by students. students.

Journal writing is like keeping a diary in which Journal writing is like keeping a diary in which students write their feelings and anything else they students write their feelings and anything else they want to communicate with the teacher. The want to communicate with the teacher. The teacher ‘dialogues’ with the writings and writes teacher ‘dialogues’ with the writings and writes responses on them but does not correct the form. responses on them but does not correct the form.

Language Teaching:Content based...Language Teaching:Content based...Task-Based InstructionTask-Based Instruction

Task based approach also uses natural Task based approach also uses natural context. ‘Do to Learn’ is the basic concept. context. ‘Do to Learn’ is the basic concept. You learn better while you perform and You learn better while you perform and interact with other students. ‘problem interact with other students. ‘problem solving’ is the key concept. In problem solving’ is the key concept. In problem solving you develop new knowledge by solving you develop new knowledge by focusing on the old.focusing on the old.

Language Teaching:Content based...Language Teaching:Content based...The tasks in the class are clear and purposeful.The tasks in the class are clear and purposeful.The task needs to be challenging.The task needs to be challenging.The task develops teacher-learner interaction. The task develops teacher-learner interaction. The teacher uses normal language with The teacher uses normal language with normal speed.normal speed.The teacher helps them find correct answers.The teacher helps them find correct answers.Language is used to perform a task, not just Language is used to perform a task, not just for linguistic development. for linguistic development.


Authentic activity through authentic language Authentic activity through authentic language use is encouraged.use is encouraged.The focus is on meaning.The focus is on meaning.They receive feedback for what they did.They receive feedback for what they did.

Language Teaching:Content based...Language Teaching:Content based...Three types of tasks (Probhu)Three types of tasks (Probhu)1. Information gap activity: exchanging information to perform a 1. Information gap activity: exchanging information to perform a task (students exchange information about their weekly task (students exchange information about their weekly schedules)schedules)2. Opinion gap activity: students give their feelings to perform 2. Opinion gap activity: students give their feelings to perform (finding solutions for unemployment)(finding solutions for unemployment) 3. Reasoning gap activity: students derive new information from 3. Reasoning gap activity: students derive new information from the data they were given (finding the best way to a city by the data they were given (finding the best way to a city by looking at and discussing a map). This type involves more looking at and discussing a map). This type involves more engagement and is more challenging. engagement and is more challenging.


Long and Crooks (1993)consider three other Long and Crooks (1993)consider three other types of tasks called types of tasks called syllabisyllabiProceduralProcedural: the example is the lesson given in : the example is the lesson given in the bookthe bookCommunication interaction:Communication interaction: the students the students along with the teacher decide upon the task to along with the teacher decide upon the task to do.do.Meaningful interaction: Meaningful interaction: working on meaning working on meaning while drawing attention to form.while drawing attention to form.


‘‘Project Work Approach’Project Work Approach’Students elect a project to do, for example they Students elect a project to do, for example they decide to publish a school news paper.decide to publish a school news paper.

The first step is planning through The first step is planning through collaboration.collaboration.

The second step is collecting information.The second step is collecting information.The final step is reviewing their report. The final step is reviewing their report.

The teacher is a counselor and consultant not a The teacher is a counselor and consultant not a project director.project director.


Participatory ApproachParticipatory ApproachIt begins with meaningful content. Form It begins with meaningful content. Form

emerges from content.emerges from content.The content is not about subject matter, but The content is not about subject matter, but

about issues of interest.about issues of interest.Freire engaged the students with immediate Freire engaged the students with immediate

social problems (unemployment, low social problems (unemployment, low income, addiction).income, addiction).

Language Teaching:Content based...Language Teaching:Content based...The purpose is not just linguistic development, but The purpose is not just linguistic development, but for taking actions and thinking about the problems. for taking actions and thinking about the problems. Education is most effective when it is “experienced- Education is most effective when it is “experienced- centered”. centered”. The class activity is connected with outside world The class activity is connected with outside world events. events. The syllabus is not predetermined product. It is the The syllabus is not predetermined product. It is the result of an ongoing context – specific problem – result of an ongoing context – specific problem – posing process.posing process.


Students see themselves as active participants Students see themselves as active participants in the social life.in the social life.Language form follows and is geared to Language form follows and is geared to content. Form is not dealt with in isolation.content. Form is not dealt with in isolation.Students can create materials to be used in Students can create materials to be used in the following session. the following session. Self evaluation is encouraged. The students Self evaluation is encouraged. The students see the outcome and evaluate the process of see the outcome and evaluate the process of learning.learning.

Language Teaching:Learning Strategy...Language Teaching:Learning Strategy...

Learning Strategy Training, Cooperative Learning Strategy Training, Cooperative Learning, and Multiple IntelligencesLearning, and Multiple Intelligences

These are three methodological innovations.These are three methodological innovations.The focus of all these are on the learner; they The focus of all these are on the learner; they

are learner oriented (opposite of teacher are learner oriented (opposite of teacher oriented methods such as Grammar oriented methods such as Grammar translation).translation).


Learning Strategy TrainingLearning Strategy TrainingTechniques or devices a learner may use to Techniques or devices a learner may use to

acquire knowledge. (Rubin 1975) acquire knowledge. (Rubin 1975) Good learners are willing and accurate Good learners are willing and accurate

guessers. They have great desire to guessers. They have great desire to communicate although they may look communicate although they may look foolish. They pay attention to both meaning foolish. They pay attention to both meaning and form. They practice and monitor their and form. They practice and monitor their own and others’ speech.own and others’ speech.


These strategies should be taught. Learning These strategies should be taught. Learning strategies training is as important as language strategies training is as important as language training. (Wenden 1985)training. (Wenden 1985)Prior knowledge and experiences are used to Prior knowledge and experiences are used to build up new knowledge.build up new knowledge.Studying strategies of learning leads to Studying strategies of learning leads to academic success.academic success.Learning should be taught, as well as Learning should be taught, as well as language.language.


Autonomy is encouraged: students should Autonomy is encouraged: students should become independent and self regulated become independent and self regulated learners. Self assessment-evaluating one’s learners. Self assessment-evaluating one’s own progress- also helps autonomy.own progress- also helps autonomy.Learners should be capable of transferring Learners should be capable of transferring strategies to new learning situations. If they strategies to new learning situations. If they are trained to use prefixes to understand are trained to use prefixes to understand meaning, they need to practice it at home.meaning, they need to practice it at home.


Strategies should be taught within the Strategies should be taught within the framework of content area texts.framework of content area texts.Metacognitive strategies are used to plan, Metacognitive strategies are used to plan, monitor, and evaluate a learning task.monitor, and evaluate a learning task.They also include: arranging the conditions They also include: arranging the conditions that boost learning; setting long and short that boost learning; setting long and short term goals; checking one’s comprehension term goals; checking one’s comprehension during listening or reading. during listening or reading.


Chamot and O’Malley also identify two other Chamot and O’Malley also identify two other categories: cognitive strategies which involve categories: cognitive strategies which involve learners’ interaction and manipulation of learners’ interaction and manipulation of materials, and Social / affective strategies where materials, and Social / affective strategies where learners interact with other persons. Affective learners interact with other persons. Affective factors include feelings and attitudes.factors include feelings and attitudes.


Cooperative LearningCooperative LearningCooperative learning means learning in group Cooperative learning means learning in group

(an affective/social strategy). The (an affective/social strategy). The wayway they they cooperate is important.cooperate is important.


‘‘positive interdependence’ is encouraged. positive interdependence’ is encouraged. Each students helps the other to learn Each students helps the other to learn vocabulary items. Cooperation instead of vocabulary items. Cooperation instead of competition and individualistic learning.competition and individualistic learning.Groups are fixed for some time and include Groups are fixed for some time and include people of different ethnic, religious, social people of different ethnic, religious, social background and mixed gender. background and mixed gender.


By working in groups they take different roles By working in groups they take different roles and learn to cooperate in different and learn to cooperate in different circumstances.circumstances.Self evaluation and assessment and judgment Self evaluation and assessment and judgment about others’ work is urged.about others’ work is urged.Social skills: asking for apology, repetition, Social skills: asking for apology, repetition, help, etc are taught. help, etc are taught.


They take the test individually to learn to accept They take the test individually to learn to accept the outcome of cooperative effort.the outcome of cooperative effort.Teachers teach language Teachers teach language and cooperationand cooperation..


Multiple IntelligencesMultiple IntelligencesIn addition to different strategies of learning, In addition to different strategies of learning,

students have different strengths and weaknesses. students have different strengths and weaknesses. In other words, they have In other words, they have different learning or different learning or cognitive stylescognitive styles..

For instance, visual learners vs. aural learners.For instance, visual learners vs. aural learners.Data gatherers vs. rule formers ( the former have Data gatherers vs. rule formers ( the former have

fluency with little accuracy; the latter have the fluency with little accuracy; the latter have the reverse)reverse)


Students have seven different intelligences that can be developed:Students have seven different intelligences that can be developed:1.1. Logical/mathematical (ability to use numbers and reasoning)Logical/mathematical (ability to use numbers and reasoning)2.2. Visual/spatial: awareness of size, distance, color, movement Visual/spatial: awareness of size, distance, color, movement 3.3. Body/kinesthetic (the ability to use one’s body to express Body/kinesthetic (the ability to use one’s body to express

oneself and solve problems).oneself and solve problems).4.4. Musical/rhythmic (the ability to cope with melody and Musical/rhythmic (the ability to cope with melody and

rhythm).rhythm).5.5. Interpersonal (cooperation and mutual understanding).Interpersonal (cooperation and mutual understanding).6.6. Intrapersonal (understanding oneself and practicing self Intrapersonal (understanding oneself and practicing self

discipline.discipline.7.7. Verbal/linguistic (using language effectively and creatively).Verbal/linguistic (using language effectively and creatively).


It is assumed that everyone has all these It is assumed that everyone has all these abilities but at different levels. Each activity abilities but at different levels. Each activity may be built up by using one or more of these may be built up by using one or more of these intelligences and teachers should be aware of intelligences and teachers should be aware of them.them.

Language Teaching:Learning Strategy...Language Teaching:Learning Strategy...Christison (1996) and Armstrong (1994) provide examples that Christison (1996) and Armstrong (1994) provide examples that

fit each type of intelligence:fit each type of intelligence:1.1. Logical/mathematical (puzzles and games, logical, Logical/mathematical (puzzles and games, logical,

sequential presentations, classifications and categorizationssequential presentations, classifications and categorizations2.2. Visual/spatial (charts and grids, videos, drawing)Visual/spatial (charts and grids, videos, drawing)3.3. Body/kinesthetic (hands-on activities, field trips, Body/kinesthetic (hands-on activities, field trips,

pantomime)pantomime)4.4. Musical/rhythmic (singing, playing music, jazz chants) Musical/rhythmic (singing, playing music, jazz chants) 5.5. Interpersonal (pair work, project work, group problem Interpersonal (pair work, project work, group problem

solving)solving)6.6. Intrapersonal (self evaluation, journal keeping, options for Intrapersonal (self evaluation, journal keeping, options for

homework)homework)7.7. Verbal/linguistic (note-taking, story telling, debates)Verbal/linguistic (note-taking, story telling, debates)


Gardner (1999) has added the 8Gardner (1999) has added the 8 thth intelligence- intelligence-the naturalist- someone knowledgeable about the naturalist- someone knowledgeable about and comfortable in the natural world.and comfortable in the natural world.In conclusion, teachers should be aware of the In conclusion, teachers should be aware of the unique qualities of each student.unique qualities of each student.

Language Teaching: ConclusionLanguage Teaching: Conclusion

ConclusionConclusionAll these methods and approaches are practiced today All these methods and approaches are practiced today

but with different weights and distributions. but with different weights and distributions. In the present century the use of technology , strategies, In the present century the use of technology , strategies,

styles, innovations, interaction, cooperation, and styles, innovations, interaction, cooperation, and affective factors are given primary attention.affective factors are given primary attention.


The greatest similarity among methods is the The greatest similarity among methods is the goal to communicate in the second language.goal to communicate in the second language.All methods have been practiced in classes; in All methods have been practiced in classes; in future virtual education and technology based future virtual education and technology based instruction will gain importance. instruction will gain importance.


Most methods deal with the issue of culture very Most methods deal with the issue of culture very implicitly. It is sometimes referred to as implicitly. It is sometimes referred to as the fifth skill the fifth skill plus reading, writing, listening and speaking.plus reading, writing, listening and speaking.What is the best method and how does a teacher What is the best method and how does a teacher choose one?choose one?A teacher should consider the values, experiences, A teacher should consider the values, experiences, goals, fundamental views about teaching, learning, goals, fundamental views about teaching, learning, learners and teachers, use of technology and similar learners and teachers, use of technology and similar factors to decide.factors to decide.


The best method is The best method is eclectic method. eclectic method. Eclectic method is not a method by itself. It means Eclectic method is not a method by itself. It means using different methods and different techniques of using different methods and different techniques of different methods depending on the age, gender, goal different methods depending on the age, gender, goal (short term and long term), available audio visual (short term and long term), available audio visual devices, available materials, learners’ needs, defined devices, available materials, learners’ needs, defined objectives of the course, views about learning and objectives of the course, views about learning and teaching, and views about dealing with strategies and teaching, and views about dealing with strategies and styles. styles.


For example, although Grammar Translation looks outdated, a For example, although Grammar Translation looks outdated, a teacher may decide to work on translation as an integrative teacher may decide to work on translation as an integrative skill. Repetition and drill work from audio lingual method is skill. Repetition and drill work from audio lingual method is very useful for children. very useful for children. Rule description in brief works best for adults since adults are Rule description in brief works best for adults since adults are rule formers.rule formers.Some methods work better at a special level f language Some methods work better at a special level f language proficiency. proficiency. Relativism: for each situation one method should be applied.Relativism: for each situation one method should be applied.


Pluralism (eclecticism): there is some value on each Pluralism (eclecticism): there is some value on each method. Different methods or parts of methods should method. Different methods or parts of methods should be practiced in the same context.be practiced in the same context.Principled eclecticism happens when a teacher makes Principled eclecticism happens when a teacher makes method of his own by combining different parts of method of his own by combining different parts of methods.methods.Teachers as managers of classroom should know that Teachers as managers of classroom should know that a number of methodological options exist which are a number of methodological options exist which are guided by a number of factors such as values, guided by a number of factors such as values, experience and commitment to a set of learning experience and commitment to a set of learning outcomes.outcomes.


The main point here is that teaching as a The main point here is that teaching as a profession is not a product but a process; profession is not a product but a process; we we learn to teach and also we teach to learn. It learn to teach and also we teach to learn. It might be a lifelong process. might be a lifelong process.

Documents

Methods All