Memory

The stories we tell...

Cognitive Perspective

• Language

• Intelligence

• Thinking and Reasoning

• Memory

Types of Memories

• Explicit/Declarative– semantic: facts, knowledge

– episodic: autobiographical events

• Implicit– procedural: the ‘how tos’

Memory: The persistence of learning over time.

Encoding

Storage

Retrieval

Memory Construction

• Recall is not an exact replica of original events

• Recall is a construction built and rebuilt from various sources

• We often fit memories into existing beliefs

• Schemas provide a framework for new information

Word List

BEDCLOCKDREAMNIGHTTURNMATTRESSSNOOZENODTIRED NIGHTBLANKET

ARTICHOKE INSOMNIARESTTOSSNIGHTALARMNAPSNOREPILLOW

Enhancing Remembering

• Serial Position Effect: – primacy– recency

• Repetition

• Distinctiveness

• Organization

• Mnemonics

Enhancing Remembering

• Mass vs. Spaced Practice

• Automatic vs. Effortful Processing

Automatic Processing

A B C

D E F

Encoding Specificity

• Context dependence: Scuba Diver study

Encoding Specificity

• State dependence– arousal level, altered states of consciousness

• Mood congruence– effects of depression on memory and

perception

Flashbulb Memories

• ‘Video-like’ memory, vivid and detailed

• Usually highly emotional, shocking

• Example: September 11

• How accurate are they?

Flashbulb Memories

• Neisser and Harsch (1992) Challenger disaster

• 1 day later vs. 3 years later

Eyewitness Testimony

• Eyewitness testimony is influential in court

• Eyewitness confidence is related to juror conviction

• How accurate is eyewitness’ memory for an event?

Leading Questions

• Loftus and Palmer (1974) Subjects shown video of an accident between two cars

• How fast were the cars going when they hit each other?

Results

‘hit’ = 34.0 mph

‘contacted’ = 31.8 mph

‘bumped’ = 38.1 mph

‘collided’ = 39.3 mph

‘smashed’ = 40.8 mph

The Misinformation Effect

• Witness event

• Receive incorrect post-event information

• Asked to recall event, recall incorrect information

The Misinformation Effect

• Loftus, Miller and Burns (1978)

• Slideshow depicting car accident

• Car stopped at stop sign

• Asked “What was the color of the car stopped at the yield sign?”

The Misinformation Effect

• Forced-Choice Recognition Test:

Which slide did you see?

Other Eyewitness Factors

• Race Identification

• Witness Expectations/Perceptions

• Duration of Event

• Emotional Arousal

• Transference– mug shots and lineups