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Ramesh Kanwar Department of Agricultural and Biosystems Engineering Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa 50011, USA and Aaron Zazueta and Jitendra Srivastava Global Environmental Facility and the World Bank 1818 H St. NW Washington D.C. 20433, USA CONTENTS A. Introduction – major sources of nonpoint source pollution B. Key motivators for monitoring – Hypoxia/regulations/EU Nitrate Directive C. Objectives of nutrient reduction programs D. Key water quality or stress indicators for assessment nutrient reduction E. Water quality laws or standards for nutrients for water bodies F. What is current status of science on nutrient reduction? What do we know? F. Developing methods for assessment – local, country, & global level G. Analysis, interpretation, and reporting of data – use of models H. Using Romania example to move from pilot level on to national level as country is willing to borrow 50 m euros to conduct national level assessment H. Discussion Presented at the Black Sea – Danube Regional Conference on Nutrient Pollution Control in Chisinau, Moldova – October 2006
Citation preview
Methodologies to Measure Nutrient Reduction and to Aggregate Results at the Project ,
National, and Regional Basin Levels
Ramesh KanwarDepartment of Agricultural and Biosystems Engineering
Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa 50011, USA
and
Aaron Zazueta and Jitendra SrivastavaGlobal Environmental Facility and the World Bank
1818 H St. NW Washington D.C. 20433, USA
My Background
• Professor at Iowa State University since 1981 – mostly worked in areas of hydrology, modeling & water quality – nutrient reduction.
• Have published 250 plus scientific articles • Major professor for 25 Ph.D. and 27 MS students• Participated in GEF/World Bank projects in
Romania, Georgia, Turkey, Serbia, Africa, India, and Pakistan
• Have been involved in developing science based good agricultural practices for nutrient reduction and methodologies for nutrient assessments at local, regional, and national level
Presentation A. Introduction – major sources of nonpoint source pollution
B. Key motivators for monitoring – Hypoxia/regulations/EU Nitrate Directive
C. Objectives of nutrient reduction programs
D. Key water quality or stress indicators for assessment nutrient reduction
E. Water quality laws or standards for nutrients for water bodies
F. What is current status of science on nutrient reduction? What do we know?
F. Developing methods for assessment – local, country, & global level
G. Analysis, interpretation, and reporting of data – use of models
• H. Using Romania example to move from pilot level on to national level as country is willing to borrow 50 m euros to conduct national level assessment
H. Discussion
IntroductionIncreasing demand for food and meat has led to theintensification of agricultural and animal productionsystems which can pose major threats to:
• global water, soil, and air quality, and public health
• mitigating measures are needed to protect environment
• Developing countries ecosystems are more at risk
• Without appropriate public policies, funding, and nutrient control plans, trends in water degradation are likely to continue.
Major sources of nonpoint water pollution are: Agriculture and Animal Production Systems
Major pollutant is soilMajor pollutant is soil
Other major pollutants areOther major pollutants areagriculture and animal wasteagriculture and animal waste
What are key motivators for water quality assessment or monitoring? Is it hypoxia or eutrophication or human health?
• Globally – it is the hypoxia that is driving the agenda
- Main cause of hypoxia is directly related to nitrogen levels in water
- Hypoxic conditions develop at dissolved oxygen levels of < 2 mg/l
- For fishing waters, dissolved oxygen should stay above 5 mg/l
- Hypoxic conditions in national/international water are increasing since 1960’s
- hypoxic conditions in the Baltic Sea and Black Sea are severe
- The Gulf of Mexico is the third largest hypoxic area in the world (12400 sq. km)
WORLD HYPOXIC ZONES and their Assessment at Regional Level
Agricultural Contribution: World Perspective
• 60% N and 25% P from European Ag to North Sea
• 48% of nutrient pollution in the former Czechoslovakia
• Significant levels flowing into the Adriatic Sea
• Eutrophication problems in Lake Erie
Objectives of Nutrient Reduction Program Should be:
• Protection of human health• Protection of aquatic ecosystems • Eutrophication prevention
This will require the following three steps:
• Reducing the impact of landscape activities on water quality of local and international waters using good agricultural practices – this is the key
• Meeting the requirements of EU Nitrate Directive and/or other national/local water quality regulations
• Assuring safe water supplies for human consumption and ecological health of aquatic life on sustainable basis
Water quality stress indicators for assessment
Before we establish a water monitoring program or methodologies fornutrient reduction measurements, we must decide on the keyindicators for assessment
Water Quality Indicators are: N, P, pathogens, dissolved oxygen BOD5, heavy metals, and bio-diversity.
• Main concern for high nitrate levels is infant health– Nitrate/nitrite causes “blue baby” disease– Newborn babies essentially suffocate –hypoxic conditions– Water Quality Standard for Nitrate-nitrogen is 10 mg/l
• SURFACE WATER BODIES:– Ammonia > 2 mg/l Kills Fish– Phosphate > 0.05 mg/l promotes excess algae growth which leads
Eutrophication– BOD5 depletes oxygen which causes Fish Kills - Hypoxia
Major Ag-related Water Pollutants - become stress indicators
• Eroded soil• Nutrients – of importance to GEF
– Nitrogen– Phosphorus
• Pesticides• Pathogens
• BOD5
BOD5 Strength of various types of waste water mg/l
• Treated Municipal Sewage 10
• Raw Municipal Sewage 200
• Swine Lagoon Water 700
• Open Cattle Feedlot Runoff 1000
• Raw Swine Manure 30000
* BOD5 in water leads to hypoxic conditions
U.S. Water Quality Law and Assessment Process
• Clean Water Act (CWA) of 1972 regulates discharge of pollutants into waters of the U.S.
• Section 305b of CWA requires states to assess and report quality of their waters to Congress every 2 years
• Section 303d requires states to provide a prioritized listing of “impaired waters” every 2 years
U.S. Water Quality Law• Impairment Assessment Process
– Each water body assigned one or more “designated uses”
– Water quality standards are established to indicate the extent to which designated uses are met.
– Water bodies are compared to standards and categorized as:
• “fully supporting”, “threatened”, “partially supporting” (impaired), or “NOT supporting” (impaired)
– Impaired water listings (“303d” list) are used by states to prioritize restoration activities (establish TMDL) – establish good agricultural practices in watersheds
EC Nitrate Directive – steps for its implementation
1.Detection of polluted or threatened waters (1 year monitoring) - Protection of human health
- Protection of aquatic ecosystems
- Eutrophication prevention
2.Designation of "vulnerable zones" (NVZs): Areas of agricultural land with significant contribution to N pollution at watershed level (2 year monitoring)
3.Action Programs within NVZs - Code of good agricultural practice becomes mandatory – what is the status of solid science for GAPs?
- Other measures (nutrient balance, manure storage, spreading < 170 kg N organic/Yr)
4.National monitoring and reporting every 4 yrs on NO3 conc. and eutrophication (algae) and assessment of action programs impact of NVZs
EU Water Quality standards for Rivers and Groundwater
In Netherlands, following environmental policy is used
• For Nitrogen: - Ground water: NO3 < 50 mg/L - Surface water: Nt < 2.2 mg/L - NH3 emission: in 2000 50% of that in 1980
• For Phosphorus: - Ground water: < 0.15 mg Pt/L - Surface water: < 0.15 mg Pt/L - P saturated soils when > 25% of binding capacity is used
US Water Quality Standards for Rivers and Lakes for P
• NEW national effort to develop P criteria• EPA requiring all states to develop nutrient standards for streams
and lakes by 2004
Lakes & Reservoirs Total P
National EPA recommendation for Iowa
0.037 mg/L
Rivers & Streams
National EPA recommendation for Iowa
0.076 mg/L
Water Quality Standards for Rivers and Lakes for N
• NEW national effort to develop N criteria• EPA requiring all states to develop nutrient standards for streams
and lakes by 2004
Lakes & Reservoirs Total N
National EPA recommendation for Iowa
0.78 mg/L
Rivers & Streams
National EPA recommendation for Iowa
2.18 mg/L
Total N
Good Agricultural Practices - Use GAPs as Proxies for mitigating environmental pollution
• Good agricultural practices (GAPs) are defined as those practices that can be used to control soil erosion and nutrient reduction in water bodies, minimize non-point source pollution, and increase crop production
• GAPs are developed using years of field experiments and have a strong basis of solid science.
• GAPs that have been demonstrated to perform well under different hydro-geologic conditions can be promoted for implementation in watersheds with similar conditions
• GAPs would then be used as proxies in meeting EU Nitrate Directive and other international nutrient reduction regulations at project level to improve the quality international water bodies.
What is current status of science? What do we know on nutrient reduction
technologies or good agricultural practices?
• Good news is that science is well advanced on this front and lot of good research has been conducted
• Numerous technologies or good agricultural practices are available for farmers adoption in watersheds as proxies to water quality monitoring
• In this study a total of more than 100 refereed journal articles were reviewed and 13 good agricultural practices are recommended for nutrient reduction
Science based technologies for nutrient reduction
(good agricultural practices*)* more than 100 refereed journal articles reviewed to arrive at the following conclusionsGood Agricultural Practices Change Range in nutrient reduction, %
1. Tillage practices/systems Moldboard plow to no-till 0 to 30% N reduction
2. Crop rotations Continuous corn (CC) to corn -soybean rotation (CS)
25 to 77% N reduction
3. Strip cropping systems CC to corn-soybean - Oats 42%
4. Buffer Strips CC/CS to buffer strips 68-75% N, 28-35%, total P
5. Alt. cropping systems Switch corn to alfalfa 50% to 90% reduction in N & P
6. Alt. system - cover crops Use of rye as cover crop 20-50% reduction in N
7. Conservation reserve, CR CC or CS to C R 91 to 94%
8. N application rate to corn Reduce N rate from 180 to 135 kg/ha 15 to 25%
9. Timing of N applications No N applications in fall 0 to 24%
10. Use of N inhibiters N inhibiter with fall N-application 19%
11. Use of wetlands 1% of area under wetlands 40 to 70%
12. Manure storage No storage to proper storage 35-50% reduction in total N & P
13. Manure use as a fertilizer for crop nutrient needs
From excessive N and P applications to meet N and P uptake needs
38 to 52% reduction
Methodology/Assessment at plot level– ISU Water Quality Site
Poultry manure plotsPoultry manure plots
Strip croppingStrip cropping
No-till plotsNo-till plots
Swine manure plotsSwine manure plots
Wetland cellsWetland cells
Methods: Treatment Application
• 168 kg/ha UAN (Plots 4, 6, 8, & 9)
• 168 kg/ha Poultry Manure (Plots 2, 5, & 10)
• 336 kg/ha Poultry Manure (Plots 1, 3, & 7)
• Control (no treatment) (check plot)
Field Plot: Poultry Manure Application
Field Plot: Sampling
Shallow groundwater samples
ISCO automated sampler for surface water sampling
Construction of Groundwater Monitoring Wells (piezometers)
Average of tile flow and nitrate load in tile drain over 8 years (1998-2005)
Treatments Tile flow(cm)
NO3-N concentration(mg/L)*
NO3-N loss(kg/ha)*
PM (168 kg-N/ha) 6.80 17.37a 13.65a
PM2 (336 kg-N/ha) 8.26 25.30b 18.57b
UAN (168 kg-N/ha) 9.10 18.80c 14.38c
None (0 kg-N/ha) 10.63 6.76 7.96
* The values in the same column followed by the same letters are not significantly different at significant level ( = 0.05)
No-till System and Fertilizer Injection in No-till Field
Erosion Control: Conservation tillage (no-till)
is the best technology of 20th century: Reduces sediment and phosphorus losses
Placement of fertilizers next to plants rather than broadcasting
Fertilizer Injector to apply at precise application rates and at multiple timings during the growing season
Strip Cropping Systems in Iowa-reduced use of N-fertilizer
GAPs: Erosion Control Practices - Contour planting and strip crooping
Contour Buffer Strips on Different Slopes
BMPs: Sediment traps - Stream Bank Management
After
Buffers filter/treat:
– Sediment– Nutrients– Pathogens
Before
Before
After
Buffer Strips along with Trees to Enhance Biodiversity and Improve Water Quality
Animal Manure/Waste Nutrient Utilization
• Crop Nutrient Needs depends on Yield• Considerable Nitrogen is Lost in Manure
Storage • Ammonia is volatile, and will go into the
air and move from the field• Crops are not 100% efficient at nutrient
uptake. Some will remain for the following year
Liquid Manure Storage
Liquid Swine Manure Injection into a Corn Field in the USA - best use of animal waste as a fertilizer
Manure Injection
Consider alternate technologies –other uses of manure
- Composting - Anaerobic digestion
- Solid/Liquid Separation - Lagoon Amendments
Methodologies to Measure Nutrient Reduction at Various Scales
A. The Farm/Project Level - Key to improve Water Quality/Nutrient Reduction at all scales
• Use Good Agricultural Practices as Proxies and make calculations in nutrient reduction on the basis of % area covered by a set of GAPs
• Similar approach could be used even at the watershed level provided key water bodies (a river and groundwater ) is monitored for water quality to have minimum data base to observe cause vs effect relationship
At Farm Level - Develop a Comprehensive Nutrient Management Plan For the Animal Feeding Operations - Animal Feeding Operations must have a Comprehensive Nutrient Management Plan (CNMP) developed by 2008*
*Lara B. Moody, P.E, Agricultural & Biosystems Engineering, Iowa State University
6 Main Parts of a CNMP
1. Manure & Wastewater Storage & Handling
2. Nutrient Management
3. Land Treatment Practices - Use Good Agricultural Practices for erosion control and improve water quality
6 Main Parts of a CNMP
4. Feed Management
5. 5. Record Keeping
6. Alternative Utilization
(Composting, biogas)
1. Manure & Wastewater Storage & Handling• Show that current or planned system is adequate to collect and store the manure• land application of manure according to available equipment and cropping system as
a fertilizer• Manure Storage and Handling Plan will include
– Animal numbers
– Animal types
– Animal weights
– Confinement times
– Manure production volumes
– Nutrient content of wastes
– Number of acres required to apply manure
2. Nutrient Management
• Includes application of all nutrients and organic byproducts– Inorganic Fertilizers– Manures– Municipal sludge
Develop Whole Farm Nutrient Balance for sustainability
Whole Farm Nutrient Balance
Inputs - Outputs = Nutrient Imbalance (Build-up on Farm)
FarmBoundary
Inputs Outputs Feed
Animals
Fertilizer
Meat/Milk/EggsCrops
Manure
Gas Emissions
Nutrient Management
• Nitrogen or Phosphorus application rate?
• How many acres of crops to utilize manure?
• How many animals can farm sustain?
Inputs - Outputs = Nutrient Imbalance (Build-up on Farm)
3. Land Treatment Practices -Good Agricultural Practices
Grassed Waterways
Riparian Zones and Buffers Wind Breaks
Contour Buffer Strips
4. Feed Management
• Feed to optimize production while minimizing environmental impact– Reduce excreted nutrients
5. Record Keeping
• Document Nutrient Management Plan implementation
• Develop historical records for operation
• Required for regulatory approval
6. Alternative Utilization• Consider alternative technologies
– Composting– Anaerobic digestion – Solid/Liquid Separation – Lagoon Amendments
• Iowa State University trains and certifies people to prepare CNMP – Burns and Moody
CNMP Development Training Programs for Certified Trainers
Methodology for Assessment• What is current level of science/knowledge at different
scales?• What methods are used at these scales to create
science based data sets? • What are the gaps? Identify these gaps.
Methodology for assessment
• First develop a baseline data• Multi-country – could be called global• Country level – several basins• Regional level – basin scale• State level – multiple watersheds• Local–lysimeter scale, field plot scale, watershed scale
Methodology for Assessment
• Identify the water bodies for assessment• Clearly identify goals – meeting water quality standards?• Establish a clear implementation plan• Establish an administrative structure to achieve these goals
- EPA, inter-departmental supervisory committee etc.
- Develop policies for providing incentives to watershed
citizens in implementing good agricultural practices
- Technical coordination between monitoring, watershed
citizen groups, and upper administration
- website, data transparency, actions advertised
- provide resources for implementation
Surface and Groundwater Monitoring
• Must establish baseline data for future assessment or want to see changes in the future i.e. after 10 years from the project
• Sampling schedules: Weekly, monthly, 1-2 per year??• Quality VS quantity
For Groundwater sampling:• At what depth would you like to collect water samples?• Shallow depth < 3 m.• Deep groundwater > 3 m.• Monitor at depth increments 5, 10, 15, … 50 m??
• For drinking water wells – weekly/monthly (weekly for public wells, monthly/six month for industrial wells
Methodology for water quality monitoring at local and watershed levels – a catalyst (GEF Projects)
a
ISU MonitoringSites
Backbone Park
Strawberry Point
Arlington
Starmont school
Selecting water quality monitoring sites on rivers within a Selecting water quality monitoring sites on rivers within a watershedwatershed
River Water Monitoring
Iowa Example: Nutrient/Water Quality Assessment/Monitoring Program at the Local State Level - 188 Surface Water Bodies on
Iowa’s List of Impaired Waters
Major Causes of Iowa’s Impaired Waters
Source: IDNR Water Quality Bureauhttp://www.state.ia.us/dnr/organiza/epd/wtresrce/files/tmdl_dev.htm
potentially impacted lake
impacted lake
potentially impacted watershed
potentially impacted stream
impacted watershed
State level assessment methodology:State level assessment methodology: Current Status of Current Status of Iowa LakesIowa Lakes
How do Iowa lakes compare with recommended P criteria?
Assessment at Basin Level – multi-Assessment at Basin Level – multi-statestate
USGS
Area of Hypoxic Zone, 1985-2000Source: N.N. Rabalais, Louisiana Universities Marine Consortium, Chauvin, La.
Nitrogen losses to the Mississippi River Basin – US Example
Multi-state/multi-watershed Assessment of Surface Water Quality (sub-basin)
Average annual nitrate concentrations in the Mississippi River Basin in 1905-07 and in 1980-98
• US Example - Involves 59 of nation’s largest river basins and aquifers because of water use needs– intensively study about 20 of the 59 study units at one time– 3-5 years of intensive data collection in each study unit,
followed by 5-6 years of less intensive study….then start over
– re-study each study unit every 10 years to assess trends
• Covers about 1/2 of U.S.• Sources of drinking water for about 70% of U.S.• Correlates water quality with land use
– identifies causes & potential solutions
Water Quality/Nutrient Assessment Program at the National/water basin Level – US and Romania Examples
Source: “Design of national water-quality assessment program” by USGS ( http://water.usgs.gov/public/pubs/circ1112/)
National Water quality Assessment/Monitoring Program
Status of Groundwater Quality Monitoring
USGS
National Water Quality Inventory River & Stream Assessment
National Water Quality Inventory River & Stream Assessment
National Water Quality Inventory Lake & Reservoir Assessment
Use of Computer Models “RZWQM” for Assessments
Infrastructure for Assessment is Needed
i)i) We need to establish infra-structure for Nutrient We need to establish infra-structure for Nutrient assessment to accomplish these goals at various assessment to accomplish these goals at various scales (spatial and temporal). Who will do what scales (spatial and temporal). Who will do what and how things will get accomplished? Agencies and how things will get accomplished? Agencies like EPA and IDNR in the USA. like EPA and IDNR in the USA.
i)i) Try to use good proxies as much as we can Try to use good proxies as much as we can rather than intensive water quality monitoring rather than intensive water quality monitoring programsprograms
i)i) We do have science based computer models to We do have science based computer models to do assessments on a larger scale and integrate do assessments on a larger scale and integrate them from local scales to larger temporal and them from local scales to larger temporal and spatial scales.spatial scales.
Measurements at Temporal and Spatial Scales
• Development of methodologies for measuring water quality indicators at different scales and in a time series way; GEF projects are typically for 5-years where real impact may take 20 years.
• Conduct country wide assessment using Romania as model• Validation of methodology using all GEF funded projects
(like Georgia, Turkey, Romania, Maldova etc.)• Application of the methodology in other GEF projects – need
a infra-structure for projects with additional resources
Conclusions• Science based technologies are available for
nutrient reduction in watersheds• Environmental push by the EU or UNEP or other
national and international Agencies in combination and economic pull to improve farmer’s livelihoods will lead us to improve water quality. But there are two major problems:
- extension/educational programs are lacking to educate farmers on these available technologies on GAPs
- Sound policies and financial incentives are needed for farmers to adopt these technologies. Without farmer participation, nothing will work.