Running Head: METACOGNITIVE STRATEGIES IN LANGUAGE LEARNING 1

Metacognitive Strategies in Second Language Learning-A Comparative Analysis

Isabell C. Camillo

Brock University

February 2011

METACOGNITIVE STRATEGIES IN LANGUAGE LEARNING 2

Metacognitive Strategies in Second Language Learning-A Comparative Analysis

Metacognition is simply defined as knowing about knowing. It involves the conscious

understanding of one’s own thought processes and includes knowledge about when and how

particular learning strategies should be applied. Metacognitively aware learners organize, center

and assess their learning through self-direction. Researchers propose that use of metacognitive

strategies such as planning, selecting, monitoring, and evaluating assist in learning more

effectively and decisively. The results of such investigations can be applied to language learning

where the possible use of these strategies may result in greater learner success of acquiring a

second language. An analysis of two journal articles written by Neil Anderson and Anita

Wenden shows similarities between the two viewpoints on the use of metacognitive strategies in

learning. While Anderson and Wenden both discuss the role of metacognitive strategies in

language learning, Wenden’s article presents their importance in relation to cognitive

knowledge and its application within the larger concept of metacognition.

Metacognition and Its Components

Metacognition is a complex phenomenon not easily observed, peeking the curiosity of

many scholars whose desire is to expose its underlying activities. Researchers such as

Livingston (1997) state that metacognition refers to “higher order thinking involving active

control over cognitive processes engaged in learning”. Flavell (1976), a child developmental

psychologist considered to be a foundation researcher in metacognition, first used the term,

defining it as:

The active monitoring and consequent regulation and orchestration of these processes in

relation to the cognitive objects or data on which they bear, usually in service of some

METACOGNITIVE STRATEGIES IN LANGUAGE LEARNING 3

concrete goal or objective…[and] referring to one’s knowledge concerning one’s own

cognitive processes or anything related to them (p. 232).

Keeping in mind the information presented in the previous paragraphs, the following

section of the paper provides a comparative analysis of the two articles discussed in the

introduction. Insights from both Anderson and Wenden enhance the understanding of the topic

by defining metacognitive skills and relating their function within the greater concept of

metacognition to second language learning.

Comparative Analysis

Anderson’s Role of Metacognition in Second Language Learning and Teaching

Anderson (2002) identifies metacognition to be “the real key to learning” (p. 1). He

states that metacognition combines various attended thinking and reflective processes. He

further divides these processes into five primary components, essentially providing a process

model for metacognitive strategies in second language learning. According to Anderson, the

components of metacognition include (1) preparing and planning; (2) selecting and using

learning strategies; (3) monitoring strategy use; (4) orchestrating various strategies; and (5)

evaluating strategy use and learning.

Anderson applies his process model to second language reading. He proposes that

“engaging in preparing and planning in relation to a learning goal” (p. 1) allows students to

“think about what they need or want to accomplish and how they intend to go about

accomplishing it” (p. 1). Selecting and using strategies in a given situation shows that the learner

is thinking about his or her learning and actively making decisions about the learning process.

Furthermore, Anderson states that to be effective, “metacognitive instruction should be explicit”

(p. 1), providing the example that second language readers have a variety of strategies they can

access when they “encounter vocabulary they do not know” (p. 1). Through monitoring their

METACOGNITIVE STRATEGIES IN LANGUAGE LEARNING 4

strategy use, students can keep themselves better on track to achieving their goals. By using a

multitude of combined strategies according to their needs, they utilize the skills of coordination

and organization. Through evaluation of their efforts and assessing their effectiveness, students

can make better choices about their learning by reflecting on the entire learning process.

Anderson stresses that the five components do not necessarily progress in a linear fashion

but instead may interact as necessary. Furthermore, he affirms that language learning strategy

researchers argue for the important role of both metacognitive knowledge and metacognitive

learning strategies by stating that “students learn to think about what happens during the

language learning process, which will lead them to develop stronger learning skills” (p. 1). He

concludes his article by stating the value metacognitive skills bring to the learning of a second

language because when learners are able to reflect upon their learning strategies as well as the

actual process of learning, they are better prepared to make conscious decisions about what they

are capable of doing in order to improve their learning. He expresses his opinion clearly by

presenting “strong metacognitive skills empower second language learners” (p. 2) as his final

statement.

Wenden’s Metacognitive Knowledge and Language Learning

Wenden (1998) presents metacognitive knowledge as a component of metacognition,

which is further defined by Flavell as ''knowledge or beliefs about what factors or variables act

and interact in what ways to affect the course and outcome of cognitive enterprises'' (1979, p.

907). Wenden continues by stating that such knowledge determines the purposes, route and

content of one’s learning (1998).

By defining metacognitive knowledge on the basis of its sub-components such as learner

beliefs, learner representations and naïve psychology of learning, Wenden makes an argument

METACOGNITIVE STRATEGIES IN LANGUAGE LEARNING 5

for the importance of metacognitive knowledge as a component of metacognition. Flavell adds

further to this belief by stating that this kind of knowledge leads learners ''to select, evaluate,

revise, and abandon cognitive tasks, goals, and strategies in light of their relationships with one

another” (1979, p. 908). It must therefore influence learners’ beliefs in their own abilities to

begin, keep control of, and ultimately succeed in achieving a given task. More specifically, it

lends to the individual component of learner metacognition, influencing their self-efficacy for

connecting to ''general knowledge learners have acquired about human factors that facilitate or

inhibit learning'' (Wenden, 1998, p. 518).

According to Wenden, students who are aware of their learning will better focus their

attention on the most important aspects of the learning process they feel will help them achieve

their academic goals. By combining metacognitive knowledge with metacognitive strategies,

students will demonstrate the ability to utilize a variety of metacognitive abilities and work more

competently.

Discussion

Anderson and Wenden both agree that students who demonstrate a variety of

metacognitive abilities work more competently. These students tend to be self-regulated,

showing a strong commitment and positive attitude towards their learning. Psychologists and

educators recognize the power of metacognition and the positive results that come from applying

its principles in learning. “Thinking about thinking” (Anderson, 2002, p. 1) allows students to

gain access to knowledge of how and when to use particular learning approaches. Through the

implementation of metacognition and its components-preparing and planning, selecting and

using, monitoring, orchestrating, problem-solving and evaluating-learners “know what to do

METACOGNITIVE STRATEGIES IN LANGUAGE LEARNING 6

when they don’t know what to do; that is, they have strategies for finding out or figuring out

what they need to do” (Anderson, 2002, p. 1).

Research on metacognition and its applications to the field of ESL has shown to have a

direct affect on language learning. It is therefore vital that metacognitive strategies be taught to

students so they can better apply themselves to the achievement of their goals (Anderson, 2002;

Livingston, 1997; Wenden, 1998). If language learners are aware of each aspect of the process,

they can utilize metacognitive strategies to problem-solve and subsequently complete the task at

hand. Metacognitively aware learners know their strengths and weaknesses and the available

skills set to achieve their goal.

Summary

This paper has explored the similarities between Anderson and Wenden’s viewpoints on

the notion of metacognition and its components. While Anderson’s article summarizes the

importance of and provides a model for the use of metacognitive strategies in second language

reading, Wenden’s article offers an exposition on both the relevance and application of these

strategies as part of a larger framework of interrelated parts. Through the discussion, a

connection has been made between metacognitive strategies in learning and their application to

the field of ESL. Language learning strategies are vital for language learning because they

develop into skills necessary for self-directed learning (Oxford, 1990). Not only do students

develop communicative competence through the use of language learning strategies, but they

become efficient language learners.

Conclusion

The topic of metacognition and the application of its components to English language

learning has been the focus of this paper. Through the comparative analysis of two articles

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written by researchers who advocate the use of strategies in second language learning, the

importance of teaching metacognitive skills has been suggested. Metacognitive learning

strategies such as prioritizing, goal setting and self-management “help learners regulate”

(Oxford, 1990, p. 17) and self-direct their own language learning. Recognizing what successful

language learners do or observing how they do what they do to learn a second language can

provide valuable information on how to teach those less successful. Experts agree that

appropriate use of metacognitive strategies influences the learning process positively (Anderson

2002).

All language learners use some type of strategy in the learning process. Determining

which strategies students use and how to measure their effectiveness in achieving the task at

hand is an important factor in the learning process. Metacognition and its components are part of

this internal procedure which is not easily observed yet ultimately develops in the learner the

traits of self-regulation, confidence, positive attitude and strong determination to become

efficient students. Metacognition, therefore, has a profound effect on learning and can be

translated into knowledge and strategies which build metacognitive skills through planning,

monitoring and evaluating one’s learning.

The difficulty in observing the unobservable raises challenges for research on

metacognition and language learning. Questions such as how to observe metacognitive ability

and how to foster metacognitive knowledge in order to teach metacognitive strategies are all

important questions that still require answers.

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References

Anderson, N.J. (2002). The role of metacognition in second language teaching and learning.

ERIC Digest, EDO-FL-01-10 (no page numbers). Retrieved from

http://www.cal.org/resources/digest/0110anderson.html

Flavell, J. H. (1976) Metacognitive aspects of problem solving. In L. B. Resnick (Ed.), The

nature of intelligence (pp.231-236). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Flavell, J. H. (1979). Metacognition and cognitive monitoring: A new area of cognitive-

development inquiry. American Psychologist, 34 (10), 906-911.

Livingston, J. A. (1997). Metacognition: An overview. State University of New York at Buffalo.

Retrieved from http://gse.buffalo.edu/fas/shuell/cep564/metacog.htm

Oxford, R. (1990). Language learning strategies: What every teacher should know. New York:

Newbury House Publishers.

Wenden, A. L. (1998). Metacognitive knowledge and language learning. Applied Linguistics, 19

(4), 515-537.