Metaphor as an Instrument for Orchestrating Change in Counselor Training and the Counseling Process

Journal of Counseling & Development ■ Spring2010 ■ Volume88182

Practice & Theory

©2010bytheAmericanCounselingAssociation.Allrightsreserved.

Metaphors may be used to improve counselor training and the counseling process by fostering client case conceptualization and facilitating counselor–client collaboration in intervention development. Commonly defined as the transfer of meaning from one element to another, metaphors have been used in counseling and psychotherapy since the time of Freud and Jung. They often were the subject of complex analysis and interpretation, requiring years of study for the counselor to understand and connect the meaning of the symbols used to the image presented.

It has even been suggested that there are fixed ways to connect the symbolic and the literal in a reductionist method (Siegelman, 1990). Family therapy, hypnotherapy, and Erick-sonian therapy training are infused with therapeutic meta-phors to encourage client change to enhance the counseling process (Kopp, 1995; Wickman, Daniels, White, & Fesmire, 1999). Similarly, counselor training can benefit from the use of metaphors.

More recently, intentional use of and attention to metaphors in counselor training have been suggested in the literature (Dennin & Ellis, 2003; Young & Borders, 1998). Amundsen (1988) recommended the intentional use of metaphors in counselor training to foster case conceptualization skills. In two seminal articles, Wickman et al. (1999) cited the potential richness of this tool as a resource in counselor supervision, and Lyddon, Clay, and Sparks (2001) encouraged counselors, both beginning and advanced, to explore how the metaphor can facilitate change during the counseling process. These authors also recommended that counseling supervisors explore the metaphor as a pedagogical tool to enhance the development of the beginning counselor. For example, metaphors can be used to develop interventions collaboratively with the client,

Tracey robertandVirginia a. Kelly, bothatCounselorEducationDepartment,FairfieldUniversity.CorrespondenceconcerningthisarticleshouldbeaddressedtoTraceyRobert,CounselorEducationDepartment,GraduateSchoolofEducationandAlliedProfes-sions,FairfieldUniversity,NorthBensonRoad,Fairfield,CT06824(e-mail:[email protected]).

Metaphor as an Instrument for Orchestrating Change in Counselor Training and the Counseling Process Tracey Robert and Virginia A. Kelly

Theauthorsexploretheuseofmetaphorsasatrainingtoolforbeginningcounselorsforenhancingclientcaseconcep-tualization,counselor–clientrelationships,andinterventionstrategies.Thehistoryoftheuseofmetaphorsincounseling,severaldefinitions,andacasestudyarepresented.Theauthorsdiscussintentionaluseofmetaphorswithstudentsintrainingandwithclients.Howtointroducetheuseofmetaphorsintocounselortrainingandpracticeisalsoincluded.

thus avoiding imposition of the counselor’s perception of the metaphor on the client’s thinking (Wickman et al., 1999).

Our focus in this article is to explore the intentional use of metaphors in counselor training to improve counselors’ case conceptualization, diagnosis, and treatment planning skills. We hypothesized that the intentional use of metaphors by faculty supervisors during students’ first field experience in practicum would enhance their learning and improve their mastery of these skills for use in counseling practice. A case study is included that describes this experience. In addition, counselors’ use of metaphors with clients is discussed.

Counseling Research and MetaphorAn increase in research interest in the use of metaphors in the counseling field (Babits, 2001; Dennin & Ellis, 2003; Lyddon et al., 2001; Wickman et al., 1999) has fostered initiatives to raise awareness of the power of metaphors for new counselors and new methods for integrating them into counselor training. Developing counselors’ cognitive abilities for case conceptualization and formulation of treatment plans is critical to counselor training. Amundsen (1988) suggested using metaphor and drawings to help beginning counselors with the case conferencing task during group supervision. He found that case conceptualization and the metaphoric process are similar in the integration process of the cognitive, behav-ioral, and affective domains. The later work of Wickman et al. (1999) further developed this idea, with their description of the conceptual metaphor as a tool for accessing the client’s worldview and connecting all the domains.

Counselors have expressed interest in the power of language, storytelling, and narratives to influence and create change in

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MetaphorasanInstrumentforChangeinCounselorTraining

clients’ personal realities and worldviews (Lyddon et al., 2001). Metaphors offer a communication tool for counselors to bring about the conditions for change and growth (Wickman et al., 1999) and for linking fundamental developmental changes that occur in the counseling process (Lyddon et al., 2001). Students often have viewed metaphors solely as interventions or techniques to be learned rather than as an integral part of the communication process. Expanding the definition to encompass the client’s worldview enables counselors-in-training to address the case conceptualization issues more easily. Then, counsel-ing goals and objectives that support and facilitate change and growth in clients can be developed.

The perspective of metaphors has ranged over the past 20 years from that of being a part of language behavior to that of a synthesizing activity that allows the recognition of similarities across sensory domains (Seitz, 1998). Accepted as an intricate part of human communication since the time of Plato and Aristotle, metaphors have been tracked in everyday use and have been identified as automatic and primary to the development of thought. They are often embedded in conver-sation and their value as cues to learning about the client’s world are often overlooked (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980).

In addition, the importance of understanding the use of metaphors in the counseling process is supported by findings in cognitive research and psychological development. Cogni-tive research has identified the capacity of the brain to process concepts and perceptions across domains, and recent research has identified metaphoric behaviors as being sensorineurally based perceptual knowledge that allows for verbal elaboration (Seitz, 1998). This view allows that a symbol system exists and that the client will use a schema to correlate or reference the experience and transfer it across systems (Seitz, 1998). Siegelman (1990) suggested that metaphor is primary in both language and thought and that the capacity for psychological development is linked with this process.

The transfer property of metaphors has led to debate about whether metaphor making is a left- or right-brain process. The ability to form images and ideas has long been thought to be located in the right hemisphere and logical, linear thought to reside in the left hemisphere. Neurophysiological research has demonstrated that, contrary to common thought, metaphors are not necessarily right brain–dependent. Clinical studies that used participants with brain injury have suggested that effective interaction of hemispheres is involved in meaning-making and that the hemispheres share in the process (Rohrer, 1995). A review of neurological studies showed activity in both hemispheres supporting the process (Rohrer, 1995).

The finding that both hemispheres support the metaphoric process has been recognized in the expressive therapies and has gained interest from beginning counselors (Haight & Shaughnessy, 2006). Research has shown that children as young as age 4 years respond metaphorically to their world and can recognize similarities across perceptual events and that the association of events and metaphors increases with

age (Seitz, 1998). This information (a) has broadened the strict view of metaphor as only a property of language to include nonverbal metaphors and (b) recognizes the power of metaphoric behavior and actions, such as gestures (Seitz, 1998). This broader view of metaphor has been particularly helpful for counseling students who work with children and attempt to use talk therapy exclusively. The use of metaphor and expressive therapies has enhanced counseling students’ abilities to enter the child’s world, understand the issues more clearly, and respond effectively.

Metaphor cognition in adults has included reviewing the role of the nonverbal metaphor in cognition. Most research has revolved around determining where the capacity for metaphor comprehension resides, and most studies have supported the notion that it is a left-brain function, where language is lo-cated. As stated earlier, however, the right hemisphere allows for creative and aesthetic interpretation and seems to play a role in the comprehension of complex patterns and images (Seitz, 1998). The ability to categorize across a continuum that includes sensory–perceptual systems, affective components, and higher order taxonomies indicates the complexity of the metaphor and its centrality to cognition and human reason-ing. The ability to categorize also represents the complexity of the case conceptualization task and how these elements can be used together.

Defining and Understanding MetaphorsAs stated earlier, metaphors are defined as the transfer of mean-ing from one element to another. A metaphor provides a bridge between two concepts and creates a new idea that transcends them (Muran & DiGuiseppe, 1990; Siegelman, 1990). Meta-phor has been viewed as a constructivist method for clients to make meaning of their experiences from as early as infancy to current situations. Metaphors are perceived as having an impact on cognition that, in turn, influences behavior and action; they link source (concrete) and target (abstract) domains, allowing for connection between feeling and insight. Metaphors help clients construct and structure their experience through their perception of the world (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980; Siegelman, 1990). The connection between thought and perception influ-ences language that conveys clients’ worldview.

Metaphors also have been described as heuristic and epistemic devices that create a language of and for change (Muran & DiGuiseppe, 1990). This definition is based on the cognitive model, which recognizes that metaphors are an exchange of information that transforms meaning among domains. Metaphor viewed as a therapeutic tool allows coun-selors and clients to access clients’ conceptual world quickly and effectively.

Understanding how metaphors work and how they can help clients access their experience and learn from what they know to move forward can be a powerful tool for counselors-in-training. According to Lyddon et al. (2001), the use of metaphor has an


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impact on five change processes: (a) establishing rapport, (b) accessing emotions, (c) challenging client beliefs, (d) working with client resistance and “getting stuck,” and (e) introducing new ways of thinking. All five processes relate to the skill areas being evaluated during the practicum experience. The use of metaphors in the supervision of students during training also can help them access their feelings and insights that are dif-ficult to express, as well as those of their clients. Metaphors can deepen the supervision process and aid in the instruction of mastery of skills, such as reframing, challenging, and ac-cessing the affective domain.

This comprehensive view of metaphor as a central cogni-tive mechanism that can access a client’s worldview not just through language but through multiple domains underscores its value for counseling strategies (Rohrer, 1995; Seitz, 1998). Narrowly viewing metaphor as strictly a linguistic expression does not acknowledge the thinking component and transfer of knowledge among domains (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980; Wick-man et al., 1999). Understanding how a client structures his or her world and categorizes experiences and thoughts helps the counselor access and reflect this to the client (Siegelman, 1990; Wickman et al., 1999). Reframing, often referred to as novel metaphors, can help counselors organize new possibili-ties and open up client options.

Using Metaphors in Counselor TrainingThe most important goals and objectives of the counseling process include the five change processes outlined by Lyddon et al. (2001). These are key areas of evaluation for skill acquisi-tion during the practicum experience. The use of metaphors as a pedagogical tool provides a framework for new counselors and allows them to expand their cognitive skills, particularly in the area of conceptualization (Lyddon et al., 2001; Wickman et al., 1999; Young & Borders, 1998). The metaphor serves as a vehicle to transport and convey meaning to the counselor during the counseling process and can be individualized to clients to have a lasting impact on learning new behaviors. The counseling supervisor can use the metaphor as a tool to access students’ affective domain and enhance their understanding of basic skills, such as overcoming client resistance.

Identifying and understanding clients’ metaphors provides the counselor trainee with a framework to explore hunches about clients’ issues. Conceptualizing clients’ issues is a basic but difficult-to-master counseling skill. Students often focus on interventions and techniques without looking at the whole process. Conceptual metaphors help counselors view the context and scope of the issue from the client’s perspective. Attending to metaphor images and concepts shared in therapy can enrich the counselor’s ability to formulate hypotheses and challenge client beliefs. Amundsen (1988) suggested using case drawings to access the beginning counselor’s view of his or her client’s struggles. He found that the use of visual aids made the conceptualization process more concrete.

Attending to the language of their clients and staying open to the metaphorical concepts that structure their worldview is critical for new counselors for effective practice. Metaphors are an “essential ingredient of communication” (Ortony, 1975, p. 45) and have a strong learning value. They help establish rapport by providing a window for the counselor, as well as the client, to make sense of the client’s world. They also make the abstract seem concrete when there is no literal translation available within the client’s frame of reference or language ability.

For example, a client who faced job dissatisfaction de-scribed his workplace as Wizard of Oz-like. When asked who he was in the workplace, he stated that he was the man behind the curtain (i.e., not who he appeared to be). He was fearful and worried that he would be exposed. Offering this metaphor allowed the client to show his true feelings and enabled the counselor to frame further discussions about his role in the workplace and his perception of his work self. The metaphor provided a window for understanding this client, who presented as a highly successful worker, and the reality of his worldview.

Much of the counseling literature has referred to concep-tual metaphors that help clients change their perception of a problem by continually referencing abstract ideas or events to concrete, bodily based experiences (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980; Wickman et al., 1999). Metaphors often are embedded in references to bodies, such as “mind as machine,” and ap-pear in everyday speech. Using the body as reference gives structure to the concepts and allows for sharper definition for affect and provides the richest source for elaboration (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980).

In addition, Sommer and Cox (2003) specifically identified Greek mythology as a source of metaphors to use during the supervision of counselor trainees. They suggested that using stories and myths may increase collaboration and generation of alternative counseling strategies. Some supervisors begin their supervision with a metaphor that describes the counsel-ing process. Supervisor-generated metaphors help structure the process and offer a support for students who often view the process as discrete skills and sessions and have difficulty seeing the whole.

Case study We attempted to explore the intentional use of metaphors by faculty supervisors during practicum. During weekly case conferences, faculty supervisors discussed challenges and bar-riers to student growth during the practicum experience. The discussion of the use of metaphors to enhance the process and skill building led to the suggestion to track the use and impact of metaphors by supervisors, clients, and students during the practicum semester. Two sections of six practicum students were enrolled in a master’s-level program in counseling with two faculty supervisors.



The decision was made to intentionally introduce a meta-phor to describe the counseling process at the beginning of the course in one section only. The supervisor chose a metaphor of the counseling process as the counselor taking a train ride with the client. The beginning counselor might think that he or she knew where he or she was going—there was a goal, or destination, and a specific stop in mind. However, the student might not take advantage of cues to explore underlying themes and stop at the train stations along the way. The supervisor was trying to convey the counseling process as not just a one-track, narrow experience but as a dynamic, flexible process with many possible stops along the way.

Students reported that use of the train metaphor helped them in reviewing their tapes and understanding pacing in their sessions, hearing the client’s issues, and following the client’s cues versus the student’s own agenda. Students indicated that they used the stop-and-go process in the metaphor as a self-supervising tool to identify when they missed an important point in the counseling process, missed opportunities to sup-port or challenge the client, and felt stuck and needed time to reflect on their focus. Faculty reported that students transferred use of the train metaphor to other classes outside the clinical training course and were integrating it into their learning.

The second supervisor chose not to introduce an instructor-generated metaphor. During the first class, how-ever, a student introduced a powerful metaphor to explain his feelings about his first field experience. As a result, the entire class was empowered to respond with deeper insight into their feelings and understanding of the process at a much higher level than the instructor had experienced in 10 years of teaching practicum.

In his metaphor, the student shared that he felt like he was in a rowboat without oars in an ocean and being overwhelmed by constant waves that rocked the boat. The waves were catching him by surprise, he was unsettled, and he did not know how to stay afloat. The instructor used this metaphor to help the class explore their anxieties related to their first field experience and generate strategies and tools to help them stabilize their boat and stay afloat. Use of this metaphor continued throughout the

semester. In the final class, the instructor revisited the metaphor and asked whether the student could see change and growth during the class. He stated that he felt he had made it back to shore and had developed skills to help anchor himself and his client along the way. The instructor reported improvement in the student’s personalization and conceptualization skills.

Using Metaphors as a Training ToolAs the faculty supervisors learned from this practicum experi-ence, the practice of counseling and therapy offers counseling students a rich opportunity for mapping and exploring the power of metaphors. Counselor training allows for intentional tracking of metaphor use while audiotapes of sessions are re-viewed, a requirement in most programs. Metaphors generated by clients could be collected during the semester and used for case conceptualization and for increasing counselor-in-training awareness (see Table 1). The taping would help trainees identify metaphors that are automatic and embed-ded in everyday language and monitor clients’ use of and responses to metaphors. Multiple databases currently on the Internet have lists of everyday metaphors and more complex structures. Instructor-generated metaphors follow the model of master therapist and learner; student-generated metaphors empower students to engage in skill development and transfer the process to the client. Students become more comfortable with the use of metaphors in supervision and become more aware of client-generated metaphors.

Using Metaphors With ClientsIn addition to counselor trainees, metaphors may be used effectively in the counseling process. Metaphors provide a vehicle for clients to form mental images of feeling states and perceptions of their issues that make connections between experiences that might appear to be distinct and unrelated. The flexibility of the metaphor in allowing for chunking and connecting what might appear to be disparate experiences pro-vides a method for the counselor to enter the client’s world and support his or her synthesis of new meaning making. Through

TaBLE 1

Metaphors That Have Been used Effectively in Counselor Training and Counseling

Metaphor

Makingacake:gatheringingredientsandfollowingarecipe

BowlfullofJell-OCEOororchestraconductor

HittingabrickwallFeelinglikeasponge

Baseballpitcher

ShakingasodaBuildingawall

Purpose

Illustratethecounselingprocessanditscomponents,suchasestablishingempathy,creatinginterventions,conceptualizing,andformulatingatreatmentplan

Describelackofdirectionandfocus,shakiness,anxietyCharacterizebeginningcounselorviewofroleofpowerinthecounselingrelationship;

conceptualizeclient’sfamilydynamicsDescribeclientresistanceRelatesenseofemotionaloverloadandfeelingsaturated;lackofboundaries,self-care

skillsDescribeclient’sviewoflackofcontrolinworkroleandsetting(clientisplayerwhohas

theball,butemployerownsbats,bases,andballpark)IllustrateangermanagementandlackofemotionalregulationDepictclientanxietyordepressionandcreatingboundariesforprotection


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this access, the counselor also can challenge a client’s belief system and question the connections being made.

The chunking of multiple characteristics (e.g., perceptual, cognitive, emotional, and experiential) from one domain to an-other underscores how comprehensive and rich metaphors can be. Their power as a learning tool that allows for the transfer of meaning from something known to a new, unknown arena, often vividly, provides a platform for insight and connection (Ortony, 1975). They provide a bridge when literal language may not have a discrete, particular way of describing experi-ence. Metaphors allow clients and counselors to explore and elaborate on the images provided and then transform them into a new understanding and way of knowing or being. Transforming the metaphor allows the client to connect feel-ing states to the real world, personify nonhuman subjects, and make sense of life experiences in human terms (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980). Metaphors that are described as parts of the human anatomy use the physical boundaries of the human body as their structure and focus. For example, an anxious client described filling a glass with water until it overflowed. The glass represented her body as a container, and the water represented her overwhelming emotion.

Intentional use of the client’s language and metaphor provides a rich resource for the counselor in fostering learn-ing and insight for the client (Lyddon et al., 2001; Martin, Cummings, & Hallberg, 1992; Saiz & Guiffrida, 2001). Meaning-making can be coconstructed in the process of counseling; clients will retain and restructure their world-views, often feeling a sense of mastery (Carmichael, 2000; Siegelman, 1990). The collaboration between the counselor and client in meaning making strengthens the working alli-ance and offers both an opportunity for creativity, learning and synthesis, and increased motivation to reach treatment goals and objectives.

The process of using the metaphor through storytelling, drawing, and gestures enhances the counselor’s capacity to communicate more effectively and achieve congruence with the client (Wickman et al., 1999). The story as metaphor has been emphasized in narrative therapy, particularly the use of a common story known to both client and counselor, such as a fairy tale or culturally based fable. For a group counselor, the story of the Wizard of Oz as a metaphor for helping sur-vivors of a tornado in a rural location was an effective and easily accessible vehicle for collaboration. Familiarity with the story was an essential quality in that the intervention was conducted within the limits of a onetime, 3-hour group ses-sion. The metaphor facilitated learning about the grief process and connection with supportive resources, both internal and external. It also motivated change, as survivors moved on (Carmichael, 2000). This example supports the theory that therapeutic metaphors can help clients learn and retain images of hope and possible solutions to encourage them to change (Carmichael, 2000; Martin et al., 1992).

The ability of the metaphor to illustrate and highlight the client’s capacity to learn, problem solve, and become more self-aware makes the knowledge and understanding of metaphor essential for counselors-in-training and for practi-tioners. Hearing clients respond with an “Aha!” when they are exploring their perception through a metaphor that they introduced into the session can be tremendously satisfying to both counselors and clients and indicate successful com-munication and understanding.

According to the interactive view, the metaphor may help create the new knowledge because it is understood (Muran & DiGiuseppe, 1990). Counselors often can transform the metaphor in collaboration with the client by exploring the image and the sensations associated with it, identifying the feelings that are evoked, and helping the client change the image into a new one that is preferred and results in new behavior or affect. The counselor is sup-porting change in the client through use of the client’s own symbols and perceptions (Muran & DiGuiseppe, 1990). A shared understanding of symbols and organization is the basic assumption.

For a client who is an avid sailor, for example, using nauti-cal terms and references might tap into hidden resources and a perspective that the client would not automatically see to solve his or her problem in another arena. The use of a familiar-source metaphor in this instance helps the client remember the importance of the cognitive restructuring and facilitates understanding. Repeating the metaphor over several sessions increases understanding and transforms the metaphor into a coping or problem-solving strategy (Muran & DiGiuseppe, 1990). Rehearsing and practicing the cognitive restructur-ing through outside assignments also enhances the power of the learning and underscores the importance of metaphor in minimizing resistance.

Caution in the Use of MetaphorsCounselors and trainees should proceed cautiously and make sure that their understanding of the concepts matches the client’s and that they are not creating metaphors of their own. The counselor is more effective when using the client’s language (Wickman et al., 1999). Counselors may abstract a concept from an area the client has discussed and seems to know well and offer a new platform for constructing new knowledge or new perception of the problem. This is where the counselor can exercise creativity in making links that the client can follow or targeting a domain that has already been mentioned during therapy. Understanding the client well and having developed a strong relationship allows for a safe harbor or holding environment (Babits, 2001) to try out these new ways of thinking. Counselors are encouraged to make sure that understanding of the metaphor is mutual. Kopp (1995) suggested that metaphors can be used effec-



tively in brief therapy as long as the counselor stays with the client’s words and perceptions.

Often in counselor training, supervisors are more comfort-able generating metaphors to structure the process for students and to offer support. However, our use of the student-generated metaphor for processing the practicum experience enhanced the class development and learning and provided immedi-ate access to the affective domain. Deeper insight into and understanding of the power of the counseling process were reported during the course evaluation process.

Introducing the Use of Metaphor in Counselor Training and Practice

Kopp (1995) stated that “hands on” training in use of meta-phors helps trainees and counselors acquire and improve key skills in a timely manner. Burns (2001) and Kopp (1995) offered systematic ways to introduce the intentional use of metaphor into the counseling process for beginners and ad-vanced counselors. Kopp proposed a protocol that consisted of six steps: (a) intentional notice of metaphors; (b) inviting exploration of the metaphor using the person’s language; (c) inviting exploration of the metaphor as a sensory image, in-cluding setting, activity, and accessing all senses and time; (d) asking for exploration of the feelings and experience associ-ated with the metaphor; (e) asking for transformation of the metaphor (what would the person change?); and (f) bridging the metaphor back to the presenting issue (pp. 5–12). Kopp emphasized the importance of staying with the client’s words and acting as a facilitator.

Burns (2001) offered a structured format that he called the PRO-approach (Problems, Resources, and Outcomes; p. 232). This method helps in teaching case conceptualization and treatment planning skills. He described his approach as outcome based, which fits with the instructional and evaluative process of counselor training.

In working with practicum students, we found both ap-proaches to be effective. One section used an instructor-generated metaphor continually throughout the semester. The other section used a student-generated metaphor; they watched it transform along with the students’ progress and growth as beginning counselors.

Concluding RemarksAs Kopp (1995) suggested, the intentional use of metaphors in counselor training can enhance practice and research. With the use of metaphors, instructors can expand and enrich their trainees’ cognitive and affective skills and make their practice more effective. Doing so would pro-vide a mechanism for improving their students’ skills in case conceptualization and treatment planning and overall intervention skills.

Counselors are known to rely on a combination of anec-dotal and empirical evidence in making decisions about the use of metaphors in training and counseling. More empiri-cal research focused on the intentional use of metaphor in counselor training is necessary to support actively integrating it into the practicum process. Teaching of conceptualization of client concerns remains a complicated and challenging task. Research data focused more specifically on the use of metaphor as a counseling tool would strengthen training programs by allowing educators to choose strategies and content that have been tested. We hope to continue this research with follow-up studies that explore learning differ-ences of counselors and clients, using a larger, more diverse sample of students.

ReferencesAmundsen, N. (1988). The use of metaphor and drawings in case

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Burns, G. W. (2001). 101 healing stories: Using metaphors in therapy. New York, NY: Wiley.

Carmichael, K. D. (2000). Using a metaphor in working with disaster survivors. Journal of Specialists in Group Work, 25, 7–15.

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Saiz, S. G., & Guiffrida, D. (2001, October). The use of metaphor in the supervision of counselor education students. Paper presented at the meeting of the North Atlantic Regional Association of Counselor Educator and Supervisors, Amherst, MA.

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Metaphor as an Instrument for Orchestrating Change in Counselor Training and the Counseling Process