Embed Size (px)
Citation preview
A Module on
methodologies for teaching English
language as a subject in rwanda basic
education
A module designed to assist primary
and secondary school teachers to improve
teaching English language as a subject at school.
Abbreviations
EFL: English as a Foreign Language
ESL: English as a Second Language CEFR: Common European Framework of Reference for Languages
P1: Primary one P2: Primary two P3: Primary three P4: Primary four P5: Primary five P6: Primary six OL: Ordinary level CL: Collaborative Learning CLT: Communicative Language Teaching TL: Target Language
Foreword
A Module Methodology for Teaching English Language as a subject is one of the modules that
was developed to cater for teachers who are teaching various subjects that need a master of
English as a language of instruction. This is a module ONE which is purposefully for teaching
English as a subject from primary to secondary levels. Other modules are: A Module
Methodology for Teaching English Language for Sciences and ICT subjects and A Module
Methodology for Teaching English Language for social sciences and humanities subjects.
English is taught as a subject and at the same time it is the language of instruction from upper
primary school throughout university in the Education System in Rwanda since 2009-2010
academic year. Additionally, English is going to be a language of instruction from lower primary
onwards. Yet, as has been observed throughout the years, teachers’ proficiency in English
language is still low and needs to be improved in order for teachers to support students
effectively. The University of Rwanda, College of Education in collaboration with Rwanda
Education Board staff and some English teachers have developed the module on English
Language Teaching Methodologies to help teachers teaching English using the developed
Teacher Training and Self-Study Manual as one of the efforts to remedy the situation at Primary
and Secondary School levels.
To serve the different levels of needs and to include the most likely needed content, the Module
is organized into seven Units which are also subdivided into sections to make a detailed module
with necessary information for teachers.
More specifically, the outcomes expected from the study of English Language Teaching
Methodology Module are graded and correspond to a series of sections as presented below:
Unit One: Overview of language teaching methodologies
1.1. Introduction
1.2. Traditional Teaching Approaches
1.3. Modern Teaching Approaches
1.4. Language Teaching Methods in CBC
Unit Two: Communicative Language Teaching Approaches
2.1. Introduction
2.2. Communicative competence
2.3. Background to CLT
2.4. Characteristics of CLT
2.5. Types of activities used in CLT
2.6. Methods
2.7. Application of CLT in Rwandan ESL Classroom
2.7.1. The Learner’s Role
2.7.2. The Teacher’s Role
2.8. Grammar as integral part of all language skills
Unit Three: Teaching and Learning Listening
3.1. Introduction
3.2. Listening
3.3. Strategies
3.4. Activities
3.5. Teaching and Learning Aids
3.6. Assessment
3.7. Model lessons (beginners, intermediate and advanced)
Unit Four: Teaching and Learning Speaking
4.1. Strategies
4.2. Activities
4.3. Teaching and Learning Aids
4.4. Assessment
4.5. Model lessons (beginners, intermediate and advanced)
Unit Five: Teaching and Learning Reading
5.1. Strategies
5.2. Activities
5.3. Teaching and Learning Aids
5.4. Assessment
5.5. Model lessons (beginners, intermediate and advanced)
Unit Six: Teaching and Learning Writing
6.1. Strategies
3.2. Activities
3.3. Teaching and Learning Aids
3.4. Assessment
3.5. Model lessons (beginners, intermediate and advanced)
Overview of the Module
Aim and Objectives of this Module
General aim of the Module:
This module is designed for teachers who teach English as a subject at primary and secondary
levels, with the aim to helping them using various approaches and methods that enable them to
acquire and develop English language knowledge and skills. More specifically, it is geared to
helping them to use these methods for their personal and professional needs in the Rwandan
education system.
Specific objectives of the Module:
The English Language teaching methodology module will help the teachers to:
Improve their proficiency in English leading to effective teaching;
Be updated on 21st Century approaches and methods for practical English teaching in the
classroom, embedding Competence Based Curriculum (CBC) practices;
Improve 5 Big Skills (Speaking, Listening, Reading, Writing and viewing & Grammar)
for general English in the classrooms and in social and professional situations;
Improve lesson delivery in the English Language classroom
Units and model lessons in the Module
The Module Methodology for Teaching English Language as a subject comprises the model
lessons that fall under some units with language communicative skills (Speaking, Listening,
Reading, Writing and viewing & Grammar). The model lessons will guide teachers how to go
about the methods in this module in relation with the language communicative skills (Speaking,
Listening, Reading, Writing and viewing & Grammar) and to, also, help them learning English
Teacher Training and Self Study Manual.
Each unit has the sessions that are developed to make the teaching methods more clear for
teachers. The sessions incorporate: the introduction of each unit; the strategies to teaching and
learning a given skill; activities to support teaching and learning; teaching and learning resources
or aids; assessment methods to check if teaching and learning has taken place and the areas of
improvement as well as the model lessons to showcase the methods of teaching English language
in all language skills.
Internal Organization of Model lessons
The model lessons have been designed to serve as a model to highlight the methods used in
teaching English language and the language skills are also incorporated as an example. The
model lessons guide facilitators through all steps of a lesson; and are designed in a way that can
help individual teacher trainees to teach themselves and acquire desired skills of teaching.
The model lessons were designed basing on the lesson plan format suggested in CBC for
teachers to use the format they are familiar with.
Unit 1: Overview of language teaching methodologies
1.1. Introduction to the unit
For many decades, scholars in different domains, especially those concerned with language
teaching/learning have been trying to find a method, which can simplify the teaching/learning
process and enhance all the required language skills, and make it more fruitful for learners to
become competent to communicate in English. Since language is seen as a means of
communication and interaction between people, the best methods should be the ones which can
make learners more creative and more competent in communication. At different periods, from
Europe to America, language learning methods and approaches were introduced one after
another starting with the Grammar Translation Method to the recent advanced ones. However,
until now no single method has been recognised as the most suitable in bringing about
communicative competence, since each method presents both strengths and weaknesses.
1.2. Traditional teaching approaches
In this module, six approaches / methods for English language teaching are viewed as
traditional methods because they are considered as more teacher-centred than learner-centred.
APPROACH/METHOD 1: THE GRAMMAR TRANSLATION METHOD
Introduced around 1940s, the Grammar Translation method emphasizes the teaching of
grammar rules. It focuses on accuracy and writing, with little attention paid to speaking or
listening skills.
The main technique of Grammar Translation method
Translating from the target language to the mother tongue and vice versa, and the learners’
mother tongue is maintained as the reference system in the acquisition of the second
language. For example: teaching English by translating some words into Kinyarwanda.
Advantages and disadvantages of Grammar Translation Method in line with CBC
Advantages: It is easy to use as it makes few demands on teachers’ preparations.
Comparison between two languages helps learners to have a better understanding of the
meaning of difficult words and sentences.
Disadvantages: While approaches in CBC aim to promote learner-centred methods,
Grammar Translation Method tends to be excessively teacher-centred without promoting
communicative competence of learners. There is no interaction between the teacher and
learners, and among learners themselves. Another weakness is that learners lack social
contextual exposure to the target language because much of the teaching is done in their
mother tongue.
This method is applied by some teachers from early grades up to higher education in
Rwanda.
Application in the classroom:
Grammar translation method mainly focuses on the teaching of writing, reading and
grammar aspects of the target language and vocabulary.
The learners acquire the grammar of the target language explicitly and deductively. In
other words, they are taught the rules first, then they are given examples on these rules
and then they are asked to memorize those grammar rules, with examples. Later, they are
asked to make similar examples of sentences on their own.
The facilitator helps the learners to acquire new words in the target language and their
equivalent in their native language.
The following are the techniques that can be used by the facilitator to apply grammar
translation method in the classroom:
Technique 1: Translation: this is a technique whereby a facilitator tells the learners the
equivalent of new words learnt (acquired in the target language) in their mother tongue. But here,
the facilitator is advised not to over translate but rather translate where necessary.
Technique 2: Fill in the blanks: the learners are given sentences with blank space and are
required to fill in the gaps with new words that are missing.
Technique 3: Using words in sentences: after the facilitator has deeply explained the new
words, he/she asks the learners to use them in the sentences of their own and see whether they
can use the acquired words in a correct concept.
Technique 4: Using synonyms and antonyms: the facilitator gives a set of words to the
learners and asks them to identify the ones with similar meaning (synonyms) and those which are
opposite (antonyms)
Technique 5: Use of reading comprehension questions: the facilitator gives a passage or a
story to the learners to read, then he/she asks them questions to check whether they have
understood the passage (to assess the receptive reading skills).
The learners can also be asked to use some new words in the sentences in line with their daily
lives. The facilitator can also ask questions that require learners to think creatively in line with
what they have learnt. For example, you can ask them “if you were the author, how would you
end this passage?”
The above techniques help in teaching English itself and they help the learners to think critically
and creatively and be able to use the language in the context. However, as it was mentioned
earlier, the facilitator should make sure that the target language is used to promote
communication and translation should only be used when there is no other option to explain the
matter.
APPROACH/METHOD 2: THE DIRECT METHOD
The Direct Method was developed in the later 19th
century as a radical reaction to the Grammar
Translation Method in an attempt to integrate more use of the target language as a means of
instruction and communication in the language class.
Its principle suggests that the second language learning should be more like the first
language learning, there should be lots of oral interaction, spontaneous use; no
translation between first and second languages, and little or no analysis of grammatical
rules.
Advantages and disadvantages in line with CBC
Advantages:
The strengths of this method are to give learners different opportunities to master the
second language by strengthening oral interactions as a dominant mode of learning,
The method tries to present different language items to facilitate communication,
Grammar items are not explained, contrary to the Grammar translation method.
Rather, the teacher uses new grammar in context, which makes clear its form and
meaning.
Disadvantages:
The Direct Method requires teachers who are native speakers or who have native like-
fluency in the foreign language, yet, it is impossible to meet these requirements for all
language teachers all over the world,
It does not provide how to safeguard against misunderstanding without translating,
especially for some abstract ideas; without reference to the first language,
It is not clear about how it can be applied beyond elementary stage of language
learning.
Instead of acting as a facilitator, the teacher acts as a leader, and learners are to
answer his/her questions and imitate him/her which differ from the competence-based
curriculum principles.
Application in the classroom:
The direct method helps the learners to use only the target language inside the classroom
without relying on the mother tongue for translation or for understanding the lesson. By
the use of this method, the learners will learn the target language as they learn their
mother tongue without translation. Here are some of the techniques that can be used in
order to apply this method:
Use of teaching aids:
The teacher may use teaching aids like real objects, drawings or pictures for better
understanding rather than using translation. That means that the teacher is not supposed
to translate but rather to use all necessary techniques to explain the matter.
Contextualization:
The teacher tries to use English in real life meaning context by asking learners to talk
about themselves, tell their own stories,
Emphasis on the use of complete sentences:
The teacher should always encourage learners to use complete sentences. For example, if
you ask a learner “Are you happy”? The learner has to answer “yes, I am happy” rather
than saying “yes”.
Paragraph writing:
The teacher can ask the learners to write a paragraph about themselves then the teacher
gets the feedback about spelling, ideas, use of punctuation marks and facilitate according
to the level of the learners.
In brief, the teacher will use the above techniques and make sure that the teaching and
learning is taking place in the target language without referring to translation.
APPROACH/METHOD 3: THE AUDIO-LINGUAL METHOD (ALM)
This method finds its origins during the Second World War and it was initially designed by
American linguists to equip American military personnel with relevant language skills that
were urgently required.
Its fundamental principle is that “language items should be ‘over learned’ to the point
where they can be produced automatically and with total accuracy in response to
appropriate stimuli” (Littlewood, 1999, p.24).
It interprets language learning in terms of stimulus and response, with emphasis on
successful error-free learning.
It mainly focuses on speech, and then comes writing to promote communicative
abilities.
New materials to be taught are presented in the form of dialogues, structural patterns
are taught using repetitive drills or inductive grammar, while vocabulary is learned in
context.
Advantages and disadvantages in line with CBC
Advantages:
This method promotes memorization and playing dialogues, which help learners to
master the structure of language easily.
Disadvantages:
This method is based on behaviourism theory and it does not explain clearly how
children learn a language,
Its central assumption that language learning is a process of habit formation was
challenged by supporters of Chomsky’s theory, emphasizing the cognitive basis of
language learning and language use.
The Audio-Lingual method is seen as a teacher- centred method, where s/he provides
a model, and controls directions and pace. Learners act as producers of correct
responses, directed by the teacher.
Accordingly, the method on its own cannot be of good help in situations where
learners need to be stimulated and given time to familiarise with foreign language use.
Though speech is promoted, learners are not given time to exploit their potentials
themselves.
Application in the classroom:
The role of the teacher is directing and controlling the language behavior of the learners while
the learners are to follow the teacher’s directions and respond accurately and as rapidly as
possible.
Different techniques that should be used under this method are: dialogue memorization,
repetition drill, chain drill, dialogue completion, etc. by using the above methods, learners will
form new habits in target language.
APPROACH/METHOD 4: SUGGESTOPEDIA
This approach was initiated by a Bulgarian psychiatrist-educator Georgi Lozanov who claimed
that “learners naturally set up psychological barriers to learning, based on fear that they will be
unable to perform, and are limited in terms of their ability to learn.”
Its characteristics include the use of music particularly the “soft Music”, whose specific rhythm
and beats create a level of relaxed concentration that facilitates the retention of huge quantities of
materials. It also believes in the use of comfortable materials like chairs and dim lighting in the
classroom to create a more relaxed state of mind which accelerates the process by which the
learners learn to understand and use the target language (Brown, 2007).
Advantages and disadvantages in line with CBC
Advantages:
One of the advantages of Suggestopedia is that it gives the language teaching
profession some insights like believing in the power of human brain, knowing that
deliberately induced states or relaxation may be beneficial in the classroom.
Disadvantages:
This method is criticized of focusing on memorizing and giving complete control and
authority to the teacher.
Application in classroom:
As it was explained earlier, Suggestopedia is a method that is used to overcome the affective
filter (the internal and/or external barriers to learning).
Here, the teacher tries his/her best to create the conditions of feeling safe in the teaching
and learning and help learners to be comfortable.
The teacher uses music to change the perception of the learners about the classroom
environment and the learners feel relaxed.
The teacher’s role is to facilitate the learning in environment that is as comfortable as
possible through the use of music, comfortable chairs, learning posters, and decorations
featuring the target language.
The music is played in the background in order to increase mental relaxation and
potential to take in and retain new material during the lesson.
Errors are tolerated; the emphasis is put on content and not on structure.
Grammar and vocabulary are presented and given treatment from the teacher but not
dwelt on.
Homework is limited to learners.
Self-study is encouraged.
Learners’ responsibility is to take mental trips with the teacher and assume new roles and
names in the target language in order to become more open and more competent in
communication.
Music, drama and “the arts” are integrated into the learning process as often as possible.
Briefly, four stages are used in Suggestopedia:
Presentation: the teacher promises the learners that the learning is going to be easy and
fun. At this stage the teacher tries to remove fear from the learners and make them
relaxed.
Concert: the teacher presents the content with the accompaniment of the soft music
Primary Active phase: the learners playfully reread the target language individually or
in groups depending on the context.
Creative adaptation: the learners are engaged in various activities designed to help them
learn. That is singing, dancing, dramatizations, etc.
APPROACH/METHOD 5: TOTAL PHYSICAL RESPONSE (TPR)
TPR is a method of teaching language using physical movement to react to verbal input
(information). This method was developed by the psychologist James Asher (1974/1977) to
allow learners respond nonverbally (physically) to a series of teachers’ commands.
Main technique: This method is based on linking the language and physical movement.
Advantages and disadvantages of TPR in line with CBC
Advantages :
It is fun and easy.
It does not require much preparation on the part of the teacher.
It is a good tool for learning vocabulary.
It promotes learners’ listening comprehension of a second language before they are able
to speak.
Class size is not a problem.
Disadvantages:
It is not very creative because learners are not given the opportunity to express their own
views and thoughts in a creative way.
It is limited to the use of imperative.
Application in classroom:
The teacher asks learners to do something and they react with the body movement or action.
Example: The teacher says stand up, sit down, wave your arms, stamp your feet, smile, look at
the back, turn around … and learners respond with body action.
This method is said to be more practised among young learners of a foreign language to learn
vocabulary. However, adult learners might also use it as it might have been the case in Rwanda
when adult learners with French background were striving to master English after the shift to
English as a medium of instruction in 2009.
APPROACH/METHOD 6: THE SILENT WAY
The silent way was developed by Caleb Gattegno in 1963 to make learners learn the second
language independently by allowing the teachers to remain silent much of the time.
Its main technique: This method is based on the idea that language is not learned by
repeating after a model. In silent way, teaching is subordinate to learning and errors are
important and necessary for learning.
Advantages and disadvantages of the silent way method in line with CBC
Advantages :
It enables the teacher to remain silent most of the time
Learners are the ones to practise the language, not the teacher
Silent way encourages interaction among the learners
It develops learners’ self-exploration by discovering their own mistakes
It promotes creativity, discovery, increase in intelligent potency and long term
memory.
It encourages learners to be independent, autonomous and responsible
Disadvantages:
It limits the number of teachers who use it because they find it difficult to stick to
its requirement of keeping silent most of the time.
Lack of enough teacher’s guidance
Limited learning of sounds and pronunciation
Application in classroom:
With this method, the teacher models once, and then gives the students the opportunity to work
together to reproduce what has been modeled, while the teacher leads them towards correct
responses by nods or negative head shakes.
1.3. Modern Teaching Approaches
Eight modern approaches/methods for teaching English as a subject in line with CBC
Unlike the traditional approaches described in the previous section, this section focuses
on eight (8) modern approaches. They are considered as being more learner-centered than
teacher-centered.
APPROACH/METHOD 7: NATURAL APPROACH
The Natural Approach was developed by Krashen and Terrell in the early 1980s. It focuses on
boosting communicative competency through oral production, following the natural order of
acquiring the first language and by considering error correction as negative in terms of learners’
motivation and attitude.
Its main technique:
Like the direct method, this method focuses on the language use instead of language structure
and grammar rules. It is based on the theory of language acquisition, which assumes that speech
emerges in four stages:
Stage1: preproduction (listening and gestures),
Stage 2: early production (short phrases),
Stage 3: speech emergence (long phrases and sentences), and
Stage 4: intermediate fluency (conversation).
Advantages and disadvantages of Natural Approach in line with CBC
Advantages :
The Natural Approach is praised to develop oral language proficiency
Students acquire the target language in a natural and easy way
Teaching materials are designed very well.
The classroom consists of acquisition tools (visual aids) and meaningful activities
that can be an excellent environment for beginners’ learning.
Disadvantages:
It discourages error correction as well as the teaching of grammar forms
It focuses on listening and speaking over reading and writing
The Natural Approach is a method for beginners whereby a lot of vocabulary is exposed to
them. This is based on observation and interpretation on how a person acquires his/her first
language. It rejects the formal organization of language. It is not based on grammar. It is
based on communication. There is an emphasis on exposure. The central component is
communication, and not grammar.
Application in classroom:
To provide a clear message to learners, the teacher uses body language, gestures,
costumes, music/ song and visual aids such as maps and pictures along with word to
teach vocabulary.
Example:
The teacher: Is this an orange? (showing a picture of an orange)
Learners: Yes.
Teacher: And do you know what this is? (showing an apple)
Learners: No
The teacher: It is an apple. It is also a fruit and people eat it. (explaining with words and
gestures)
The teacher also creates fun activities that enable learners to speak in the target
language
Example:
At early grades, the teacher asks learners to look at the pictures of fruits and tell their partners
the type of fruit they like. Then each learner tells his/her partner their favourite fruit.
APPROACH/METHOD 8: COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE TEACHING (CLT)
The period between 1950 and 1980 is called “The Age of Methods” and was dominated by
more interactive views of language teaching which collectively came to be known as
Communicative Language Teaching. During this period, the development of communicative
competence became the target for various languages, and Communicative Language Teaching
approach (CLT) was proposed to be appropriate technique and principle for promoting such
competence.
Its main techniques:
It uses meaningful contextualised language. In other words, with CLT, the language is learnt
as a means of expression, using authentic and meaningful materials for classroom
communicative activities. It focuses on fluency and communication involving integration of
various language skills, and grammar is taught in context.
Advantages and disadvantages in line with CBC
Advantages:
CLT provides ‘whole task practice’.
It boosts learners’ motivation.
It creates contexts that support language learning.
It supports communicative language learning through natural learning.
Disadvantages:
The Communicative Language Teaching approach is criticised of:
Being exclusively concerned with the spoken language.
Being indifferent to grammar.
In practice, the teacher acts as a counselor, guide, organizer, facilitator, and manager of the
teaching/learning communication process, while the learner acts as a negotiator and an interactor.
In line with CBC, this method is recommended to be used in Rwandan context, since the target is
to produce learners who can communicate in English.
Application of CLT in the classroom:
CLT teachers choose classroom activities based on what they believe is going to be most
effective for students developing communicative abilities in the target language (TL). Oral
activities that promote collaboration and fluency are preferred over grammar drills and writing
activities. They vary based on the level of language class they are being used in. The set of
activities listed and explained below are commonly used in CLT classrooms using various
techniques:
Activity 1: Role play
- The teacher sets the scene: where is the conversation taking place? (e.g., in a shop, at a
bus station, at school, etc.)
- The teacher defines the goal of the learners' conversation. (e.g., the speaker is asking for
directions, the speaker is buying stuff in a shop, the speaker is talking about a movie they
recently watched, etc.)
- The learners converse in pairs for a designated amount of time.
Note: Teachers need to be aware of the differences between a conversation and just an utterance
because learners may use the same utterances repeatedly when doing this activity and not
actually have a creative conversation. If they do not regulate what kinds of conversations
learners are having, then the latter might not be truly improving their communication skills.
Activity 2:Interviews
- The teacher gives each learner the same set of questions to ask a partner.
- learners take turns asking and answering the questions in pairs.
This is an activity that should be used primarily in the lower levels of language classes, because
it will be most beneficial to lower-level speakers. Higher-level speakers should be having
unpredictable conversations in the TL, where neither the questions nor the answers are expected.
Activity 3: Group work
- Learners are assigned a group of no more than six people.
- Learners are assigned a specific role within the group. (E.g., member A, member B, etc.)
- The teacher gives each group the same task to complete.
- Learners are asked to focus on one piece of information only, which increases their
comprehension of that information.
- Each member of the group takes a designated amount of time to work on the part of the
task to which they are assigned.
- The members of the group discuss the information they have found, with each other and
put it all together to complete the task.
Activity 4: Information gap
- The class is paired up. One partner in each pair is Partner A, and the other is Partner B.
- All the learners that are Partner A are given a sheet of paper with a timetable on it. The
timetable is filled in half-way, but some of the boxes are empty.
- All the learners that are Partner B are given a sheet of paper with a timetable on it. The
boxes that are empty on Partner A's timetable are filled in on Partner B's. There are also
empty boxes on Partner B's timetable, but they are filled in on Partner A's.
- The partners must work together to ask about and supply each other with the information
they are both missing, to complete each other's timetables.
Activity 5: Opinion sharing
- The teacher introduces a topic and asks learners to give their opinions about it. (e.g.,drug
abuse, school dress codes, global warming)
- The learners talk in pairs or small groups, debating their opinions on the topic.
Note: Respect is key with this activity. If a learner does not feel like their opinion is respected by
the teacher or their peers, then they will not feel comfortable sharing, and they will not receive
the communicative benefits of this activity.
Activity 6: Scavenger hunt
- The teacher gives learners a sheet of paper with instructions on it. (e.g. Find someone
who has a birthday in the same month as yours.)
- Learners go around the classroom asking and answering questions about each other.
- The learners wish to find all the answers they need to complete the scavenger hunt.
Note: If certain vocabulary should be used in learners' conversations, or a certain grammar is
necessary to complete the activity, then teachers should incorporate that into the scavenger hunt.
The same should happen with writing and reading skills. In fact, writing and speaking should
also be incorporated in the above mentioned activities. The tasks should be relevant, realistic and
encourage learners to write with a clear purpose and for a clear audience. They should also
support writing with reading.
APPROACH/METHOD 9: PRESENTATION, PRACTICE AND PRODUCTION (PPP)
APPROACH
It is a language teaching approach related to communicative language teaching and built on 3
stages in its practice i.e Presentation, Practice and Production.
Its main technique:
(i)In presentation, the teacher contextualises and clarifies a language item to be learnt.
(ii) In practice, the learners repeat the item, use their creativity by working in pairs or group.
(iii) In production, the learners produce a similar activity, create and communicate as
independent users of the language.
Advantages and disadvantages in line with CBC
Advantages :
- PPP is said to be a straight forward approach and structured enough to be easily
understood by both learners and new or emerging teachers,
- It is also seen as a good approach to start with in terms of applying communicative
language teaching in the classroom.
Disadvantages: The PPP Approach is criticised for its characteristic that makes it an
easy method for new teachers, as well as being over-controlled by the teacher.
Application in classroom:
First, the teacher contextualises and clarifies a language item to be learnt, then the learners repeat
the item, use their creativity by working in pairs or group; and finally they produce a similar
activity, create and communicate as independent users of the language.
APPROACH/METHOD 10: TASK-BASED LANGUAGE TEACHING (TBLT) OR TASK-
BASED LEARNING (TBL)
Task-based language teaching is an approach where the planning of learning materials and
teaching sessions are based around doing a task.
Its main technique: Teaching a language by engaging learners in real language use in the
classroom, which is done by designing task-discussions, problems, games, and any other tasks
that require learners to use the language for themselves. Hence, a task-based lesson would
probably involve not a single task, but a sequence of tasks or a series of activities.
Advantages and disadvantages in line with CBC
Advantages:
The strengths for this method include the fact that it promotes learners’ confidence by
providing them with plenty of opportunities to use language in the classroom and outside,
with plenty of tasks, without being constantly afraid of making mistakes.
The teacher acts as a model and a facilitator, allowing learners to engage in
communication with freedom to use the language. It also strengthens the communicative
competence while recognizing the importance of grammar.
Disadvantages:
The main criticism for this approach is that it might be tricky for some teachers because
they do not all have sufficient practical skills to organise task-based activities perfectly.
Its applicability to lower learning levels tends to be difficult.
It needs time for proper execution, that is, it cannot be rushed to bear results.
Application in classroom
In this method the teacher designs various tasks according to the level of the learners. These
tasks are incorporated in the lesson. They can be used at the beginning of the lesson, during the
lesson, at the end of the lesson and/or be taken as homework. A factor to consider in this method
is that the teacher is at his/her most active self; by playing the role of facilitator, mediator among
others.
Examples of tasks include and not limited to,
Group work guided by the teacher
Presentations facilitated by the teacher
Homework
Story writing and story reading
Poem recitals
Creative writing
Acting plays among others.
APPROACH/METHOD 11: CONTENT AND LANGUAGE INTEGRATED LEARNING
(CLIL) APPROACH
- The focus is put on teaching content using the target language
- Students learn and use English language to talk about content topics (they learn by doing)
- CLIL enables students to learn about various subjects as they listen to, talk about, read
about and write about the content
- CLIL incorporates subject-specific vocabulary in lessons.
- Conversation activities in CLIL classes are very important to help students develop the
ability to listen, speak about the subjects and use the subject- specific vocabulary along
with key sentence structures and other languages.
- Students read a variety of texts and use these to converse about subjects.
- To enhance sensory learning, different types of media are used to present and practice
language including pictures and images, video and audio, and text.
- In a CLIL lesson, learners tick appropriate areas that promote CLIL: content; cognition;
communication and community. Learners engage in learning about something, learning
to do something, learning to express it and how it relates to a community.
Advantages and disadvantages in line with CBC
Advantages:
- It enables to practise the language (English) while learning any other subject.
- It increases the language level.
- It is a natural way of learning a language.
- It fosters thinking ability by using language.
- It uses a wide range of tasks.
- Learners make more cognitive effort.
Disadvantages:
- CLIL may not be applied properly if learners and teachers do not have enough linguistic
competence in English.
- Some teachers may not feel concerned to focus on English when teaching other subjects.
- Learners may not feel motivated to learn and use English while learning other subjects.
Its main technique: CLIL encourages teaching content as integrated language learning.
Application in classroom:
The teacher carefully chooses language used to present content and uses the same language
repeatedly and consistently.
The teacher maintains a positive, enthusiastic attitude, praises learners often, uses positive
reinforcement and guides the learners to correct responses.
When time allows, he/she expands on topics to encourage more conversation and deeper
thinking. The activities need to be interesting, varied and adjusted to the abilities of the learners.
The activities have to be in line with the life situations and experiences of the learners.
At the end of the activity, the teacher discusses the progress of the learners, praises them and
mentions specific ways they are doing well. Then follows the step of reflection on practice, self-
evaluation checklist, whereby, the teacher and the learners review the teaching effectiveness and
consider ways to improve and plan improvements.
Approach/method 12: Larsen-Freeman’s Three Dimensional Grammar Model
Introduced and developed around 2000 by Larsen-Freeman, the Three Dimensional Grammar
Model focuses mainly on teaching grammar or grammatical structures.
Its main technique: It has three components of focus, which are the following:
Component 1: The form of the grammatical structure:
Here, the teacher presents the form, which is the grammatical structure in most of the
cases. For example: The lesson of the day is the grammatical structure of “must +
verb”, like in ‘I must go to the market’. The form which is presented by the teacher is:
“must + base form of verb or infinitive without to”.
Component 2: The meaning of the grammatical structure:
With component 2, the teacher explains that this form “must + base form of verb or
infinitive without to” expresses ‘obligation or necessity’ like in the sentence “I must
eat”.
Component 3: The use of the grammatical structure:
The teacher indicates that this structure is mainly used in formal structure, and it is used much
more in writing than in speaking. For instance, in speaking, people tend to use “I have to eat”,
or “I have to go”; instead of “I must go” or “I must eat”, which is more found in written form
than in spoken form.
Its advantages and disadvantages in line with CBC
Advantages:
This model tends to promote CBC practices because it enables the learners to go beyond
the form of the grammatical structure, and analyse the meaning of the structure and most
importantly focus on the use, which is a component that enables the learner to practise
and use it in his/her daily language use.
This method involves both the teacher and the learner, with the learners practising more
with the use of the structure, where they provide examples on how this structure is used
in daily communication.
Disadvantages:
With this model, learners may make mistakes if they do not master the three dimensions,
altogether, that is the form, the meaning and the use. Those learners may form the structure
correctly, but still make mistakes on the meaning and the use.
Hence, English teachers in pre-primary, in primary and in secondary schools apply this method
quite often, as it tends to be practical.
Application in classroom:
In the classroom, the teachers and the learners focus on three aspects: The teacher
presents the form of the grammatical structure and practises it with learners; then the
teacher and learners analyse the meaning associated with that structure; and finally,
the teacher and learners apply its use in daily communication.
APPROACH/METHOD 13: ECLECTIC APPROACH
This method was emphasized in 2001 as one of the best practices for language-teaching
methodologies, especially for teaching grammar in context.
Its main technique: It is guided by the ‘eclectic view’, which is a combination of various
methods, which are combined in the same lesson, to ensure the effectiveness of teaching and
learning.
The combination of different methods confirms that the strengths from those different
methods are brought in the classroom to strengthen the effective learning and teaching of the
language. It reinforces CBC because it engages the learner with practical activities, which are
drawn from several methods that are used in one single lesson, at all levels of education, from
pre-primary up to higher education.
Its advantages and disadvantages in line with CBC
Advantages
This approach supports CBC practices, because it has six characteristics, which promote CBC
practices. These are the following:
Practice 1: Learners should learn and practise grammar in a natural sequence, starting with
listening, then speaking, reading, and writing. This is CBC in practice, with integration of all
the five Big Skills in every lesson.
Practice 2: The teacher uses charts, actions, pictures and objects to present the target
grammatical item. CBC cherishes this because grammatical structures are practised through
concrete actions, which are done by both the teacher and the learners. In this practice, both the
teacher and learners are active participants in the lesson, which is the focus of CBC.
Practice 3: Contexts for instruction should come from everyday life. This is because the
content to be used and the examples must be drawn from the learners’ environment, from
what they already know, to make the lesson lively and easy to understand, on the side of the
learners. This is one of CBC practices, which is putting the learners at the centre of learning.
Practice 4: Classroom activities should be interactive. This again promotes CBC since
learners interact in the classroom, developing their communicative skills, and reinforcing their
communicative competences, practising together with their teachers.
Practice 5: Instruction should combine form, meaning and use. This reminds the components
of Three Dimensional Grammar Model, which was described as a promoter of CBC, where
the learners and their teachers observe the form of the grammatical structure first, then
identify its meaning and then practise its use in their daily language use. Again, this is CBC in
practice.
Practice 6: Lessons should include pronunciation practice. Here again, the correct
pronunciation for English words and English sounds is practised to promote CBC, where
learners practise a lot on the pronunciation components.
Application in the classroom:
This approach is applicable in early grade, in upper Primary, in lower secondary and even
beyond. The teachers with the learners apply this method in the classroom by undergoing the six
practices mentioned above. Each practice demonstrates features of a specific method, and that is
why the combination of various methods makes it ‘eclectic’, giving it a particular characteristic
as a compilation of several complementary methods within a single lesson.
APPROACH/METHOD 14: MULTIMEDIA TECHNOLOGY IN LANGUAGE
TEACHING OR COMPUTER-ASSISTED LANGUAGE LEARNING (CALL)
Multimedia technology in language teaching or computer-assisted language learning (CALL)
is described as one of the 21stcentury methods for teaching and learning. This is because the
21stcentury is the era of globalization that imposes communication in various languages,
including English, French, Kiswahili, Kinyarwanda and many other languages through
various new technologies.
Its origin and main technique:
Computer-assisted language learning emerged in the 1980s as a potential tool for
teaching languages, including English as a second or a foreign language (Hanson-
Smith, 1997).
Teaching the second language using technology or multimedia applies various types of
technological devices such as Computers, Radio, TV, CD Rom, DVD’s or VCD’s,
Internet, Electronic Dictionary, Email, Blogs and Audio Cassettes, Power Point,
Videos, and many others (Shyamlee, 2012).
Its advantages and disadvantages in line with CBC
Advantages:
This approach supports CBC practices, because it presents several advantages, which
promote quick interactions between learners, among learners and their teachers, and
between the school and the community at large, and this is what CBC in practice
promotes.
CALL gives access to plenty of materials and resources in English. Here, it is
estimated that over 80% of information stored on the internet is in English, and when
you apply CALL, you read and access these resources.
The use of multimedia and network technology provides learners with rich sources,
authentic learning materials, vivid pictures, pleasant sounds, attractive interface, and
authentic language environment.
Teachers who use Multimedia Technology give more colourful and stimulating
lectures to their learners.
Teaching language by using technological devices offers space that promotes learners’
high level of motivation and learning interest.
Computer-assisted Language Teaching promotes cooperative language learning to the
higher extent than the traditional methods.
The most effective aspect of using multimedia technology in language teaching is that
learners from any age and any level, together with their teachers are very motivated,
and they access the content and the resources both at school and outside the school.
Disadvantage:
Access to new technologies is not easy for all schools and it is very expensive
Teachers and learners need training in digital literacy
Application in the classroom:
To apply the method effectively, the teacher uses various types of technological
devices to promote language practices. He/she lets the learners access the content
through computers, Radio, TV, CD Rom, DVD’s or VCD’s, Internet, Email, Blogs
and Audio Cassettes.
Learners interact with the content by reading Power Point, Videos, audio-visual
materials and other online materials, like electronic dictionary, online materials, etc.
In the classroom, the teaching and the practices are mediated by these electronic
devices, giving learners opportunity to learn and practise the language effectively.
1.4. Key features of Competency-Based Language Teaching
Competency-Based Language Teaching is an application of the principles of Competency-Based
Education to language teaching. In Competency-Based Education (CBE) the focus is on the
outcomes or outputs of learning. Language learning always needs to be connected to the social
context it is used in. Therefore, language is seen as a medium of interaction and communication
between people who need to achieve specific goals and purposes. The following are key features
of a CBC-based language teaching and learning:
Feature 1: Language is taught to prepare the learners for the different demands of the world.
Feature 2. Language is always taught for communication using concrete tasks where specific
language forms and skills are developed.
Feature 3. Task- or performance-centred orientation. The focus is on what the learners can do
with the language rather than claiming to have knowledge of the language
Feature 4. The competencies should be developed systematically into manageable parts so as to
enable both the teacher and learners to handle the content and realize their progress.
Feature 5. Outcomes are made explicit and a priority. “Outcomes are public knowledge, known
and agreed upon by both learners and teachers”. Therefore, the learners clearly know what
behaviours and skills are expected of them.
Feature 6. Formative assessment is conducted to assess learners’ level of proficiency to
determine which skills they need. Summative assessment is conducted after instructions to
ascertain whether they have achieved the required skills to promote competences.
Feature 7. Demonstrated mastery of performance objectives. The assessment is based on the
learners’ performance of specific behaviours instead of traditional paper-and-pencil-tests.
Feature 8. Individualized, student-centred instruction. The instructions given by the teacher are
not time-based but the focus is on the progress the individual students make at their own rate.
Therefore, the teacher has to concentrate on each individual student to support them in those
areas where they need to develop competence.
Teacher’s Role
The teacher has to:
Provide positive and constructive feedback in order to help the learners improve their
skills.
Be aware of the learners’ needs so that everybody feels welcome in class
Give clear instructions and explanations to make sure that every learner understands the
task
Motivate learners to learn because the learner’s progress is the most important
Set learning activities based on competencies that learners need to acquire
Be a role model
Come up with strategies
Be eager to learn, cope and adapt with time
Learner’s Role
Learners have to:
Negotiate with the teacher about the competencies that they need to develop so that they
exactly know what is expected from them.
Participate actively in deciding whether or not the competencies are useful and relevant
for them
Be able to adapt and transfer knowledge from one setting to another.
Materials
The materials the teacher chooses are mainly texts and other adequate resources that
promote competencies.
These materials are used to provide the learners with the essential skills, knowledge,
attitudes, and behaviours required for effective performance.
They should include resources that promote listening, speaking, reading and writing
competencies.
Procedure
At the beginning of a course in a competency-based framework the learners have to go
through an initial assessment, in which the teacher determines the current proficiency
level of the individual learner.
After the initial assessment, learners are grouped on the basis of their current English
proficiency level, their learning pace, their needs, and their social goals for learning
English.
A course based on Competence-Based Learning and Teaching (CBLT) is divided into three
stages.
At stages 1 and 2, learners deal with twelve competencies which are related to general
language development.
At stage 3, learners are grouped on the basis of their learning goals, and competencies are
defined according to the three syllabus strands of General English, Professional English and
Business English.
These stages can be applicable to all educational levels, from primary school to university, and
from academic studies to workplace training.
It is argued that through the clearly defined outcomes and the continuous feedback in CBLT, the
quality of assessment as well as the learners’ learning and teaching are improved. It is to be
emphasized that the business of improving learning competencies and skills will remain one of
the world’s fastest growing industries and priorities in the future.
Unit Two: Communicative Language Teaching Approaches
2.1. Introduction to the unit
In this unit, you will learn what communication is and its implication in language teaching with
the relevant approaches that will enhance your language teaching skills. You will also learn the
background to Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) and the characteristics of
Communicative Language Teaching. You will learn types of activities that apply to CLT and
related methods. You will be able to apply Communicative Language Teaching to a Rwandan
classroom with a focus on the role of the teacher and learners respectively. Grammar will be
viewed as an integral part of all language skills.
2.2. Communicative competence
Before talking of communication competence, it is important to understand what communication
is about and how it works. Indeed, communication competence is the ability to interact with a
purpose to express a meaningful message. For this reason, teaching is a communication
enterprise (process). Both the teacher and the learner can be the senders or receivers of the
message (the content to teach/learn). For the message to reach well the receiver, there are factors
that should be considered for communication to take place: the context, the message, the
channel, and the feedback as it is illustrated in the following diagram:
Source: Bright (2020)
The teacher can be the sender when he/she is the sender of message to the learners. On the other
hand, learners can be senders of the message when they initiate the message such as asking
questions, giving their complement... This may happen among themselves or between learners
and the teacher (in group discussions, role plays, in dialogues, etc.).
The most important element of communication is feedback. Feedback ensures the sender that
communication has been effective. That means the message has reached the receiver and has
been well understood. In this view, therefore, language teaching should emphasize this
communication which is the heart of teaching.
Communication finds its root from rhetoric, the art of convincing and persuading people. This art
makes someone believe that what you are saying is correct. It is the art of speaking and writing
effectively. Specifically, rhetoric is the study of speaking or writing as a means of
communication. For this reason, there are three factors to persuade and convince an audience:
1. The authority of the speaker who is the teacher in our context
2. The argumentation of speech to explain their subjects content to learners
3. The emotion that the speech provokes in the leaners
Thus, to convince learners, teachers should please, teach and arouse emotions in them.
However, various language forms may be used to convince learners. For example: The teacher
may give reasons while explaining an idea to leaners. They may provoke emotion in leaners
when telling a story to learners. The teacher may show how to cook using a video or photograph
where cooking takes place.
Based on this background, Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) has been introduced in
Rwandan curricula. As it is a new approach in Rwandan schools, this unit tackles CLT in detail.
This will help Rwandan teachers of English to effectively understand a variety of practices they
should use to improve the teaching of English. It will also advance effective use of English as a
medium of instruction. Language is for communication and to communicate, a teacher should be
able to speak the language before they teach it.
To learn a language, activities should reflect a real communication environment that promotes
learning. In addition, meaningful tasks should be used to promote learning. This is why, a
language teacher should select topics to teach that are interesting to the learner. Communicative
approach emphasises the importance of three elements that a teacher should use in a language
class:
1. Communication: activities that involve real communication attract language learners.
2. Tasks: activities in which language is used to carry out meaningful tasks will support the
learning process.
3. Meaning: language that is meaningful and authentic to the learner will develop their
learning.
What is competence?
Competence is a set of demonstrable characteristics and skills that enable and improve the
efficiency of job performance. Competence also means practical and theoretical knowldedge,
cognitive skills, behaviours and values that improve performance. Competence means all
performance, abilities, and skills have been engaged into achieving tasks.
Communicative competence (CC) can be defined as the ability to use language or to
communicate appropriately. This makes language users accomplish social tasks with efficacy
and fluency through interactions. According to this definition:
- Learners should be able to use language to form grammatical sentences.
- Learners should demonstrate inclusion of socio-cultural component of cultural
appropriateness
- Learners should be able to make meaning, not merely repeating without understanding.
- Learners should use language effectively to accomplish their desired tasks fluently.
- Learners must be able to achieve these communicative tasks in social, extended interactions
wherein they have the skills and understanding to decode and encode messages with
appropriate socio-cultural intent.
Through understanding these components, as an English language teacher you can more clearly
understand the intended goal or results of your lessons. You have to ensure you support the
learners and teach them to become active users of the language.
Models of Communicative Competence
There are four components of communicative competence:
(i) Grammatical competence includes knowledge of phonology (language sound
system), orthography (spelling of words), vocabulary, word formation and sentence formation.
(ii) Sociolinguistic competence: It is concerned with the learners' ability to handle for example
settings, topics and communicative functions to identify how the language is used by society.
(iii) Discourse competence means the learners’ understanding and producing texts in the modes
of listening, speaking, reading and writing. It deals with cohesion and coherence in different
types of texts.
(iv) Strategic competence focuses on compensatory strategies that can compensate grammar in
speech. For example the use of vocabulary, verb forms, and parts of speech that are difficult to
use.
Techniques of Communicative Language Teaching:
You will use dialogues to make learners practice conversation with peers in a given
situation. For example buying drugs, selling in a shop, etc.
You need to ensure contextualization while teaching English: Meaning cannot be
understood out of context. Teachers using this approach will present a grammar topic in a
meaningful context. Example: If the new topic to teach is Present Continuous, the teacher
will not mime the action of ‘walking’ and ask: What am I doing? I am walking. Instead, the
teacher will show, say, pictures of her last trip and tell the students something like: I have
pictures of my vacation. Look, in this picture I am with my friends. We are having lunch at a
very expensive restaurant. In this other picture, we are swimming at the beach.
you may use drilling (listening to a model, provided by the teacher, or a tape or another
student, and repeating what is heard) secondarily and not very often
You will use translation when you see that students need it or will benefit from it.
As a teacher of English you need to give learners exercises on reading and writing from the
first day.
Communicative competence is the desired goal (i.e., the ability to use the linguistic system
effectively and appropriately).
Teachers help learners in any way that motivates them to work with the language.
Students are expected to interact with other people, either in the flesh, through pair and
group work, or in their writings.
2.3. Background to CLT
The rising tendency to concentrate on the communicative potential of language in the 1960s led
to the development of a brand new complex approach which later became known as
Communicative Language Teaching (CLT). CLT was meant to replace the two most influential
approaches to EFL teaching at that time:
- Situational Language Teaching (SLT) in Britain and
- Audiolingualism in the United States.
Both SLT and Audiolingualism were based on the behaviorist theory which claims that language
learning, like any other learning, takes place through habit formation. (Richards and Rodgers
2001). Even though that they did not share their origin, both of the two approaches viewed
orientation on grammatical structures as the core of EFL learning. Learning involved a lot of
- memorising,
- drilling, and
- controlled practice.
In addition, Situational Language Teaching emphasized
- the need to relate language forms to appropriate contexts.
- Learners were supposed to learn and practice fixed patterns of language which were
likely to be used in different real-life situations.
Critics of SLT and Audiolingualism objected to the belief that language learning equals habit
formation. They felt that memorising patterns inevitably leads to certain rigidity in
communication. Chomsky claimed that “language is not a habit structure. Ordinary linguistic
behaviour characteristically involves innovation, formation of new sentences and patterns in
accordance with rules of great abstractness and intricacy“ (1966: 153). The task to reassess and
reformulate the goals of EFL teaching so as to ensure unlimited, free language production started
to occupy brains of the most prominent linguists both in the UK and USA. The idea to make the
ability to communicate well became the focus of EFL teaching and resulted in the invention of
CLT.
2.4. Characteristics of CLT
Communicative Language Teaching focuses on building communicative competence.
Proponents (advocates) of the approach believe that:
- The goal of EFL teaching should be enhancing the ability to communicate using the
language rather than teaching the language itself – that is, its grammatical and
syntactical rules.
- They argue that it was the desire to communicate that led to the invention and consequent
development of languages and that language serves as only a means to fulfill our need to
communicate.
The proponents of Communicative Language Teaching suppose that once the learners
concentrate on how they can communicate what they really want to say, they will be able to
relate to what they are taught more, their intrinsic motivation will rise and they will learn the
language with more ease. That is why
- teachers are supposed to engage learners in tasks which involve authentic, meaningful
language, rather than mechanical practice.
- language should be contextualized as much as possible to prevent the learners from
wondering what a certain exercise might be good for.
2.5. Types of activities used in CLT
Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) is based on the main goal of involving students in
meaningful communication using the target language. There are many activity types that can be
used in the classroom to achieve that goal. The following are the main ones of them:
Communicative activities:
In these activities students use the language in real-life communicative situations where real
information is exchanged and authentic language is used. In addition, the language used is not
predictable.
E.g.: when asking about directions and how to get to certain places; the nearest bus stop
/market/church/health centre, bar or petrol station.
1. Information-gap activities:
You will encourage students to do this kind of activities to communicate meaningfully to obtain
information.
E.g.: divide students into pairs to practise role-playing. Each student has information that the
other doesn’t know. One student asks for information on taxi parks, prices, the time, food stuffs,
drinks, crops, domestic animal, wild animals… etc.
2. Task-completion activities (puzzles, games, reading a map, … etc.)
In these tasks you focus on using the language resources to complete a task.
3. Information-gathering activities (survey, interviews, searches, … etc.)
In these activities you ask students to use the language resources to collect information.
4. Opinion-sharing activities:
In these activities you ask students to share their values, opinions and beliefs such as listing the
most important qualities of a good teacher/ best friend/brother /sister /cousin/ etc.
5. Information-transfer activities:
In these activities you ask students to take information from one form and represent it in a
different form.
E.g. reading information about a something and represent it in a graph or a map.
6. Reasoning-gap activities:
In these activities you ask students to derive or to infer information from given information.
E.g.: deriving information from the classroom timetable.
2.6. Methods used in CLT class
Communicative Language Teaching means an approach to language teaching rather than any
specific method. The centre of attention is put on the learners and enriching their communicative
competence. Nevertheless, the learner´s linguistic competence has to be constantly improved as
well so as to form a solid base for fluent production of language. In this regard,
- New language structures are presented, explained, and practised.
- Ideally, any new words and phrases should be contextualized.
- Likewise, written and spoken forms of any new words and phrases ought to be provided,
as well as their grammatical and syntactic properties, all possible meanings, their position
in the utterance, level of formality, collocations in which they appear etc. Whenever the
learners are expected to learn a new structure, they should always be taught how the
language functions are performed.
- If the new language comprises any grammatical rules, the teacher should prefer the
inductive approach to direct explanation. It means to let the learners explore the rules
themselves through the analysis of usage and examples from which the rules can be
explained.
- Once the learners are familiar with the new language to the extent that they are able to
apply their knowledge in independent work, they practise tasks meaningfully.
- They most often work in pairs or small groups, so that they are given enough space to
communicate and cooperate with peers.
- Preferably, the teacher should choose such tasks to which the learners would be able to
relate, so that they can best acquire the relationship between structures and their functions
for effective communication.
Communicative Language Teaching gives priority to holistic approach to language teaching.
This means that no language skill should be taught in isolation. They are ideally linked and two
or more skills should be employed simultaneously whenever possible.
2.7. Application of CLT in Rwandan ESL Class
Activity: As a teacher of English in early grades, upper primary or lower secondary,
reflect on the following questions.
- What do you know about the status of English in Rwanda?
- How do you link this status with the currect teaching practices in your class?
- Referring to your English teaching experience, briefly explain the extent to which you are
familiar with CLT approach.
- Think about possible factors that enable the CLT application in Rwandan English classes.
- Identify any barriers you think can lead to inapropriate use of CLT in Rwandan English
classes. Suggest any possible solution for each.
Since its introduction, CLT has been appreciated as an effective teaching approach in many
countries where English is used a s second language. It has been acknowledged as an appropriate
way of enabling language learners to effectively develop their communicative competence. The
same approach has been embraced in Rwanda given the status of English in the context and its
importance all over the world.
With the introduction of the competence- based curriculum in Rwanda, English language
teachers had to adjust their teaching practice so as to enable the learners to develop the required
competences in English all of them focusing on communicative competence. The CLT approach
fits in this regard. In spite of its novelty, English teachers understand its relevance and they are
eager to apply it. If there are possible challenges that can affect the effective use of CLT, there
should be commitment and efforts and strategies to overcome them.
2.7.1. The Learner’s Role in CLT application
It is clear from what has been written that CLT, more than many other “traditional” approaches,
requires:
Learners’ active participation,
The learners to feel that they are part of the group and they share responsibility with
others, since CLT promotes cooperative learning.
The learners to feel confident as communicators so as to prevent them from feeling that
they are “outsiders” and cannot keep up with their peers.
Each learner to be aware of their equal role in the communication. For any learner who is
not doing very well, others should try to help him/her overcome the obstacles that prevent
them from communicating.
2.7.2. The Teacher’s Role in CLT application
The role of the teacher shifts from being purely language instructor to rather
functioning as facilitator of learning and communication,
As a teacher, you remain the classroom manager,
You select the areas to be taught and activities to be incorporated,
You decide about the seating arrangements, division of learners into groups or
pairs etc.
The tendency should be to pass greater responsibility for the learners´ progress
onto the learners themselves.
The learners should feel comfortable and secure. Here, you need to create a
cordial, supportive, and speaking-friendly atmosphere.
Teachers also have a big role in establishing warmer, more personal relationship
among the learners.
The choice of activities, their attractiveness and contribution to learning matter a
great deal as well. These activities also require your careful attention when
planning the lessons as a teacher.
CLT also emphasizes the significance of analysing the learners´ needs and
adjusting the approach according to them.
The teacher should be familiar with each of their learners´ individual
characteristics, the purpose they learn English for, their strong and weak points,
and make use of this knowledge in their teaching as much as possible.
Apart from facilitating learning, the teacher monitors the learners´ performance
when they are practising communicative activities.
The teacher should not interfere unless a learner cannot cope with their tasks and
the others are not able to help them either.
The teacher still functions as a resource of knowledge and thus provides help with
language and guidance whenever asked.
As a teacher, you can join learners to form a pair or group and become one of the
participants.
A teacher who takes part in communicative activities can reduce shyness and
anxiety of the learners.
During the activities, the teacher acts as an advisor and answers students’
questions.
2.8. Grammar as integral part of all language skills
Learners and teachers deal with grammatical structures while developing listening,
speaking, writing and reading skills.
The teachers prepare lessons in a way that enable learners to figure out new grammatical
structures and how they work in context.
The teacher has a great responsibility to guide learners to develop other skills while
learning a new grammatical structure.
Such guidance helps learners to get less frustrated since the core objective is
communication rather than writing correct sentences.
UNIT 3: TEACHING AND LEARNING LISTENING SKILLS
3.1. Introduction
Listening is the most important skills because it is the first skills we learn whether we learn the
first language, second or third language. It precedes the other skills (speaking, writing, and
reading). Hence, the most important communication skill to learn. It can take place anywhere:
at school, at work place, in the market, etc. As such, it should be given much importance,
especially in early grades.
What should be understood by listening skills?
Listening skills includes the ability to:
Receive sounds of speech through ears and understand the meaning of what the speaker
has tried to convey. That is absorbing, grasping or assimilating message.
Understand information from the speaker based on prior knowledge, experience,
perception and cognitive power.
Decode audio messages
Show interest in what is being said or discussed
Provide feedback
Remember the information heard: the message assimilated by the listener is stored in
listener’s memory for future recall
Receive and interpret messages
Paraphrase/rephrase what you have heard
Pay attention and interest in what they hear
What is the importance of listening skills?
Listening skills help learners:
to understand the message conveyed by the speaker
to speak clearly to other people
to pronounce words properly
to use proper intonation
to place stress in words and sentences
to be heard and understood by speakers without effort.
What are the purposes of listening?
The purpose of listening depends on the situation and nature of communication, but; generally
people listen for the following purposes:
To get the main point
To focus on the message being communicated, avoiding distractions and preconceptions
To gain a full and accurate understanding into the speakers’ point of view and ideas
To assess what is being said (appreciative listening)
To observe the non-verbal signals accompanying what is being said in oral
communication to enhance understanding
For enjoyment
To identify with the speaker (Empathic listening)
To use many senses such as listening to a lecture, getting directions (physical or on the
phone, i.e. active listening;
To take notes: this is often an issue in an academic environment
To evaluate the content or the message (Critical Listening).
To identify what is key: the name of a person, location, etc.
3.2. Listening strategies
Listening strategies include those that the learner deploys to overcome some particular learning
problems and adopt linguistic behaviours and non-linguistic behaviours that enable them to
perform in the second language acquisition and to acquire some vocabulary in the language they
are learning.
- Listening to clips: clips are kept simple; they must be short and easy to understand.
- Reducing distraction: keep the learners focused and keep the sound level down.
- Context: Learners are given the context so that they may understand; the material must be
slightly above the learner’s level of understanding.
- Repetition: Learners listen to the video clips more than once. You can pick out words or
phrases you may have missed the first time, and have an idea of what the listening
materials are about. It helps the listener to grasp the meaning of key words. The
availability of playback options for listening depends on which media player is used, but
media like ‘YouTube’, and Visible Light Communication (VLC) media player all allow
these kinds of speed adjustments. All you need is to take an audio file, and adjust the
playback speed until you can understand what is being said.
- Use of video clips and songs with a script: The learner listens to a song or video clips
without a script, then with a scrip and then without script. This can improve their
pronunciation and grasp words meanings.
- Taking notes: Learning happens best when it is done actively. When you learn, you are
engaged in what you are doing and take action to process new information. If learning is
not active, you will absorb less information, and even run the risk of forgetting what you
learned quickly. One of the best ways to be active when listening, is to acquire skills
through taking notes because, this may improve comprehension and retain vocabulary.
- Writing summaries: Learners paraphrase what they hear so that it makes sense. This helps
understand and remember what was heard. Function words such as “the,” ‘a”, are skipped
when taking notes.
- Being attentive: Listening requires attention, otherwise the learner may miss the core
message being communicated.
- Listening to materials that are comprehensible and accessible: Use audio content that
is slightly above your current skill level to avoid frustration. The materials you choose need
to be relevant and interesting to you as a person while the content needs to be enjoyable
and interesting.
- Practicing: Listen at slow, moderate, and fast speeds should the practice
3.3. Activities for teaching listening skills
When teaching listening skills, the following activities can be helpful:
Watching clips from movies and TV shows
Here, the teacher picks short clips of movies to include in the lesson. After listening to the clip,
the learner writes a report, e.g. on some characters. The teacher can also ask questions such as
what is the name of the main character? What is their job? What was they trying to say?
Describe how they looked. What was their personality like?
Using authentic content
Some authentic videos like music videos, cartoons, documentaries may be used. The learners
can also watch the News at Home for Fun, they can be assigned homework that involves
watching the news in English. This will help them engage in different cultures which is
important for the English language learning process.
Using songs in class
Using songs helps learning vocabulary and pronounce words correctly. Here, the learners
deeply understand word meanings and it is a great way to explain words that rhyme.
Alternatively, learners can be given a song to listen to once, twice or three times, depending on
the case and fill in blanks of the song script.
Acting out scenarios in role play
In this case, learners act out a scenario in front of the classroom. For example, if the
lesson for that day is on “Introductions in meeting people.” Her is the situation: two
learners read a dialogue and other learners have to listen and answer questions on the
dialogue. After having two learners volunteer to act out the scene in front of the class, the
asks the rest of the class comprehension questions.
Reading aloud in class: partner gap-fill activity
This is done in pairs. One learner reads the piece of information on a script, while the other
listens. As the latter listens with a script in hands, he or she fills the blanks in the script with the
correct information according to the reading.
Hidden picture: a learner describes the picture his or her classmates who takes notes. The
teacher describes the pictures and learners write down some information that have been
mentioned.
Gap filling: learners fill in blanks after listening to a passage read by the teacher.
Listen and do activities: e.g. Simon says: “Stand up!”; Simon says: “Stand up if you are a
girl.” Simon says: “Raise up your right hand if you are a boy!”
Relay message: learners are organized in group of two people or more. Each group is
composed of a writer and a runner (runners). A massage is posted at the other end of the
room. The runner runs to the message, reads the message (words, a sentence, or a number
of sentences), and try to remember what they have read. The runner goes back to the writer
to relay part of the message that they memorized and the writer must write it as accurately
as possible. The score is based on speed and accuracy
Back to back interview: learners sit back to back. One is the interviewer another one is an
interviewee. The interviewee is given a famous person role to play and is interviewed. The
interviewer writes answers as fast as possible. The fastest interviewer is the winner.
The following listening activities in games form will be particularly interesting for lower grade
learners:
Broken telephone
Start with single words for young learners and slowly move up to groups pf words
(phrases) (e.g. a black and white goat), then entire sentences as the learners become
more competent at listening (Pater like to watch TV) . Make up a word, a group of
words and whisper it into the leaner ear. The child whispers it in the next learner ear,
who continues passing the message to other learners. The last learner to hear the
message says it out loud. The phrases often change and the message is broken. The
teacher may vary phrases
I went to the zoo and I saw a ……
Choose any animal names; then, start saying “I went to the zoo and I saw a monkey.” The
learner then responds with “I went to the zoo and I saw a monkey and a lion!” You
respond like this: “I went to the zoo and I saw a monkey, a lion and a tortoise!”. For each
turn, repeat the animals that have already been listed, in sequence, then add a new one.
You may not repeat an animal.
Which one is the odd one out?
This activity develops listening for a particular piece of information. Say a string of
words to your learners that are part of a particular theme or category. Insert one word into
the set that does not belong there and ask learners to identify the word that does not
belong to the category. E.g apple, banana, leopard, pear and apricot. The word ‘leopard’
is an animal but the rest of the words are types of fruits. Start off with an easy example
and later make the categories less obvious or make the odd word of a slightly different
category.
Adjective drawing
After teaching various adjectives (big, small, long, short, tall, high, low, etc.) give each
learner a piece of paper. Say an adjective / noun combination and the learners have to
draw it (e.g. draw a long snake, draw a big house, etc.). It is fun to make silly words
(draw a small elephant). The teacher should also draw anything to encourage learners
with his or her drawing so he or she can compare his or her picture with those of the
learners at the end of the activity.
Blindfold walk
The teacher tells the learner: go forward, go backwards 3 steps, turn right or left. Then place a
blindfold on a learner and direct him/her around the room to eventually pick up a flashcard or
object (e.g. “Go forward 3 steps, turn right, go forward 5 steps, now go backwards 2 steps, turn
left, etc.). Finally, have students work in pairs – one blindfolded and one giving directions.
Guess what it is
Arrange learners into teams of 3 or 4. Then everyone sits and listens carefully to the teacher for
a description of something or someone (e.g. “This is an animal which lives in Africa and Asia
loves taking baths. It flaps its ears to keep cool. It has a really long nose.” The answer is:
elephant.
3.4. Teaching aids
Any device that helps to teach can be called teaching aid. e.g. Blackboard or whiteboard, smart
board (traditional or modern). They are also referred to as instructional materials.
Listening teaching aids include audio or audio-visual resources including: radio, tape recorder,
CD players, video player, speakers, projector, digital screens, computer, and smart phones.
Learners will listen to two kinds of resources:
Authentic materials: The English heard on TV or radio, the English heard outside the
classroom.
Book materials: scripted talk by one person or scripted dialogue between two people, listening
task from a course book.
The following listening resources will be used:
Videos: Videos help the learner not only to hear and understand what is being said, they also
allow the learner to understand body language and provides valuable visual cues for your
listening practice.
Podcasts and radio/online radio: These are very important resources in that they cover a
variety of topics and speaking styles.
Music: Listening to music gives you a look at the creative and poetic side of a language.
News: News provides you with more formal, standard use of the language, combined with
contemporary topics.
Lessons: Lessons allow you to listen to English in a structured environment. This is really
helpful for beginners of English.
Note: Materials are indispensable in teaching and learning. However, the teacher should be able
not only to use them, but also, to create materials that are not available, e.g. TALULAR
(Teaching and Learning Using Available Resources).
Appropriateness of listening resources to be used:
It is often challenging to find the right types of resources for language teaching and particular for
listening materials for English classes. However, while selecting materials, the teacher should
bear in mind that, materials must serve to achieve the desired level of comprehension and
conversational skills. The learners must be exposed to a variety of speech with different speeds
and different topics and speakers with various accents so that they can develop their listening
skills. The appropriateness of listening resources will largely depend up on the following:
Context: The context of the story or resource needs to be relevant to what the learners are
learning or reading. If the learner does not find it engaging, or cannot relate to the story, they will
find it harder to maintain the focus they need to understand the material.
Comprehension Level: The resource needs to match the level of comprehension for the learner.
Depending on whether the learners are just starting out or are more advanced in their learning,
there is need to adjust so that each learner can get the most out of the resource and not feel
completely lost.
Transcripts: Resources that also include transcripts are often incredibly helpful for the learner.
Learners can be given the option to reference transcripts so that they can work on both their
listening and reading skills. Using a video can be helpful for learners so they can see body
language and pick up even more of the conversation. However, captions in their native language
is not advised as they can prevent the learners from focusing on the new language.
Critical Thinking: Make sure the content helps your learners think deeply about a given topic,
so that they can conduct their own analysis. It is advised to use debate and discussion formats as
well as written responses before and after listening exercises to help with critical thinking.
Standards Alignment: It is necessary to make sure that the lesson will lend itself well to what
the learners need to know for their grade level. This is directly applicable to English Language
Learners (ELLs) because, it will ensure that they have the information they need to advance in
the local school system.
3.5. Assessment of listening skills
Assessment tasks commonly used for assessing listening skills are as follows.
Intensive listening tasks
- Distinguishing phonemic pairs: grass – glass; leave – live
- Distinguishing morphological pairs: miss – missed;
- Distinguishing stress patterns: I can go; I can’t go
- Paraphrase recognition: I come from Taiwan; I’m Taiwanese
- Repetitions: repeat a word
Responsive listening tasks
- Question: What time is it? Or how do you make it?
- Multiple choice responses
- Open ended responses
- Simple discourse sequences: Hello, nice weather. Tough text
Selective listening tasks
- Listening cloze: Students fill in the blanks.
- Verbal information transfer: Students give multiple choice (MC) verbal response.
- Picture cued information transfer: Students choose a picture.
- Chart completion: Students fill in a grid.
- Sentence repetition: Students repeat stimulus sentence.
Extensive listening tasks
- Dictation: Students listen (usually 3 times) and write a paragraph.
- Dialogue: Students hear dialogue and answer MC comprehension questions.
- Dialogue: Students hear dialogue and give open ended response.
- Lecture: Students take notes, summarize, and list main points
- Interpretive tasks: Students hear a poem – interpret meaning.
- Stories/narrative: Students retell a story.
3.6 Model lessons
LESSON PLANs
School Name: …………………………... Teacher’s name: … ……………………………………
Term Date Subject Class Unit
No
Lesson
No
Duration Class size
I 3March 2020 English P1 7 06 of 28 40
Minutes
45 pupils
Type of Special Educational Needs to be catered for
in this lesson and number of learners in each
category
None
Unit title Welcome to the Classroom
Key Unit
Competence To use language learnt in the context of the classroom
Title of the lesson Giving and following instructions
Instructional
Objective
After giving some instruction words, learners will be able to listen and respond to instructions
accordingly.
Plan for this Class
(location: in /
outside)
Inside the classroom.
Learning Materials
(for all learners)
A recorded text and a record player, text scripts, and cut-ups
References REB. (2019). Success English For Rwandan Schools Primary 1 Pupil’s Book, Kigali :REB
Timing for
each step
Description of teaching and learning activity Generic competences
and
Cross-cutting issues to be
addressed
+
a short explanation
Learners practice listening through “listen and do” and
“whispering game” activities.
Teacher activities Learner activities
Introduction
05 minutes
The teacher introduces
learners to the “Simon says
game”
Learners play the game
repeating what the teacher says.
Communication is developed
through responding correctly
to the teacher’s instructions.
Development
30 minutes.
-The teacher creates actions for some instruction words: e.g. clap; listen (tug ear), look (point to eye) and pupils imitate and say the words - (listen and do activity) -The teacher puts learners in pairs, in each pair one learner is A another one is B. A gives instruction to B who has to respond, and vice versa. The teacher guides learners to the “Whispering game” activity.
Learners contribute to some
instruction words.
Learners join their respective
groups and work as instructed.
Learners practice listening as
instructed by the teacher.
Learners play a whispering
game.
Collaboration is developed by
making learners work together
in pairs.
Conclusion
5minutes
The teacher guides learners
to the song “we all sing
together” to emphasize
giving and following
instructions.
(the use of songs)
Learners sing along with the
teacher as they follow
instructions.
Peace and values education is encouraged as they do
various actions together.
Teacher
self-
evaluation
The teacher reflects on success of the lesson and areas that need improvement in future lesson.
LESSON PLAN listening
School Name: …………………………... Teacher’s name: … ………………………………………
Term Date Subject Class Unit
No
Lesson
No
Duration Class size
I 3 March2020 English P4 7 6 of 28 40
Minutes
45 pupils.
Type of Special Educational Needs to be catered for
in this lesson and number of learners in each
category
None
Unit title Our school
Key Unit
Competence To use language learnt in the context of our school.
Title of the lesson Listening to a short text about subjects
Instructional After given audio/talk scripts, learners will be able to listen about a favorite subject and
Objective answer the questions correctly.
Plan for this Class
(location: in /
outside)
Inside the classroom.
Learning Materials
(for all learners)
A recorded text and a record player, text scripts, and cut-ups.
References REB. (2019). Primary Learner’s English for Rwandan schools P4, Kigali:
REB
Timing for
each step
Description of teaching and learning activity Generic competences
and
Cross cutting issues to be
addressed
+
a short explanation
Learners listen to the audio, arrange the cut-ups and do the gap
filling activity to improve their listening skills.
Teacher’s activities Learner’s activities
Introduction
05 minutes
Ask learners:
- what radio programme do
you like to listen to, and
why?
Learners discuss in groups of
four, their favorite radio
programmes.
Communication will be
developed by making learners
ask and respond to questions
because they will be listening
and answering.
Development
of the lesson
30 minutes
-The teacher provides a
general question.
-The teacher tells learners
that they are going to listen to
the audio or a person talking
about his or her favorite
subject. As learners listen to
the audio, the teacher stops
the audio for few a seconds
to check comprehension.
Then he or she asks learners
to write down on a sheet of
paper what they have listened
to. This could be just the
name of the person or thing
they have heard them talk
about.
-The teacher elicits answers.
-The teacher gives the cut-up
audio script.
Asks learners to put it in the
correct order.
-He/she plays the recording
-They then provide the answers
to the general question.
-Learners listen to the audio or
the person’s talk about his or
her favorite subject.
-The learners put the cut- ups in
the correct order.
They listen to the audio again to
check if they have a correct
piece of the audio/talk.
Communication is developed
through learners’ active
listening.
Problem solving is created in
the learners as they learn to
find solutions while putting the
cut-ups in the correct order.
and ask learners to check if
they have the correct order.
He/she gives the feedback.
Conclusion
5minutes
The teacher asks the learners
to say what they have heard
from the talk.
The teacher gives learners an
information gap activity they
perform individually first.
(Gap filling)
The teacher corrects learners’
activity. Then he or she asks
them to work in pair to
compare their answers to the
gaps.
Learners say what they have
heard from the talk.
Learners fill in the gap exercise
with the words/phrases heard
from the audio. Then they
compare answers with their pair.
Critical thinking is promoted
when learners find the
appropriate words to fill in the
gaps correctly.
Teacher
self-
evaluation
The teacher reflects on success of the lesson and areas that need improvement in future lesson.
LESSON PLAN
School Name: …………………………... Teacher’s name: ………………………………
Term Date Subject Class Unit
No
Lesson
No
Duratio
n
Class size
I 22 /03/ 2020 English S1 2 1 of 20 40min 49 learners
Type of Special Educational Needs to be catered for
in this lesson and number of learners in each
category
None
Unit title Food and Nutrition
Key Unit
Competence
To use the language learnt in the context of Food and Nutrition
Title of the lesson Introduction to Food and Nutrition
Instructional
Objective
Through observation and back to back interview, learners will be able to listen and answer
questions about healthy eating and food fluently.
Plan for this Class
(location: in /
outside)
In classroom
Learning Materials
(for all learners)
Pictures of foods, student books, Teacher Guide p26-28
References Macharia.M.et al.(2016). Achievers English for Rwandan Schools Student Book S1, Kigali: East African Educational Publishers Ltd.
Timing for
each step
Description of teaching and learning activity Generic competences
and
Cross cutting issues to be addressed
+
a short explanation
Learners observe the pictures, identify different foods
from pictures. Back to back interview will be used in
the development of the lesson and then learners answer
comprehension questions before writing the homework.
Teacher activities Learner activities
Introduction
5min
Show the learners
the pictures of
foods
Ask to identify
the foods
Observe the pictures of different
types of food
Identify foods
Critical thinking:
Developed when they get to identify
food from different pictures of foods.
Developmen
t of the
lesson
25min
Tell learners that
the lesson is
about food and
nutrition
Tell learners to
use back to back
interview and
ask each other
why they eat
food.
Ask learners to
study the poems
silently
Model reading of
the poems loudly
Lead learners in a
question and ask
them to answer
the
comprehension
questions
Listen to teacher telling them about
new lesson
Leaners answer the question:
Why do you eat food?
Study the poems silently
Listen attentively to the teacher
reading the poems
Answer the comprehension
questions
Communication:
It will be developed once they get to
copy down quickly what they heard
from their fellow learners.
Standardization culture:
They get to
understand the utility of snacks and
healthy food and solve some
weaknesses in the eating habits in the
society.
Conclusion
5min
Evaluation
5min
Lead learners to
sum up the lesson
Tell learners to
answer question
1&3 of activity 2
and question 3 of
activity 3
Give a
homework:
Sum up the lesson
Answer the evaluation questions
from their books (Activity 2&3)
Do the homework at home and
Critical thinking:
These questions lead learners to their
own analysis.
Listen to your
family members’
ordinaryl meal.
What snacks do
they have?
And ask them to
write summary of
what they heard
summarise what their family
members told them.
Lifelong learning:
It will be developed once they
demonstrate their self- motivated
pursuit of knowledge at home.
Teacher
self-
evaluation
The teacher reflects on success of the lesson and areas that need improvement in future lesson
Unit Four: Teaching and Learning Speaking skills
Introduction to the unit
Like other language skills, developing English speaking skills is like stepping up a ladder. This
means that it goes step by step. One of the tips is that you as a teacher should speak to your
learners in English. Don't worry if you are not fluent because we learn through mistakes. The
more you practise the more you improve your oral skills and help your learners improve theirs.
Also, you should help learners to speak English through active and appropriate approaches,
activities, materials.
Developing English speaking skills goes step by step like stepping up a ladder.
Source: https://www.google.com/search?q=ladder&tbm=isch&chips=q:ladder,g_1:climbing
This unit aims at equipping Teachers of English with skills needed to teach speaking at
different levels of language learning in Rwandan basic education. It comprises competence-
based strategies, activities, teaching and learning materials as well as assessment strategies. This
enhances teaching English as foreign language (EFL). A number of sample lessons have also
been designed for modeling the teaching of speaking at primary and lower secondary levels.
4.1. Strategies and activities for teaching and learning speaking skills
The strategies below can be used at different levels to help learners of EFL/ESL develop their
English speaking skills with confidence and fluency.
4.1.1. Strategies of teaching speaking to lower primary
Before young learners learn to speak a foreign language as the first of their output (production),
young leaners listen to words, phrases or sentences as their first input. This is to mean that they
listen first and then speak.
Among the 21st century methods of language teaching, many linguists and teachers agree that
learners learn to speak the second or foreign language by interacting in that language. Therefore,
the following strategies serve the best to teach English with a focus on developing oral skills in
lower primary.
At lower primary, learners have little attention and concentration. To get their attention and brain
you need to meet the learners’ brain’s needs. Teach speaking the way they like. Make their
learning fun. Let them move, most of the speaking activities done, it should be done with
physical movement.
Vocabulary is important for young learners. Their first step in speaking is to learn vocabulary
that will help them to express themselves. They have to learn vocabulary in a funny style and
make a lot of repetitions. Here are some strategies to help lower primary learners listen and
understand the meaning of words and sentences:
A. Total Physical Response (mostly primary 1)
Teacher’s role Learner’s role Resou
rces
Methodology
Repeat words and
sentences several
times with
movement, gestures
and drawings
keep demonstrating
and maintain
sequence
Check their
understanding by
say the
words/sentences in
the same sequence
listen and imitate your
movement/ gestures
keep listening and
imitating your
movement/ gestures
do the movement/
gestures alone
TPR
B. Drilling (It can be also used at other levels of language learning)
Teacher’s activity Learner’s activity Resources Methodology
Shows a picture and
says its name (videos
with pictures and
sound can be used
where possible)
Look at the picture
and repeat what the
teacher says
Picture
or
Audio-visual
materials (video)
This is a strategy to learn pronunciation of a new language item by imitating and
repeating words, phrases, and even whole utterances. It functions to make learners pay
attention to the new materials and emphasize words, phrases, or utterances on learners’
mind. It can also help learners move new items from working memory to long term
memory and provide means of gaining articulatory control over language. Therefore,
more advanced level learners can listen to a model, provided by the teacher, another
student or a tape and repeating what they hear. This technique is used to learn vocabulary
and develop both speaking and reading skills.
C. Songs (mostly used in lower primary)
At lower primary level
Identify a song that contains several examples of the vocabulary items you are
currently teaching or that you intend to teach soon.
For lower primary, the teachers sings small parts of the song with meaningful
body movement and gestures
Tell learners to repeat after you
Repeat the song and gestures with learners until they have understood and
memorized it
At a more advanced level (upper primary and lower secondary):
Write or distribute a written song to learners
Write or distribute a number of questions for learners to discuss in English for
their understanding of the song’s message.
Questions can include what their message of the song is, how the song made them
feel, what emotions are expressed by the song, comparisons to other songs they have
heard in class or other styles of music, whether they enjoy listening to that singer or
musical genre (and why), etc.
Provide a revision of any vocabulary grammatical structures that might be useful
for formulating a response to the questions.
Sing or play the song for learners to repeat
D. Memory games
Below are some memory games used in teaching speaking skills.
i. Picture describing (for lower primary)
Teacher’s activity Learner’sactivity Resources Methodology
Draw pictures and ask
learners what they are.
Match different pictures to
Look at the pictures and
say their names or
describe them.
Pictures Total physical
response (TPR)
make a story.
Show one picture after
another in a sequence that
can help learners to form an
idea or a story.
Example: show a picture of
a cold person by making
gesture of shivering/
trembling. Then show an
open door and rain and ask
learners to say/describe
what they can see.
Ask learners to discuss and
make a sentence/ idea/ story
from the pictures.
Facilitate the activity and
provide feedback
Look at the sequence of
pictures and try to form
an idea or a story.
Discuss and tell names
of pictures: (1) a child/
man who is cold, (2) a
door (open door), (3)
rain (or it is raining/
rainy)
Learners discuss and
make a sentence/
idea/story
Examples: the man is
cold because it is
raining/ The door is
open.
The man wants to close
the door because it is
raining and cold.
ii. Back to the board game for learning vocabulary
This is the same as the ‘hot seat game’, activity D. in the section of upper primary and lower
secondary of this unit. What is different is the level of complexity.
iii. “Simon says” game
Teacher’s role Learner’s role Resources Methodology
Explain rules of the
game and model
Give instructions/
commands starting
with, Simon says, …..
Choose a learner to be
‘Simon’
Understand rules of the game.
Do what ‘Simon’ says.
Simon (a learner) gives instructions/
commands and others respond to
TPR
Tell the learners to
identify a learner who
fails to obey the
commands to be out
of the game.
Thanks learners for
participation and
congratulates winners
them
Examples
Simon Says,“,Clap your
hands.”
Simon Says, “Snap your
fingers.”
Simon Says,” Turn around.’
Identify winners and losers
Note that Simon Says is a game for children of all ages. However, you always need to be
mindful of the children’s age and language proficiency level if you want them to learn and have
fun. Thus, you need to introduce command based on their level.
4.1.2. Teaching speaking to upper primary and lower secondary (upper beginners and
intermediate)
A. Questions to a partner (Learner A and learner B)
Teacher’s activity Learner’s activity Resources Methodology
Make a list of questions
for learner A and a list of
different questions to
learner B to engage them
in conversation
Moderate and help
learners to ask follow up
questions to maximize
learners talking time
They ask each other
questions and respond
to them
Ask follow up
questions to maximize
talking with guidance
of the teacher
Flash cards or sheets
of papers with
questions for
pairconversation.
CLT
Tips for success: Learners need to have the content and vocabulary related to the topics of their
questions. The teacher ensures appropriate modeling and monitoring of this activity.
Note that this is a good way to engage learner and maximizes their talking time.
You can use this activity to help learners use well some grammatical structure such as tenses when
you for example include questions like: What did you do yesterday?
B. Survey
Teacher’s activity Learner’s activity Resources Methodology used
Make a list of questions
and give them to learners.
Ring or give a sign for
learners to switch to the
next person.
Learners walk around
and ask one or two
questions to a
different person one
by one.
Write the answers
given by their partners
and report to class.
A flash cards or a
sheets of papers with
questions (The teacher
can also write
questions on the board
and learners copy
them in their
notebook before they
start survey).
CLT
Speaking is paired
with writing skills.
Learner talking ratio
dominates the teacher
talking time.
Advantages: Learners like this activity because they love to walk around the class and talk to some
of their friends they have not talked to before.
This exercise is good for helping learners to use reported speech (grammar integrated into
other skills).
Note that This exercise requires learners to know the content and vocabulary related topic of
questions. Also, the teacher needs to model and manage well the exercise. Otherwise, learners make
it fun and speak their mother tongue.
C. Running sentences
Teacher’s activity Learner’s activity Resources Methodology used
Start a sentence, an idea
or a story and ask
learners to continue
Complete or continue
the sentence/
idea/story
One student starts with
the sentence or the
story and stops, the
next continues and
stops, then the next
and next until they end
the sentence or the
story
CLT
Advantages: This can be a great exercise for teaching conditionals, tenses, and other
grammatical structures
For example
One learner say, “If I had a million I would buy a car”. Another continues saying, “If I
bought a car I would go to lake Kivu.” The next says, “ If I went to lake Kivu I would eat
fish.”, and so on.
You say, “ Last Sunday, I woke up at six in the morning.” Then ask learners to add more
activities they do on Sunday one by one.
Note that this exercise can also be used to teach and learn writing skills.
D. Hot seat (also called Back to the board game)
Teacher’s activity Learner’s activity Resources Methodology used
Put learners into groups
of 3 or 4 and tell one to
sit in a way that s/he
does look at the board
(i.e a hot seat).
Write a word or a phrase
on the board and tell
each group members to
explain it to their
members on a hot seat
to guess the word or
phrase.
Make it competitive by
telling learners that the
first group to describe it
quickly and help their
member to be the first to
discover or guess it will
be awarded a mark
Example: write
swimming
Praise the learner who
Learners make groups
and one of them sits at
a place where s/he
does not look at the
board.
Each group tries to
define or explain the
word or phrase as
quick as possible for
their member to guess
it before other groups.
Group member explain
or describe it as,
“activity or sport that
you do in water or in a
swimming pool,” or
“moving yourself
through water.”
As soon as a member
on a hot seat
understands the
meaning, s/he guesses
Chalkboard CLT
discovered the word or
phrase and ask him/her
to share how his/her
members explained it to
him/her
At the end, announce
the group that has more
marks as the ‘winners’
and congratulate them.
the word and loudly
says, “ swimming”
The learner who
guesses the word first
shares how his/ her
group members
described it
Advantages: It helps learners to have fun in learning vocabulary.
Note that the teacher is required to set the ground rules and moderate so that learners do not
make a lot of noise
E. Discussions
Teacher’s activity Learner’s activity Resources Methodology used
Form groups of learners,
preferably 4 or 5 in each
group
Provide controversial
sentences like “people
learn best when they
read vs. people learn
best when they travel”
Equally divide speaking
opportunity among
group members
Encourage learners to
ask questions,
paraphrase ideas,
express support, check
for clarification, and so
on.
Guide learners to assess
themselves and decide
on the winning group
who defended the idea
appropiately.
Works on their topic
for a given/specific
time period
Presents their opinions
to the class
Assess their own
discussion
This activity fosters critical thinking and quick decision makingLearners learn how to express
and justify themselves in polite ways while disagreeing with the others. For efficient group
discussions, it is always better not to form large groups, because shy learners may avoid
contributing in large groups. The group members can be either assigned by the teacher or they
may determine it by themselves. But the groups should be rearranged in every discussion
activity so that learners can work with various people and learn to be open to different ideas.
F. Role Play
Teacher’s activity Learner’s activity Resources Methodology used
Give information to the
learners such as who
they are and what they
do, think or feel.
Describe the scenario of
learners’ role play
Example: "You are
David, you go to the
doctor and tell him
what happened to
you last night,
and…" (Harmer,
1984)
Guide learners
preparing their role
play.
Role play the scenario
Assess their role play
CLT
G. Simulations
In simulations, learners can bring items to the class to create a realistic environment. For
instance, if a learner is acting as a singer, she brings a microphone to sing and so on. Role play
and simulations have many advantages. First, since they are entertaining, they motivate the
learners. They increase the self-confidence of hesitant learners, because in role play and
simulation activities, they will have a different role and do not have to speak for themselves,
which means they do not have to take the same responsibility.
H. Information Gap
In this activity, learners are supposed to be working in pairs. One learner will have the
information that his/her partner does not have and the partners will share their information.
Information gap activities serve many purposes such as solving a problem or collecting
information. Also, each partner plays an important role because the task cannot be completed if
the partners do not provide the information the others need. These activities are effective because
everybody has the opportunity to talk extensively in the target language.
I. Brainstorming
On a given topic, learners can produce ideas in a limited time. Depending on the context, either
individual or group, Brainstorming is effective because learners generate ideas quickly and
freely. The good characteristics of Brainstorming is that the learners are not criticized for their
ideas so, they will be open to sharing new ideas.
J. Storytelling
Learners can briefly summarize a tale or story they heard from somebody beforehand, or they
may create their own stories to tell their classmates. Story telling fosters creative thinking. It also
helps learners to express ideas in the format of introduction development, and, conclusion..
Learners also can tell riddles or jokes. For instance, at the very beginning of each class session,
the teacher may call a few learners to tell short riddles or jokes as a warm up. In this way, not
only will the teacher address learners’ speaking ability, but also get the attention of the class.
K. Interviews
Learners can conduct interviews on selected topics with various people. It is a good idea that the
teacher provides a rubric to learners so that they know which type of questions they can ask or
what path to follow, but learners should prepare their own interview questions. Conducting
interviews with people gives them a chance to practice their speaking ability not only in class but
also outside and helps them becoming socialized. After interviews, each learner can present his
or her study to the class. Moreover, learners can interview each other and "introduce" his or her
partner to the class.
L. Story Completion
This is a very enjoyable, whole-class, free-speaking activity for which learners sit in a circle. For
this activity, a teacher starts to tell a story, but after a few sentences he or she stops narrating.
Then, each learner starts to narrate from the point where the the teacher has stopped. Each
learner is supposed to add from four to ten sentences. Learners can add new characters, events,
descriptions and so on.
M. Reporting
Before coming to class, learners are asked to read a newspaper or magazine and, in class, they
report to their friends what they find as the most interesting news. Learners can also talk about
whether they have experienced anything worth telling their friends in their daily lives before
class.
N. Playing Cards
In this game, learners should form groups of four. Each suit will represent a topic. For instance:
Diamonds: Earning money
Hearts: Love and relationships
Spades: An unforgettable memory
Clubs: Best teacher
Each learner in a group will choose a card. Then, each learner will write 4-5 questions about that
topic to ask the other people in the group. For example:
If the topic "Diamonds: Earning Money" is selected, here are some possible questions:
Is money important in your life? Why?
What is the easiest way of earning money?
What do you think about lottery? Etc.
However, the teacher should state at the very beginning of the activity that learners are not
allowed to prepare yes-no questions, because by saying yes or no learners get little practice in
spoken language production. Rather, learners ask open-ended questions to each other so that
they reply in complete sentences.
Depending on available resources, the teachers can be creative to introduce this activity using
flash cards, sheets of papers, etc.
O. Picture Narrating
This activity is based on several sequential pictures. Learners are asked to tell the story taking
place in the sequential pictures by paying attention to the criteria provided by the teacher as a
rubric. Rubrics can include the vocabulary or structures they need to use while narrating.
P. Picture Describing
Another way to make use of pictures in a speaking activity is to give learners just one picture and
having them describe what it is in the picture. For this activity learners can form groups and each
group is given a different picture. Learners discuss the picture with their groups, then a
spokesperson for each group describes the picture to the whole class. This activity fosters the
creativity and imagination of the learners as well as their public speaking skills.
Q. Find the Difference
For this activity learners can work in pairs and each couple is given two different pictures, for
example, picture of boys playing football and another picture of girls playing tennis. Learners in
pairs discuss the similarities and/or differences in the pictures.
More complex scenarios can be created for lower secondary learners.
Important elements to consider when teaching speaking skills
Some suggestions for English language teachers while teaching oral language:
Provide maximum opportunity to learners to speak the target language by providing a
rich environment that contains collaborative work, authentic materials and tasks, and
shared knowledge.
Try to involve each learner in every speaking activity; for this aim, practice different
ways of student participation.
Reduce teacher speaking time in class while increasing learner speaking time. Step back
and observe learners.
Indicate positive signs when commenting on a learner's response.
Ask eliciting questions such as "What do you mean? How did you reach that
conclusion?" in order to prompt learners to speak more.
Provide oral feedback like "Your presentation was really great; It was a good job; I really
appreciated your efforts in preparing the materials and efficient use of your voice…"
Do not correct learners ' pronunciation mistakes very often while they are speaking.
Correction should not distract student from his or her speech. Rather, listen to all the
mistakes and correct them when giving feedback.
Involve speaking activities not only in class but also beyond classes Circulate around
classroom to ensure that learners are on the right track and see whether they need your
help while they work in groups or pairs.
Provide the vocabulary beforehand that learners need in speaking activities.
Diagnose problems faced by learners who have difficulties in expressing themselves in
the target language and provide more opportunities to practice the spoken language.
4.2. Teaching and Learning Aids for teaching speaking skills
Speaking can simply be defined as conveying messages verbally from one to another.
Unlike writing and reading, speaking involves “verbal and non-verbal signals” to which the
listener needs to pay attention to understand what the speaker is saying. This means that in face
to face oral communication, a listener not only receives and hears what the speaker says but can
also give feedback or a response in terms of what has been heard.
One of the evidences of learners’ English mastery is speaking. It is the learners’ performance,
which is normally performed when they share any information to the others. It is why the success
of the learners in learning a language is commonly judged from their speaking performance, in
private and public. It means that if the learners do not perform well in their speaking, people will
judge them as unsuccessful language learners. Consequently, as language learners, they must be
able to speak the language that they learn.
Speaking is a multi-sensory activity because it involves paralinguistic features such as eye
contact, facial expressions, gestures, tempo, pauses, voice quality changes, and variations in
pitch (voice projection and vocal variety), which affect the flow of conversation.
In addition to strategies and activities that were tackled earlier, there is a number of teaching aids
that can help learners to develop their fluency in speaking English.
1. Visual aids
Visuals aids can be used to help enhance the meaning of the message trying to be conveyed by
the speakers., The learners observe the visual aids and exercise the speaking skill by interpreting
what they have observed.
2. Manufactured Visual Aids
These involve picture drawings of different things, living and non-living. Before using
manufactured visual aids, the facilitator has to consider the following:
The pictures should be contextualized
The pictures should be understandable by the learners
The pictures should not misrepresent culture
The learners observe the manufactured visual aids and they develop the speaking through oral
interpretation.
3. Wall Pictures
The facilitator draws pictures, puts them on the wall and requests learners to interpret them.
From that interpretation, learners develop their speaking skills.
4. Video clips
Video is an ‘extremely dense’ medium, in which there are combinations of visual elements,
sound effects, and audio. The table below highlights the effectiveness of the video clips on both
the learners and the teacher.
Effectiveness of video clips on the side of the
learner
Effectiveness of video clips on the side of the
teacher
Videos are powerful teaching aids for
speaking skills since learners can
experience things they have never seen
before.
Psychologically, learners find videos
fun, stimulating, and motivating and
thus they learn enthusiastically.
Videos are used for enhancing and
developing positive attitudes, success in
learning processes, and confidence in
learning.
Culturally videos take learners to a
world beyond their classroom and can
provide a different insight about the
importance of cultural awareness.
Videos can help learners to improve
their curiosity, providing up-to-date
information, maximizing abilities to
infer from contexts, developing skills
such as motor skills, information and
research skills as well as
communication skills.
videos help teachers to provide real
models since they include all the
characteristics of naturally spoken
English in realistic situations.
Videos can help teachers revise new
words and expressions, show all
features and make learning more open
and extraordinary.
5. The Language Laboratory
This is a room that contains a number of booth (desks). Each has a tape recorder and a set of
headphones. At the front of the room is a control desk which is operated by a teacher. The
learners can speak to the microphone without fear that they are being watched or they are being
listened.
Advantages of the language laboratory
It gives the learners an opportunity to listen to native speakers and imitate them,
It enables all the learners to get frequent practices in speaking English,
The learners can practice without fear of being ridiculed by the class,
Each learner is able to work at his own speed,
The spoken performance of the learners can be tested objectively.
6. The tape recorder
For the tape recorder, the real speech situations are recorded then they can be used in class
for fluency, for composition or for summary. The learners are asked to summarize the
recorded speech in front of others. Also, Scripted dialogues can be recorded and used to
teach structure. The performance of the learners can be recorded and played back,
commented on and recorded. Group discussions can also be recorded and later criticized.
7. The radio
For the radio, the targeted emissions are listened to, then after the learners are asked to orally to
summarize the emissions listened to as a way of developing their speaking skills. They can
present a variety of native speaking models.
8. Flip Chart with cards
A flip chart has a number of cards and on each card, there is a drawing but all the cards tell a
story. This is a teaching aid whereby leaners are given time to tell stories following the cards on
a flip chart. By telling stories, they are developing their speaking skills.
9. Cartoon strips
These are series of pictures that tell a story. Here, learners are given room to tell stories using the
pictures.
10. Puppets
These are useful for early grade learners. Puppets are a good way to deliver information to
learners and help them retain it. The use of puppets helps learners to retell information they've
learned and remember it. Teachers can use puppets to demonstrate proper pronunciation to help
learners develop language skills. Through their repetition, they will develop their pronunciation
thus speaking skills. However, the use of puppets needs a serious preparation to be effective.
Additional visual aids for teaching speaking
In addition to the teaching aids mentioned above, the following are other examples of visual aids
that can be used in the teaching and learning of English in order to develop the speaking skill.
The learners use them to interpret, tell stories, narrate or summarize so as to develop their
speaking skills.
i. Use of illustrations
ii. Use of pictures
iii. Mental images
iv. Figures
v. Impressions (Printed materials)
vi. Cartoons
vii. Graphs
viii. Colors
ix. Speakers
x. Drawings
xi. Sketches
xii. Films
xiii. Slides and projections
Teaching aids are crosscutting. This means that they can be used in early grade (lower primary),
upper primary and lower secondary. However, each of these visual aids has different characters
and functions at a particular level. The use of visual aids exactly helps the learners in describing
something. They can be applied based on what the topic is and the context.
Using teaching aids in English language teaching makes teaching effective and efficient.
However, some factors need to be considered before deciding to use a teaching aid. The teaching
aid must be used only when it can be useful and must be chosen only when it can help a
particular teaching situation.
4.3. Assessment of speaking skills
4.3.1. Introduction
As a foreign language and at the same time one of the official languages in Rwanda, English
occupies an important position in the Rwandan educational system. Not only does it serve as a
medium of instruction from primary to university (since 2008) but also it is learnt and tested as a
compulsory subject from Primary to Secondary.
Assessment has long been considered as an important instructional step in learner’s learning, and
it is only through assessment that we can find out whether a particular sequence of instructional
activities has (or not) resulted in the intended learning outcomes. Therefore, careful
considerations should be given to catering for a fair and a valid assessment. Unfortunately, there
are many challenges in the assessment of oral skills in a second language because attention
should be paid to different aspects of language such as fluency, pronunciation, vocabulary,
accuracy and interaction.
This section highlights different basic types of speaking, types of assessment, approaches to
assessing speaking, aspects of speaking to be assessed, tasks used in assessing speaking, the
rubrics to assess the learners’ performance as well as grading and feedback.
4.3. 2. Basic Types of Speaking
Before we embark on assessing speaking, we need to be aware that there are a number of basic
types of speaking. Five types can be identified according to the kinds of situations and the
assessment in each type also differs depending on the kind of situation in which the learner is.
The five types correspond to a certain extent to the different levels of learners taegeted (pre-
primary, lower primary, upper primary and lower secondary).
Type 1: Imitative speaking (for pre-primary and lower primary)
Imitative speaking refers to the ability of the learners to "parrot back" a word, a phrase, or
possibly a sentence. Therefore imitative assessments should be formulated in such a way that
they test the ability of beginning learners to reproduce basic themed vocabulary. At this level,
pronunciation is the main aspect of the assessment. In other words, what needs to be
highlighted in imitative speaking is that communicative competence of the language is not
essential yet. Here, emphasis is put on oral reproduction of the information heard without
additional explanation. The appropriate assessment tasks for this level would be:
- Word repetition tasks
- Direct response tasks
- Reading aloud tasks
Type 2: Intensive speaking (for lower primary)
Unlike imitative, intensive speaking focuses on the production of short stretches of oral language
and not on pronunciation. It requires learners to demonstrate competence in basic grammar,
vocabulary and phonology (intonation, stress, rhythm).
With intensive speaking, the understanding of meaning is needed to accomplish certain tasks but
the interaction with the counterpart is minimal. So, a good way to assess intensive speaking
would be a task in which the learner must rearrange word groups in order have correct word
order or to ask questions with antonym-based responses responding within the limits of the
question.
Type 3: Responsive speaking (for upper primary)
This type of speaking requires the learners to be able to interact with the interlocutor. So, a test
aimed at assessing responsive speaking may include interaction and test comprehension but with
somewhat limited level of very short conversations, standards greetings, small talk, simple
requests, comments, and the like.
The following tasks can be used in this case:
Question and answer: Learners respond to questions that the teacher asks.
Giving Instructions and Directions: The learner is asked to give directions or
instructions
Paraphrasing: The learner is asked to paraphrase in two or three sentences what they
heard or read.
Type 4: Interactive speaking (mainly for lower secondary and to some extent upper
primary)
The major difference between responsive and interactive speaking lies in the length and
complexity of the sentences. Interviews, role plays, games and discussions are some of the
assessment techniques to be used in this case.
Type 5: Extensive speaking (for lower secondary)
Extensive speaking involves speech production. It can be said that extensive speaking is the
ultimate speaking skill that requires strong language components. Therefore, oral presentation
and storytelling could be appropriate tasks for evaluating extensive speaking.
Assessment tasks for this type of speaking skills involve mainly:
Oral presentations are the most common tasks for evaluating extensive speaking.
These are evaluated based on content and delivery.
Picture-cued story telling: Learners describe a story based on series of pictures that
they previously saw.
Re-telling a story, news event: Learners are asked to tell a story of something they heard
or read about.
4.3.3 How to assess speaking skills
Speaking can be assessed from different perspectives. However, the most commonly used
formats are the following:
Interview – which can have one test taker and one or more examiners;
Oral presentation - with one test taker speaking to a real or imagined audience;
Interactive task - with at least two or more test takers working together, often to solve a
problem or make a decision;
Group discussion task – with 4 to 6 tests takers.
Below are details on each type:
Interview (applicable from lower primary to lower secondary)
Specifically, an oral interview has three desirable traits:
It is
authentic,
communicative,
flexible.
Oral interviews are communicative in that a message is conveyed between two or more
interlocutors. A range of speaking techniques can be used depending on the level of the learners
and what has been practiced in a given class.
The techniques used can be
simple,
highly structured questions-and-answers
follow-up question elicitation techniques at the lower levels to more open-ended
conversation techniques at the highest levels.
Since the focus is on testing achievement, what happens in oral interview depends on the
speaking activities learners have already practiced. Thus the teacher will have an opportunity to
assess learners based on what they can produce and understand as a result of in-class practice.
Interviews can be conducted in a variety of ways:
One way to reduce learners' stress in an oral interview is to interview learners in pairs,
enabling them to speak to each other as members of the same peer group. This is ideal
given the preferences of learners for peer cooperation.
Secondly, with the learners responsible for doing the talking during the oral interviews,
you can concentrate solely on your role as assessor.
Student pairing is also important for the success of oral interviews. As stated above, learners
often demonstrate greater ease when interviewed by a peer as opposed to a teacher. However,
care needs to be taken in pairing learners, strong with strong and weak with weak, both for
linguistic level and for personality. When scheduling a set of oral interviews, you must carefully
consider personalities that have worked well together on in-class activities. Such practice may
prevent having an oral interview in which one student dominates the session.
Oral presentation (upper primary to lower secondary)
Oral presentation is divided into two types: guided and free.
Oral presentation can be used to assess both upper primary and lower secondary learners’
speaking skills.
One of the benefits of using guided oral presentations in the classroom is the opportunity
that they present for learners to use the language they are learning to communicate with
others in a natural way.
If the activity is properly scaffolded1, participating in an oral presentation can provide
learners with an enjoyable learning experience that allows them to interact with others
using only the language they are learning. Oral presentations represent an opportunity for
developing real-world communications as well as leadership skills.
Among the many advantages of designing free oral presentations for learners are:
bridging the gap between language study and language use;
using the four language skills in a naturally integrated way;
helping learners to collect, inquire, organize and construct information;
enhancing team work; helping learners become active and autonomous learners.
Different other tasks can also be used and they include but are not limited to:
describing something – this can be a picture, a place, a person, or even an action;
1 Scaffolding refers to providing contextual supports for meaning through the use of simplified language, teacher
modeling, visuals and graphics, …with the aim to assist the learner to become more independent and capable of
handling learning more on their own.
telling a story – this can be based on a single picture, on a series of pictures or it can be
simply invented;
comparing things – this can be real objects, photographs or artwork, or even abstract
concepts;
giving some personal information – this might involve talking about your family, hobby,
hometown or some experience you’ve have had – such as a holiday.
Interactive tasks
The following techniques can be used to test the speaking skills of your learners:
Interview: It is a face-to-face exchange between test administrator and test taker.
Role play: It is a common pedagogical activities used in communicative English classes
Discussions and conversations: These two speaking tasks provide a level of authenticity
and spontaneity that other assessment techniques may not provide.
Games: Games are an informal assessment task but they are not commonly used.
4.3.4. What do you assess in speaking?
Assessment for speaking can focus on the following components:
Component 1: Grammar
Learners are assessed on grammar usage within sentences, how to construct sentences as well as
on grammatical errors in speaking.
Component 2: Vocabulary
The range, precision, and the usage of vocabulary features in a conversation used by test takers
indicate the level of how proficient they are.
Component 3: Comprehension/Interaction
Being able to say what you mean with a foreign language is one thing, being able to interact with
others is another. Ask your learners questions. Observe how they speak to one another. Are they
able to understand and answer questions? Can they answer you when you ask them questions?
Do they give appropriate responses in a conversation? All these are elements of interaction and
are necessary for clear and effective communication in English. A student with effective
interaction skills will be able to answer questions and follow along with a conversation
happening around him/her.
Component 4: Fluency
Fluency in a language means that a person can speak accurately and easily. The learner has
confidence and is able to respond to specific themes without hesitation when choosing
appropriate words.
Component 5: Pronunciation
Assessment of pronunciation is concerned with how often errors in pronunciation occur and how
the pronunciation aspect may hinder comprehension. Component 6: Subject content
While it is possible to learn both subject content and language at the same time, the language a
learner uses in the classroom needs to be sufficiently well developed and supported for them to
be able to process the cognitive challenges they face. So, the assessment should focus not only
on language per se but also on the learners’ mastery of the subject content depending on their
levels. Therefore, teachers are encouraged to give students’ feedback on their language as well as
their understanding of the subject. This sends a message to learners about the value of language
as a tool to communicate their ideas and also makes sure that language learning progresses.
4.3.5. Principles guiding assessment for speaking
The following are principles that need to be catered for in setting any language assessment test:
Principle 1: Practicality of the speaking test
The first principle of language assessment is practicality. Before deciding on a test, we need to
analyze how practical the test to be used is and to consider the time constraint of running and
interpreting the scoring of the test, budget limitation, and facilities.
Principle 2: Reliability of the speaking test
Consistently accurate measurement must be provided to assign a valid test. It has to measure
what should be measured by excluding all irrelevant variables to be tested.In accordance with the
types of speaking, when you design your test, you should decide what kind of speaking types you
intend to test as it will influence the design of assessment. Using an interview test for imitative
speaking may lead to invalidity of assessment.
Principle 3: Validity of the speaking test
The need of consistent scoring measurement is very important to make a test reliable. In
addition, clear rubric and scoring criteria are also a must. Sometimes a reliable test may not be a
valid test. However, in designing a test to assess the learners’ speaking skills, you should ensure
that it is as reliable and valid as possible.
As a need of reliable scoring system is unavoidable in a speaking test, before conducting a
speaking test, a standard scoring system must also be prepared. The items on it should represent
all aspects of what is to be assessed from the learners.
Principle 4: Authenticity of the speaking test
It refers to a contextual language or language in use. It is important that the materials used in the
test are relevant in order to ease learners in comprehending the content. By an authentic test we
mean naturalness, relevance, and contextualized language test among other characteristics.
4.3.6 Rubrics and checklist to assess learners’ performance/competence
The following table is an example of rubric which focuses on scoring, grading and feedback to
assessment for speaking skills:
Rubric for Speaking skills
Weak
1 Mark
Satisfactory
2 Marks
Good
3Marks
Qualified
5 Marks
Comprehension Interaction doesn’t
take place.
Does not understand
the question,
responses are
unclear.
Makes significant
mistakes,
understanding
questions,
responses are
somewhat clear.
Questions are
Interaction takes
place despite some
mistakes when
asking and
answering questions.
Makes few
mistakes
understanding
questions,
responses and
questions are
mostly clear.
grammatically
poor and
misunderstanding
takes place.
Content Questions and
answers don’t have
any relationship
with the task.
The ideas
regarding the
opinion of the
learners are not
supported by
additional
information or
explanation.
Some ideas that the
learners present
regarding their
opinion are
supported by
additional
information or body
language
Most of the ideas
that the learners
present regarding
their opinion are
supported by
additional
information or
explanation and
body language.
Pronunciation Control of the
sound system so
weak that
comprehension is
difficult
Frequent
inaccuracy in
pronunciation and
intonation. Mother
tongue
interference
apparent.
Some inaccuracy in
pronunciation and
intonation. Problems
with
voiced/voiceless
consonants, for
example.
Pronunciation and
intonation
generally
accurate, errors
do not cause
misunderstanding.
Fluency Does not speak
fluidly, frequent
short and long
breaks.
Speaking in volume
which is almost
inaudible, no facial
expression, and not
communicative.
Speaks somewhat
fluidly, frequent
short and a few
long breaks.
Speaking in soft
voice but not
really clear, flat
facial expression,
and less
communicative.
Speaks mostly
fluidity, semi-
frequent short or a
few long breaks.
Speaking in soft
voice but can be
understood, good
facial expression,
and communicative
enough.
Speaks fluidity,
few to no breaks.
Fluent and
spontaneous, but
occasionally
needs to search
for expressions or
saying exactly
what he/she wants
to.
Grammar/Vocabulary Poor grammar and
minimal
vocabulary.
Basic grammar
and not varied
basic vocabulary.
Moderately strong
grammar and varied,
but basic
vocabulary.
Strong grammar
and varied and
relatively
complex
vocabulary.
Source: https://www.rcampus.com/rubricshowc.cfm?sp=yes&code=L6B942& accessed on
March 2nd
, 2020.
4.4. Model lessons
Lesson Plan on Speaking Skills
School Name: …………………………... Teacher’s name: … …………………………
Term Date Subject Clas
s
Unit
No
Lesson
No
Duration Class size
I …… /……/
2020
ENGLIS
H
P2 II. 1? of
18
40 MINUTES 45
Type of Special Educational Needs to be
catered for in this lesson and number of
learners in each category
One learner with visual impairment will be given a seat in
front to have a closer contact with the board.
Unit title Greetings, introductions and talking about school
Key Unit
Competence
To use language learnt in the context of greeting, introductions and talking about school.
Title of the
lesson
Greetings and goodbyes.
Instructional
Objective
Given flash cards, learners will be able use greeting phrases to greet each other
appropriately.
Plan for this
Class (location:
in / outside)
Inside and partially outside the class.
Learning
Materials
(for all learners)
- 4 Flash cards: one with the sun rising up, one with the sun high in the sky, one
with the sun setting and one with the moon and stars in the sky.
- Labels for morning, afternoon, evening and night on flash cards.
References REB. (2019) English for Rwandan Schools, Learner’s book P2, Kigali: REB
Timing for each step Description of teaching and learning activity Generic competences
and
Cross cutting issues to be
addressed
+
a short explanation
Learners will use flash cards, and dialogue to practice
speaking. The teacher will encourage free practice to
maximize speaking.
Teacher activities Learner activities
Introduction
05 minutes
The teacher
introduces a lesson
with a Song- “Good
morning teacher”
Learners learn and sing the
song.
Collaboration and
Cooperation are developed
since all learners are singing
together.
- “Good morning teacher”
Development of the
lesson
25minutes
-The teacher writes
greetings and
goodbyes in two
bubbles on the
board.
-He/she gives an
example for each
and asks learners to
elicits more
examples.
The teacher
provides learners
with flash cards of
time and asks them
to mingle and as
they practice
greetings with the
appropriate time.
[morning, afternoon
and evening]
-The teacher
displays a pre-
prepared dialogue
on greetings and
goodbyes and asks
learners to practice
in pairs.
-Learners share in pairs and
then to the to the plenary.
-Possible answers:
Hi, good morning, good
afternoon, good evening [
greetings]
Bye! Bye!, see you [
goodbyes]
-Learners mingle and swap the
cards as they practise greetings
appropriately [morning,
afternoon and evening]
-Learners practise the dialogue
in pairs.
The dialogue:
Annet: Good morning kalisa!
Kalisa: Good morning Annet!
Annet: how are you?
Kalisa: I’m fine thank you.
Annet: where are you going?
Kalisa: I am going to school.
Annet: ok, bye!
Kalisa: bye!
Communication is
developed in learners through
sharing in pairs.
Gender education is
encouraged through all sexes
working together in inclusive
pairs.
Conclusion
s 5minutes
The teacher tells
learners to say
greeting phrases to
see if they can
remember them
The volunteer pair presents to
the class.
Evaluation
05minutes
The teacher asks
one pair to come
and model greetings
and goodbyes in
front of the class.
Learners work in pairs to
practice greetings.
Teacher self-
evaluation
LESSON PLAN
Lesson Plan on Speaking Skills
School Name: …………………………... Teacher’s name: …
…………………………………………………..
Term
Date Subject Class Unit
No
Lesson
No
Duratio
n
Class size
I March / 2nd
/ 2020 English P4A 4. 4 of 25 40min 50
Type of Special Educational Needs to be catered
for in this lesson and number of learners in each
category
2 students with hearing impairment. (the two students’
seats will be nearer the board.)
Unit title Weather
Key Unit
Competence
To use language learnt in the context of weather.
Title of the lesson Talking about weather in the past.
Instructional
Objective
Using a dialogue, learners will be able to discuss comprehension questions properly.
Plan for this Class
(location: in /
outside)
Inside the classroom.
Learning Materials
(for all learners)
Short dialogue, flashcards , chalkboard; pieces of chalk and a ball.
References REB. (2019) English for Rwandan Primary Schools, Pupil’s book 4, Kigali:REB
Timing for
each step
Description of teaching and learning activity Generic competences
and
Cross cutting issues to
The use of Direct methods, audio lingual methods, quick speak, GO
-GO MO and snow ball fighter techniques, when talking about
weather,.
be addressed
+
a short explanation
Teacher activities Learner activities
Introduction
10min
Teacher asks
questions about how
their night was.
- “how was your
night?”
Teacher alerts
students that s/he is
going to read a
dialogue aloud, for
them to write down
what they can hear
that will be shared
later.
Teacher tells them to
share in pairs first of
all before they share
with the teacher.
-learners answer orally, one by one.
-Learners listen and take some
notes of what they hear from the
dialogue.
-Learners share in pairs then share
with the teacher by answering short
questions about the dialogue.
Communication:
Students share what
they heard.
Development
of the lesson
20min
Teacher gives a model
reading of the
dialogue, loudly.
Teacher tells learners
to discuss some
comprehension
questions in groups of
four, then present their
findings.
Teacher introduces a
Learners take a turn
reading the dialogue aloud.
(when a student makes a
mistake, s/he will be given
a second chance to try
again)
Learners answer
comprehension questions:
1.why does Mary carry a
rain coat with her?
2.Describe the weather,
Critical thinking:
As learners
answer the
questions in
groups of four.
Environment and
sustainability:
By analyzing how
protecting the
environment helps in
getting varied weather.
Conclusion:
5min
conversation practice
by inviting learners to
ask questions similar
to the questions in
comprehension.
Teacher tells learners
to stand up, and when
s/he gives a signal
every learner looks for
a partner to ask
questions.
Teacher invites
learners to practice the
dialogue.
Teacher helps learners to
summarize the lesson, by
telling them to share in pairs
what they have learnt today.
today, yesterday and last week?
3.what can we learn from
the dialogue?
Learners are given two
minutes to prepare
questions to ask.
Learners ask questions to
any partner and swap after
hearing the signal.
Learners practice the
dialogue, reading it on the
papers, then without
reading; to check if they
can remember.
Learners share what they have
learnt, then with the teacher they
make a summary of the lesson.
Creativity:
Learners are asked to
create their own
sentences and mix
them with the
sentences in the
dialogue, to make a
dialogue.
Evaluation
5min
Orally, teacher helps
learners to do a
structural drilling
exercise: ( s/he assists
them with the first
sentence; then uses
pictures describing
weather for learners
to complete the
sentence )
Teacher: yesterday
the weather was
sunny. (Rainy)
Teacher: yesterday
the weather was rainy
(cloudy)
Teacher: Yesterday
the weather was
Learner: yesterday the weather was
rainy.
Learner: Yesterday the weather
was cloudy.
Learner: Yesterday the weather was
windy.
Learner: Yesterday the weather was
Communication:
While doing a
structural drilling
exercise.
cloudy(windy)
Teacher: Yesterday
the weather was
windy. (cool)
Teacher brings
flashcards with
different words.
(Mary, sunny, windy,
rained, guess,). s/he
flows a ball and the
one who catches it
comes and pick a
flash card, then
makes a sentence
with the word orally.
cool..
Learners pick out the
flashcards and make oral
sentences.
Creativity:
Learners create their
own sentences, using
flash cards.
Teacher
self-
evaluation
In general, the class was active but few of them still have problems in word spelling. I have
to prepare remedial word spelling exercises
LESSON plan
School Name: ………………………... Teachers’ names:
…………………………………………………..
Term Date Subject Class Unit Lesson
No
Duration
Class size
First
02 /03/ 2018 English S2 3 6 of 20 40 min 50
Type of Special Educational Needs to be
catered for in this lesson and number of
learners in each category
None
Unit title Leadership and Democracy
Key Unit
Competence
Use the language learned in the context of Leadership and Democracy
Title of the lesson Talking about the role of political leaders in the community
Instructional Through group discussions, learners will be able to describe orally the role of political
Objective leaders in the community fluently.
Plan for this
Class (location: in
/ outside)
In and outside the classroom
Learning
Materials
(for all learners)
Student’s book p 31, Teacher’s guide & pictures
References REB, New secondary English for Rwanda, Student’s Book Senior 2
Timing for
each step
Description of teaching and learning activity Generic competences
and
Cross cutting issues to be addressed
+
a short explanation
After reviewing, learners work in groups to discuss
the roles of political leaders in the community,
present in plenary. They answer evaluation questions
and the teacher ends by some adjustments.
Teacher
activities
Learner activities
Introduction
5min
Ask learners to
make a circle
(outside) and use
a ball toss to
review the
previous lesson
They go out, make a circle and
throw the ball toss to some of
their classmates to review the
previous lesson
Communication:
Developed by speaking confidently
Developme
nt of the
lesson
25min
Ask learners to
join their
respective
groups
Tell them to
discuss different
roles of political
leaders in the
community
Move around to
help them where
necessary
Ask each group
to choose one
political leader
from the
join their groups
discuss the roles of political
leaders
e.g Which political leader do you
know in your district?
What is his/her role?
ask questions
Choose one political leader and
describe his/her role
Gender education:
All people regardless gender, can be a
good political leader.
Communication:
developed when they form complete
sentences and speak fluently in groups
and plenary
Cooperation/collaboration:
developed while working in groups,
sharing ideas and respecting others'
views
discussed ones
and describe his
or her role
orally.
Ask each group
to share with the
whole class
Give them
additional
information
about roles of
political leaders
They share what they have
discussed
Listen attentively and may ask
questions for more clarification.
Conclusion:
10 min
Summary
5min
Evaluation
5min
Guide students
to summarise the
lesson orally
Ask different
questions about
roles of political
leaders using a
cabbage ball
e.g. How does
the role of
Mayor differ
from the Sector
Executive
Secretary’s?
Correct some
mistakes made
by learners while
answering
Summarise the lesson. Some of
learners speak out the summary.
Answer questions about roles of
political leaders using a cabbage
ball
e.g. Mayor has a lot of work.
He organizes the meeting of
Sector Executive Secretaries.
Critical thinking:
Developed once they answer
questions logically by comparing
different political leaders roles in the
community.
Teacher
self-
evaluation
In general, the class was active but few of them still have problems in word spelling. I have to
prepare remedial word spelling exercises.
Unit Five: Methodologies for Teaching and Learning
Reading skills
5.1 Introduction to the unit
Reading is one of the language skills that promotes literacy. To read is to be able to identify
symbols that match meaning to the reader of the symbol. This depends on social context of the
reader because, some symbols may have different meanings in one culture and not in another. In
this way, ideas and vocabulary will largely vary from one culture to another. When one reads,
they come up to the reading with all their cultural background.
5.2 Strategies for moderating a lesson on reading
There are many strategies a teacher can use to teach reading. The teacher should select
appropriate strategies that will help him/her to use activities that enable students to develop
communicative abilities. In doing so, the teacher can teach reading by:
Activating the learners’ prior knowledge: This is done by asking the learners to predict,
think, pair and share what they already know about the topic.
Using the context clues or examples to help learners understand the topic better.
Helping learners to infer meaning of the topic and the text before they start reading.
Helping learners to identify key words in the text before reading the passage and help
them to understand them.
Using ‘Word Attack strategies’: These are strategies that help learners identify and
understand unfamiliar words.
Helping learners to visualize and write.
Supporting learners in reading and summarizing a text.
Helping learners to analyse a text: At this stage, learners talk about the audience (the
targeted readers of the story); the plot (sequence of actions in story); the characters
(people involved in the story); the setting (where and when the story takes place); the
themes (topic); the resolution (solution to the problem) and many more.
It should be clarified that the above-mentioned strategies for teaching reading can be used
differently, depending on the levels of the learners.
The table below summarizes some of the strategies that can be applied at different levels.
Levels Strategies for teaching reading
Pre-primary - Activating the learners’ prior knowledge
- Visualize and speak
Lower primary - Activating the learners’ prior knowledge
- Visualize and speak
- Helping learners to identify unfamiliar terms in the
text before they do a thorough reading of the passage
and help them to understand them
Upper primary - Activating the learners’ prior knowledge
- Using the context clues or examples to help learners
understand the topic better
- Helping learners to identify unfamiliar terms in the
text before reading the passage and help the learners to
understand them
- Using ‘Word Attack strategies’, i.e. helping learners
identify and understand unfamiliar words
- Helping learners to visualize and write
- Supporting learners in reading and summarizing a text,
- Helping learners to analyse a text
Ordinary level (Lower secondary) - Activating the learners’ prior knowledge
- Using the context clues or examples to help learners
understand the topic better
- Helping learners to identify unfamiliar terms in the
text before reading the passage and help them to
understand those terms
- Using ‘Word Attack Strategies’, i.e. helping learners
identify and understand unfamiliar words
- Helping learners to visualize and write
- Supporting learners in reading and summarizing a text,
- Helping learners to analyse a text
As it can be observed in the table above, every strategy for teaching reading can be applied at
different levels.
5.3 Activities that promote reading skills
Teachers use various types of activities depending on the level, the topic and the particular skills
to be strengthened. For teaching reading skills, the key activities are grouped into (i) pre-reading
activities, (ii) while reading activities and (iii) post reading activities.
A. Pre-reading activities
Pre-reading activities aim to raise the readers' awareness of what they are about to read as this
knowledge helps them to understand the text.
Before starting a lesson on reading, an English language teacher instructs learners to:
Tell their partners what they know about the topic
Do a quiz in pairs to find out what they know about the topic
Look at some pictures related to the topic
Skim through the first paragraph to get the gist of the text and then predict the main
content of the text.
In class, the teacher asks learners to tell their predictions to colleagues. Some examples of what
predictions can be based upon include:
A title of the text
Imagination on visual representations
Knowledge about the author
A skim of the first paragraph
A set of keywords from the text
Reading the end, predicting the beginning.
Reading the middle, predicting the beginning and the end.
B. While-reading activities
Although reading is often a solitary activity and the idea of 'reading in pairs' seems odd, reading
can be collaborative. Reading techniques that the teacher can use include:
1. Running and reading: this activity encourages scanning as the idea is to encourage learners
to read in a race, as quickly as possible. It is done as follows:
Divide the class into student A and student B pairs.
Student A sits at one end of the classroom.
Hang the text to be read on the wall at the other end of the room.
Give student A a list of questions.
Student A reads the first question to student B who has to run down the classroom to find
the answer in the text, and then run back to dictate the answer to student A, who then tells
B question 2 and so on.
The first pair to answer all the questions wins.
You can also ask the students to swap roles halfway through, so everyone gets a chance
to scan.
2. Slashed / Cut up texts: This is a genuinely collaborative reading approach.
Photocopy a suitable text and cut it diagonally into four.
Seat students in fours. Give a piece of the text to each student. They must not show their
piece to others.
Give each group a set of questions.
The group has to work collaboratively to answer the questions since no one has the whole
text.
Groups can compare answers when they have finished.
This technique can also be used on computer if it is available in the room. This is a very effective
way of promoting communication as learners can read from the same screen, in pairs.
C. Post-reading activities
These are some of the activities you can use when learners have read the text:
Discussions about the text
Summarising the text
Reviewing the text
Looking at the language of the text (e.g. collocations).
Using a 'follow-up' speaking task related to the topic
5.4. Teaching Aids in a reading lesson
The following are some of the instructional materials you can use while teaching reading in
English:
• Chalkboards or whiteboards
• Pieces of chalk
• Whiteboard markers
• Textbooks
• Computers
• Tablets
• Smartphones
• Flipcharts
• Manila papers
• Flash cards
• Photos
• Drawings
• Printer
• Printed texts for distribution
• Real objects mentioned in the text at hand
The teacher is encouraged to look for teaching aids that motivate learners and make the reading
lesson lively.
5.4. Assessment in a reading lesson
Activity: Reflect on the following questions on assessment
- How can you make reading assessment communicative?
- Which activities do you find useful to make reading assessment more communicative?
After teaching a lesson of reading, as a facilitator, you assess to check whether the objectives of
the lesson have been achieved. There are many communicative reading activities that you can
use when assessing the learners’ reading skills. They include:
Formative assessment:
After going through all the steps of a lesson on reading a text, as a facilitator, you tell learners
some of the following:
Matching words with their meanings
Making sentences using the words found in the text
Filling in the gaps with appropriate words
Narrating the part of the story (after a suspense)
Summarizing the text
Paraphrasing the text without changing the meaning, etc
After or before going through all the steps of a lesson on reading a dialogue, as a facilitator, you
will tell learners some of the following:
In small groups, write a similar dialogue and get ready to perform it as a sketch in front
of your classmates (learners may need to change clothes and use relevant materials)
Fill in the gaps with appropriate words
In your books/on the flipchart continue the dialogue from where it stopped
Summative assessment:
Give learners a text or a paragraph and ask them to read it and award marks based on
their fluency and accuracy. If you have a large class, do this before the exam period and
record marks for the section on reading, you will add them to marks scored in other
sections.
Ask learners to use new vocabulary to produce meaningful sentences
Give questions to assess comprehension
Ask learners to summarize the text
Ask learners to answer the questions about the text
5.5. Model lessons on reading
Model lesson for Early Grades
School Name: … ………………………... Teachers’ names: … ………………………………
Term Date Subject Class Unit Lesson
No
Duratio
n
Class
size
First
02/03/ 2020 English P3 01 4 of 28 40
min…
50
Type of Special Educational Needs to be catered for
in this lesson and number of learners in each
category
None
Unit title Our school
Key Unit
Competence
To use language learnt in the context of our school
Title of the lesson Saying what subjects you like
Instructional
Objective
Given cut ups, learners will be able to read fluently the text about their
school.
Plan for this Class
(location: in /
outside)
In the class.
Learning Materials
(for all learners)
Chalkboard, Pieces of chalk, Whiteboard, Whiteboard markers and
Textbooks, Slashed / Cut up texts
References REB. (2019) English for Rwandan Primary Schools, Pupil’s book 3,
Kigali: REB
Timing for
each step
Description of teaching and learning activity Generic competences
And Cross cutting
issues to be addressed
+ a short explanation
Running and reading activities.
Teacher activities Learner activities
Introduction
5min
Pre- reading: The teacher asks
learners to share with their friends
what they know about their school.
Learners share what they know
about their school.
Communication is
developed as they
exchange views.
Development
of the lesson
25min
While reading:
Give student A a list of questions.
-Student A reads the first question to
student B who has to run down the
classroom to find the answer in the
text, and then run back to dictate the
answer to student A, who then tells B
question 2 and so on.
The teacher asks learners to write
down unfamiliar words and guides
them in the drilling pronunciation.
The teacher models the reading and
then asks some learners to read the
text while others are following in their
books.
Learners take turns reading and
answer questions.
Learners write down some new
words from the text and drill
pronunciation.
Learners read the text.
-Collaboration is
developed by letting
learners work
together.
Conclusion
10 min Post-reading: The teacher asks
leaners to share at least 2 or 3 things
they have read from the text.
Learners share things they have
read from the text.
-Peace and values
education is promoted
through encouraging
learners to respect
their fellows.
Evaluation
5 min The teacher picks some learners to
read aloud while other follow in their
books.
Learners practise fluent reading Communicative
competence
developed through
reading.
Teacher
self-
evaluation
If the majority of learners manage to read fluently and pronounce new words correctly, the teacher
can assume that the learning objective has been achieved.
Model lesson for Upper Primary
School Name: …………………………... Teacher’s name: … ………………………………………
Term Date Subject Class Unit
No
Lesson
No
Duratio
n
Class size
I 5th/March/ 2020 English P6A 8 3 of 28 40min 50
Type of Special Educational Needs to be catered for
in this lesson and number of learners in each
category
None
Unit title Environment
Key Unit
Competence
To use language learnt in the context of environment
Title of the
lesson
Reading a text: “Man and the environment”
Instructional
Objective
Given the text “Man and the environment”, learners will be able to read and
summarize the text correctly.
Plan for this
Class (location:
in / outside)
Inside the classroom
Learning
Materials
(for all learners)
Books, text and drawings
References REB. (2019) English for Rwandan Primary Schools, Pupil’s book 6, Kigali:REB
Timing for
each step
Description of teaching and learning activity Generic
competences
and Cross cutting Cut up text and group discussion will be used throughout the lesson
Teacher activities Learner activities issues to be
addressed +
a short
explanation
Introduction
5min
Teacher tells learners to share what they
remember from the story they read in
the previous lesson.
In pairs, students share the story
they read.
Communication:
While telling the
story orally.
Development
of the lesson
20min
Conclusion: 5min
Pre-reading activity.
- Teacher brings pictures and learners
analyse them. They then predict what
the text is about.
While reading activity.
- Teacher cuts the text into four, then
gives each part to each group.
- Teacher tells learners to work
collaboratively to answer the questions,
since no one has the whole of the text.
-Teacher gives a model reading of the
whole text and help learners to answer
questions.
Post reading activity
- Teacher tells learners to summarize
the text read.
-In triads, learners analyze the
pictures and predict the content
and the title of the text.
- Learners are seated in four
groups then read the cut ups. Each
group is given a set of questions.
(Learners must hide their piece of
text)
. Learners work collaboratively
and when they have finished, they
compare their answers.
-Learners read the full story, one
by one, paragraph by paragraph,
imitating the model reading of the
teacher.
-Learners summarize the text.
Critical
thinking:
While analyzing
the pictures in
triads.
Collaboration:
Groups have to
work
collaboratively to
answer the
questions, since
they don’t have
the whole text.
Environmental
and
sustainability:
Students discuss
different ways to
protect the
environment.
Evaluation:
10 min
Teacher introduces a reading
competition activity.
. Learners, one by one, read the
text loudly, fluently and correctly.
Every learner is attentive, and
once a reader makes a mistake,
they stop him/her immediately
and another one takes his/her turn.
The winner is the one who has
read the longest paragraph.
Communication:
When reading the
text in a
competition.
Teacher self-
evaluation
If a great number of learners manage to win a paragraph reading competition, the reading lesson
would have been successful.
Model lesson for Lower secondary
School Name: …………………………... Teacher’s name: … ………………
Term Date Subject Class Unit
No
Lesson
No
Duratio
n
Class size
I …… /……/ 2020 ENGLISH S3 3 1of 20 40min 62
Type of Special Educational Needs to be catered for
in this lesson and number of learners in each
category
None
Unit title Folktales
Key Unit
Competence
To use language learnt in the context of Folktales
Title of the lesson Ryangombe
Instructional
Objective
Given a scrambled text, students will reconstruct Ryangombe story correctly.
Plan for this Class
(location: in /
outside)
In class
Learning Materials
(for all learners)
Cut-ups, student book p55, Teacher’s Guide
References J Kaboyo.(2017) English for Rwanda schools Secondary 3 Learner’s book,SBD
Publishers.
Timing for
each step
Description of teaching and learning activity Generic competences
and Cross cutting issues to be
addressed + a short explanation PPP approach, Group discussion, oral presentation
Teacher’s
activities
Learner’s activities
Introduction
5min
Give students an
easy anagram like
vole, troys,
tmohu Dengel,
Aftoskell and ask
them to make
correct words.
Teacher guides
learners to find
the definition of a
folktale
Make correct words from the
anagram
Give a definition of a Folktale
A folktale is a story originating in
popular culture, typically passed
on by word of mouth
Critical thinking
Through arranging jumbled letters.
Development
of the lesson
25min
Make groups of
7 and give each
group a
scrambled
passage to read
and unscramble,
and then present
the findings.
Monitor the
group discussion
(when putting the
paragraphs
together)
Monitor the
presentation
Students discuss in groups and
unscramble the passage.
Learners Present their findings and
explain why they chose a particular
order.
Collaboration
Through working in groups
Critical thinking.
Through arranging jumbled
paragraphs to make a complete
text and justifying why they chose
a particular order.
Peace and Values education
They appreciate the traditional
values and beliefs reflected in the
text
Conclusion:
5min
Evaluation
5min
Display the
correct order and
invite students to
disagree or agree
with the order of
the teacher’s
arrangement of
the text
Ask learners t
retell Ryangombe
story
Homework
Tell the learners
to borrow story
books from the
school library and
read 5 first pages.
Read the text and disagree or
agree with the order of the
teacher’s arrangement of the text
Learners narrate Ryangombe story
in their own words.
Communication
Developed as the learners engage
in a discussion with others and
defend their arrangement.
Teacher
self-
evaluation
If the majority of the learners manage to retell the story, the teacher can conclude that the
objective has been achieved.
Unit Six: Teaching and Learning Writing skills
6.1. Introduction
Writing is a process where symbols are combined to form words and words put together to form
sentences. The aim of writing is to communicate thoughts and ideas in a written form. It entails
knowledge of vocabulary, correct grammar and spelling as well as appropriate punctuation.
Writing skills are like speaking skills. Writing provides learners with the opportunity to express
their ideas and feelings.
Writing skills are different from speaking skills. Unlike speaking, learners cannot use facial
expressions or other gestures to convey meaning to the reader. While repeated mistakes are for
instance tolerated in speaking, they cannot in writing. Writing has more standard forms and
requires cohesive devices such as however, in addition, finally, and it involves learners in the
active process of conceiving planning, composing, and editing a range of texts. They encompass
a range of teaching practices such as modeled writing, shared writing, interactive writing and
independent writing where varying level of support can be provided at different points of need.
What is the purpose of writing?
We write:
To inform: to share or show information. Sometimes it is meant to instruct or teach.
Sometimes it relates interesting facts or details. Some kind of informative writing are
articles, reports, and essays.
To persuade: To persuade means to convince someone else to agree with your opinion or
take action. Examples of writing to persuade include a letter, a speech, an argument, or a
review.
To narrate: to tell a story. You might write to amuse (entertain), to touch or thrill/excite
your reader, express thoughts and feelings. Some narrative writings include but are not
limited to short stories, and novels.
To explain: to write about a topic by describing what, why and how. Example:
observation reports.
Writing is important to learners because it is an important part of communication. It is the
major basis upon which our learning, our education and our work can be judged. Through
writing, we make our thinking and learning visible to other people. When we write, we improve
our ability to explain and refine our ideas to others and to ourselves. Writing enables the learner
to communicate their ideas clearly and easily. At an advanced level, the writing process enables
learners to think through topics or defend a position. They gain an understanding of logical
thinking and the best way to present their ideas. They learn the difference between facts and
opinions, and they learn how to support their ideas with facts. Therefore, writing has to be
clearer than spoken language i.e. great care is required to ensure that the message is correctly
interpreted (has no ambiguity).
6.2. Writing strategies and writing Activities
Writing strategies may differ from one level to another. The teacher may use one or more of the
following: (i) Listen and write; (ii) Watch and write; (iii) Look and write; (iv) Read and write;
(v) Think and write; (vi) Text and write; (vii) Speak and write.
Activities may vary depending on the approach or strategy used by the teacher. The learning
activities outlined below are then developed in relation to the strategies.
(i) LISTEN AND WRITE
Writing may be paired or go hand in hand with listening. This can be done through activities
such as dictation; story writing; playing familiar songs and Visualization.
For visualization, learners close their eyes and the teacher describes a scene and plays some
nice background music. Then, learners write and describe the scene they imagined, sharing their
scene afterward with the class or a classmate.
(ii) WATCH AND WRITE
Commercials: students watch a TV commercial event/advert. Then they write
their own scripts based on that commercial advert but focusing on a different
product.
Videos: Learners watch videos and rewrite/respond/reflect on stories narrated
through the videos..
(iii) LOOK AND WRITE
Pictures and Slideshows (Visuals are a powerful way to provide context and
background for any writing. Make sure to use attractive, stimulating and if
possible “real” photographs to prompt learner writing.
Description (e.g. Show learners a selection of fairly similar pictures. The
learners describe in writing one of the pictures (faces work really well for this
demonstration). Some read and others listen and “guess” which picture is being
described.
Sequencing (Provide learners with a sequence of pictures which are scrambled.
The learners must order the pictures and then write out the process.
(iv) READ AND WRITE
Reading Journal / Reading Response (e.g.: The learners read a story and then
respond by making a reflective journal entry; they can also respond to a reading
response question).
Rewrite (e.g. Read a short story and then give learners a copy of the story with
some text missing. The learners can fill it in with the correct version or fill it in
and make the story their own).
Opinion/Essay (e.g. Select an article that learners would find interesting or
controversial. After reading and discussion, learners can respond with a formal
essay or piece of writing reflecting their opinions.
Giving Advice (e.g. Learners read a problem provided by the teacher and provide
a solution by writing down advice).
(v) THINK AND WRITE
Prompts/Sentence Starters (e.g. Learners are prompted to finish sentences that
are half started. They can produce a number of sentences using the sentence
starter.
Thinking Games: Using a worksheet, learners play the game while writing down
their responses in grammatical sentences.
Forms/Applications: Learners practice writing that will be of use to them
directly after they will have left school. Forms and filling in applications are a
valuable way to do this. They can start filling in one together as a class and then
get learners to do this same for themselves individually.
Journals, Reflection and /or Diaries: This type of free writing activity should be
done on a regular basis if used in class. Use a timer for some minutes, learners
can write upon a topic that is important to them that day. Alternatively, learners
can write at the end of the day and record their thoughts about the lesson or their
own learning.
Describe and guess:Learners think of a person / a place or a thing. They write
their description and read out the description to other learners to guess.
(vi) TEXT AND WRITE
Guided Writing: Learners are either given a “bank” of words or can write/guess
meaning on their own. They fill in the missing words of a text to complete the
text.
Timelines: Use a time line to describe any event. Brainstorm on key words as a
class. Then learners use the key words written on the board to write out the time
line as a narrative.
Grammar Poems: Grammar poems are short poems about a topic that learners
complete using various grammar prompts. This form of guided writing is very
effective and helps learners notice various syntactical elements of the language.
Put the grammar poem on the board with blanks. Here are some examples but
they could be used to write on any of these topic: country, famous person, my
home, this school.
(vii) SPEAK AND WRITE
Introducing each other: . Learners can interview classmates using a series of
questions proposed by the teacher. After the interview, learners can write out a
biography of their partner and others can read them.
Surveys / Reports: Learners prepare a questionnaire. They walk around the class
recording information from their partners to fill the questionnaire. Thereafter,
instead of reporting to the class orally, they write up the report about their
findings.
In class letter writing: Writing for a purpose is so important and nothing makes
this happen better than in class letter writing. Appoint a postman and have each
learner make a post office box (it could just be a small bag hanging from their
desk). The learners can write to each other (best to assign certain learners first)
and then respond to their letter.
Prewriting activities: Shading, drawing, coloring (These are specifically for pre-
primary and lower primary).
6.3. Teaching and Learning Aids for writing skills
Teaching aids are an integral part in the teaching-learning process. They are determined by
lesson components and learning conditions. Teaching aids have a great role to play since they
help learning in a number of different ways. They include, but are not limited to:
Writing board: The black/white board is a tool that can serve different purposes,
including writing. Boards provide the focal point in the classroom. They can be useful
for writing practice at all levels. For example, the teacher may write phrases and
sentences on the board helping students to write compositions
It can be used to write fill-in sentences or sentence transformation. For example, individual
learners may come to the board and write fill-in items or transform sentences. The whole class
can be involved in the correction process.
Language cards: posters can have language notes. Students can write about themselves
on the cards.
Pictures: You can use sets of pictures and ask what they have in common. For example:
all modes of transport; all objects you might find in a bedroom; all uncountable
foodstuffs; and all countries.
The following teaching/learning aids may also be useful at all levels. They may include:
Flipcharts, Manila papers, Notebooks, pens and pencils,chalks, markers, and
Computers.
6.4. Assessment of writing skills
The assessment of writing skills is guided by the following principles:
Writing is by definition social; therefore, learning to write entails learning to
communicate a message to a given audience in a specific setting.
Writing assessment is useful primarily as a means of improving teaching and learning.
Best assessment practice should engage learners in contextualized and meaningful
writing.
Best assessment practice supports and harmonizes with what practice and research have
demonstrated to be effective ways of teaching writing.
The assessment of writing skills should take into account the following key elements: task
development, writing conventions, organization, and content:
A. Assessing writing development (Task preparation)
Target your evaluation to the learner’s experience: Adjust your expectations
depending on the learner’s background: age, experience, and language proficiency. For
example, if you are evaluating the writing of children, keep their age and grade level in
mind.
Keep your assignments relevant to the learner’s needs or the skills you are
improving: Writing an essay requires a very different skill from writing a letter. Before
you create a test or assignment, consider whether it reflects the types of writing skills you
want to evaluate. For example, if you are testing the learner’s ability to use descriptive
language, you might ask them to describe a place, a building an event in a few
paragraphs.
Determine your assessment criteria
Decide exactly which sub-skills you want to evaluate, since this will determine the nature of
the assignment and how you evaluate it. For example, you might focus on:
The use of proper writing conventions, such as good spelling, grammar, syntax,
capitalization, and punctuation.
The learner’s mastery of written vocabulary.
The clarity and fluency with which the learner presents their arguments.
The use of clear and logical structure within the text.
Set clear parameters for your assignment
The learners will need to know exactly what is expected of them as they are doing their
assignment. Tell them what you will be looking for in as many details as possible, and be
clear about the time to complete the task, the length, and the topic.
Keep re-evaluating throughout the writing process: Building writing skills is a
process, and so is evaluating those skills. For example, you might offer to provide feedback
on drafts, and then look at how well they incorporate your suggestions into the final
product.
B. What to assess
(i) Assessing the use of writing conventions
Spelling
Writing conventions are the basic technical skills that make writing coherent and understandable.
Good spelling is a key element of clarity. When assessing spelling, keep in mind such issues as
the number of spelling errors and the learner’s understanding of basic spelling rules and patterns.
Punctuation
Proper punctuation is also essential for clarity of writing. Check the learner’s work to make sure
that they use appropriate punctuation when indicating the use of direct quotations and their use
of proper punctuation to mark the ends of sentences like full stops, question marks, and
exclamation mark, semi colons, colons, and commas.
Capitalization: A good learner should know the conventions of capitalization such as:
capitalizing the first words of sentences; names; including personal names, place names,
and titles before proper nouns, titles of works, such as books or articles.
Grammar: Using correct grammar is one of the most complex elements of writing.
When looking over the learner’s work, you might check that the learner is able to:
Use correct verbal forms like correct verb forms, mood, voice, person, and
number.
Show agreement between grammatical forms such as; nouns and pronouns
match in number and gender.
Syntax: Syntax refers to the ways sentences are put together. For a sentence to be
syntactically correct, both individual words and entire clauses must be arranged in an
order that makes sense. This entails the use of a variety of sentence structures like simple
declarative sentences, interrogative sentences, and compound sentences.
(ii) Assessing writing organization
Look for a clear beginning, middle, and end: A well-organized piece of writing should
have a clearly-defined structure: an introduction that briefly summarizes the topic or
introduces the theme of the piece in some way; a body, in which the major points of the
text are laid out; and a conclusion, which wraps up the text and provides a sense of
closure.
Assess the use of paragraphing: Paragraphing refers to the arrangement of sentences
into coherent groups. Each paragraph should focus on a single theme or idea, and should
be visually separated from the previous paragraph. A paragraph should have a topic
sentence, clearly expressing the main idea of the paragraph and supporting sentences.
Make sure learners ideas are organized in a logical order:: A good piece of writing
should present its points in an order that makes sense. The learner should at least have
some kind of clear organizational scheme.
Check for clear transitions between ideas or sections: In order for a piece of writing to
be coherent, there must be a logical flow of ideas from one clause, sentence, paragraph,
or section to the next. Look for the effective use of transitional words and phrases, such
as; therefore, on the other hand, however, furthermore, likewise, for example, in
conclusion, and any other connective.
(iii) Assessing content and style
Evaluate word choice and vocabulary: The words that a learner chooses can have a major
impact on the tone, clarity, and quality of their work. Check that the learner clearly expresses the
desired meaning, whether the vocabulary is varied enough to keep the reader’s interest, whether
words are being used correctly and at a level appropriate to the learner’s age, developmental
level, or experience level.
Look for originality and a clear voice: Check that the learner’s work conveys a tone
that reflects their personal style or unique viewpoint.
Watch for concise, straightforward language: Asses the learner’s ability to express
ideas clearly without too many unnecessary words.
Model lessons
Lesson plan
School Name: …………………………... Teacher’s name: … …………………………………………………
Term Date Subject Class Unit No Lesson No Duration Class size
I 3 March 2020 ENGLISH P3 7 06 of 28 40 minutes 45 pupils.
Type of Special Educational Needs to be catered for in this lesson and number of Two fast learners will be given an extra activity to keep them away from being idle
learners in each category once they finish ahead of others.
Unit title Clothes
Key Unit Competence To use language learnt in the context of clothes
Title of the lesson Describing clothes and colours
Instructional Objective Given pictures, flip charts and wide board marker, learners will be able to describe their own short descriptive paragraphs on the names or type of clothes with their colours correctly.
Plan for this Class (location: in / outside)
In class
Learning Materials (for all learners)
Pictures, flip charts, marker pens,
References REB. (2019) English for Rwandan Primary Schools, Pupil’s book 3, Kigali:REB
Timing for each step
Description of teaching and learning activity Generic competences and Cross cutting issues to be addressed + a short explanation
The teacher will guide learners in groups of three/four to write
short descriptive sentences related to clothes and colours, re-
arrange jumbled sentences and learn from each other through
gallery walk.
Teacher activities Learner activities
Introduction
05 minutes
Warm up activity: Teacher will tell leaners a short story that sparks their imagination to get ideas and words that will be used in the new lesson.
Revision activity.
Revise previous day’s activity.
Development of the lesson 25 minutes
-The teacher puts learners into teams of four. - One student from each group is a writer and one is the runner. - The runner must run to the text, reads, memorize and return to the rest of the group to dictate what they have memorized. They can change roles if they like. -Each part of the text must be written on a separate slip of paper. -When they finish all parts of the text, they work together to put their pieces text on paper in the correct order to make one correct text.
Learners listen to the instructions
carefully and act accordingly.
“Gasana likes clothes. Today he is
wearing a blue uniform. But he
likes wearing black trousers and a
red shirt. On Sunday he wears a
suit to church.”
-Learner write down the clothing
items mentioned in the text and
they add their own on the list.
Examples:
Inclusive education is promoted by involving all learners in the working groups.
-The teacher requires learners to write down clothing items from the text and add their own on the list. -The teacher gives learners jumbled sentences to re- arrange. -The teacher asks learner to write their own short descriptive sentences on clothes and colours correctly. -The teacher asks learners in their groups to write their own short descriptive sentences on clothes and colours correctly and display them on the wall for gallery walk.
Shirt, sweater, shoes, sandals, T-shirt, jumpers … -Learners rearrange jumbled sentences so that they make sense. - wearing /he/ is/shirt/blue. - likes/ jumper/a/red/ wearing/she. - trousers/are/they/wearing. -Learners to write their own short descriptive sentences on clothes and colours correctly. -Learners write their own short descriptive sentences on flip charts and display them on the wall and carry out gallery walk for corrections and clarifications.
Creativity will be developed through learners writing their own descriptive paragraph and re- arranging jumbled sentences. Communication will be developed by instructing learners to share ideas over the writing activity. They will look at different pieces of work and give comments.
Conclusion 05 minutes Evaluation 05 minutes
The teacher requires learners to list item of clothes they have learnt.
Learners in pairs list the items o Communication is developed through sharing ideas in pairs.
The teacher shows pictures to the learners and they describe what they see in the picture( types of clothes and colours)
Learners write three sentences describing what they seen in the pictures Example: -There is a boy. He is wearing a blue shirt. - There is a woman. She is wearing a black blouse.
Critical thinking while describing the picture
Teacher
self-
evaluation
Description of what went well and what to improve.
Lesson plan
School Name: …………………………... Teacher’s name: … …………………………………………………
Term Date Subject Class Unit No
Lesson No
Duration Class size
I 3rd /03/ 2020 ENGLISH P3 7 06 of 28 40 MINUTES
45 pupils.
Type of Special Educational Needs to be catered for in this lesson and number of learners in each category
Two fast learners will be given an extra activity to keep them away from being idle once they finish ahead of others.
Unit title Clothes
Key Unit Competence To use language learnt in the context of clothes
Title of the lesson Describing clothes and colours
Instructional Objective
Given pictures, flip charts and marker pens, learners will be able to write their own short descriptive paragraphs on clothes and colours correctly.
Plan for this Class (location: in / outside)
In class
Learning Materials (for all learners)
Pictures, flip charts, marker pens,
References REB. (2019) English for Rwandan Primary Schools, Pupil’s book 3, Kigali:REB
Timing for each step
Description of teaching and learning activity Generic competences and Cross cutting issues to be addressed + a short explanation
The teacher will guide learners in groups of three/four to write
short descriptive sentences related to clothes and colours, re-
arrange jumbled sentences and learn from each other through
gallery walk.
Teacher activities Learner activities
Introduction
05 minutes
Warmer/revision activity. Revision activity.
Revise previous day’s activity.
Development of the lesson 25 minutes
-The teacher puts learners into teams of four. - One student from each group is a writer and one is the runner. - The runner must run to the text, reads, memorize and return to the rest of the group to dictate what they have memorized. They can change roles if they like. -Each part of the text must be written on a separate slip of paper. -When they finish all the parts of the text, they work together to put their pieces of paper in the correct order to make one correct text.
Learners listen to the instructions
carefully and act accordingly.
“Gasana likes clothes. Today he is
wearing a blue uniform. But he
likes wearing black trousers and a
red shirt. On Sunday he wears a
suit to church”.
-Learner write down the clothing
items mentioned in the text and
they add their own on the list.
Examples:
Inclusive education is promoted by involving all learners in the working groups.
-The teacher requires learners to write down clothing items from the text and add their own on the list. -The teacher gives learners jumbled sentences to re- arrange. -The teacher asks learner to write their own short descriptive sentences on clothes and colours correctly. -The teacher asks learners in their groups to write their own short descriptive sentences on clothes and colours correctly and display them on the wall for gallery walk.
Shirt, sweater, shoes, sandals, T-shirt, jumpers … -Learners re arrange jumbled sentences so that they make sense. - wearing /he/ is/shirt/blue. - likes/ jumper/a/red/ wearing/she. - trousers/are/they/wearing. -Learners to write their own short descriptive sentences on clothes and colours correctly. -Learners write their own short descriptive sentences on flip charts and display them on the wall and carry out gallery walk for corrections and clarifications.
Creativity is developed through learners writing their own descriptive paragraph and re arranging jumbled sentences. Communication is developed by allowing learners to mingle together and look at different pieces of work and sharing ideas.
Conclusion 05 minutes Evaluation 05 minutes
The teacher requires learners to list item of clothes they have learnt.
Learners in pairs list the items of clothes they have learnt.
Communication is developed through sharing ideas in pairs.
The teacher shows pictures to the learners and they describe what they see in the picture( types of clothes and colours)
Learners write three sentences describing what they have seen in the pictures Example: -There is a boy. He is wearing a blue shirt. - There is a woman. She is wearing a black blouse.
Critical thinking: Learners are asked to provide reason while describing the picture.
Teacher
self-
evaluation
Description of what went well and what to improve.
School Name: …… Teacher’s name: … ………………………
Term Date Subject Class Unit
No
Lesson
No
Duration Class size
I 4 /3 / 2020 English S3 3 2 of 13 40min 51
Type of Special Educational Needs to be catered for in
this lesson and number of learners in each category
One student with visual impairment sits on the
first desk to help him see on the chalkboard
Unit title Folktales
Key Unit
Competence
To use the language learnt in the context of Folktales
Title of the lesson Word Formation
Instructional
Objective
Using Vocabulary words from the text “Ryangombe”, students make new words from
existing ones correctly.
Plan for this Class
(location: in /
outside)
In class
Learning Materials
(for all learners)
Text books p 55, exercise books, pens and flipcharts
References J Kaboyo.(2017) English for Rwanda schools Secondary 3 Learner’s book,SBD
Publishers.
Timing for
each step
Description of teaching and learning activity Generic competences
and
Cross cutting issues to be
addressed
+
a short explanation
After reviewing using a cabbage ball, the development of the
lesson will consist on different activities done in pairs. The lesson
will end up by writing a homework to be handed in tomorrow.
Teacher activities Learner activities
Introduction:
5min
Review the previous
lesson using a cabbage
ball
Answer the questions from the teacher
orally
Communication:
developed when learners get
to answer the teacher’s
questions correctly
Developmen
t of the
lesson:
20min
The teacher writes
different new words
from the story of
Ryangombe on the
chalkboard and
syllabicate them.
The teacher hands out
the text and ask
learners to pair and
choose words and
form new ones from
them
The teacher models
the formation of new
word with:
Accompanied
Noun:
accompaniment
Verb: accompany
The teacher helps
students to identify the
class of each word
Students work on the words trying to
understand their meanings
They pair, choose words, identify the
class of words and form new ones
Collaboration:
Developed when learners
pair and share ideas
The teacher draws the
table on the board that
students have to feel
in in pairs.
Students make new words using the table
and work in pairs.
e.g.
adjective noun verb
weak
Conclusion:
5 min
Evaluation:
10min
Ask learners to write
two to three sentences
about how words are
formed
He/she writes 10
words on the
chalkboard, learners
choose only 3 words
and make a sentence
with each one
The teacher models
the activity and
monitors it
He/she writes a
homework requiring
learners to find out
other ten words and
their derivatives
They write them and some of them read
out loud how words are formed.
The learners choose only 3 words and
make a sentence with each one.
They may ask questions for more
understanding
They copy the homework and do it at
home
Creativity:
Developed when learners
write a short paragraph on
their own explaining how
words are formed.
Critical thinking:
Developed when learners get
to make meaningful
sentences.
Teacher
self-
evaluation
The teacher will reflect on activities in class and find out what work and what did not work.
References
Littlewood, W. (1981). Communicative Language Teaching. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Richards, J.C & Rodgers, T.S (2001) Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching, (2nd Edition).
Cambridge: CUP.
Tarvin, Lynn. (2015). Communicative Competence: Its Definition, Connection to Teaching, and Relationship
with Interactional Competence. 10.13140/RG.2.1.3214.2807.
https://www.thoughtco.com/what-is-communicative-competence-1689768 (Retrieved on 24/02/2020)
https://coggle.it/diagram/W9UGbcYzylJGXIkk/t/characteristics-and-of-communicative-language-teaching
(Retrieved on 25th/02/2020)
https://elttguide.com/seven-kinds-of-clt-activities-to-build-up-students-communicative-competence/
(Retrieved on 25th/02/2020)
https://ontesol.com/communicative-approach/ (Retrieved on 25th/02/2020)
Osorio, M. (2017). Integrating Grammar in Adult TESOL Classrooms in El Salvador: St. Cloud State
University, El Salvador Retrieved on 26/02/2020 from
https://repository.stcloudstate.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1153&context=engl_etds
https://busyteacher.org/4035-how-to-teach-a-perfect-reading-lesson.html (Retrieved on 26/02/2020)
https://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/article/making-reading-communicative (Retrieved on 29/02/2020)
file:///C:/Users/hp/Downloads/133-Article%20Text-397-3-10-20151127.html (Retrieved on 01st /03/2020)
https://www.brighthubpm.com/templates-forms/108672-keep-everyone-in-the-loop-sample-communication-diagram/
(Retrieved on 01st /03/2020)
https://www.tes.com/teaching-resource/reading-strategies-11302 https://www.pinterest.c
https://docs.google.com/document/d/1XP4l0BRpPO1wTKtAZPNlsKJ-p-PuvzvUgeSPjhmgtWw/edit
om/pin/126663808247302387/?d=t&mt=signup 8
https://freeology.com/reading/reading-strategies-posters/
Glossary
