MemoryMemory

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sciconrev.org

The Way We WereThe Way We WereMemories Like the corners of my mindMisty watercolor memories Of the way we

wereScattered pictures Of the smiles we left

behindSmiles we gave to one another For the way we

wereCan it be that it was all so simple thenOr has time rewritten every line If we had the chance to do it all againTell me - would we? could we? Memories May be beautiful and yetWhat’s too painful to rememberWe simply choose to forgetSo it is the laughter We will rememberWhenever we remember The way we wereSo it is the laughter We will rememberWhenever we remember The way we

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The Way We WereThe Way We Were

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MemoryMemoryThe Phenomenon of Memory Information Processing

Encoding: Getting Information inHow We EncodeWhat We Encode

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MemoryMemoryMemory is the basis for knowing your friends, your neighbors, the

English language, the national anthem, and

yourself.

If memory was nonexistent, everyone would be a stranger to

you; every language foreign; every task new; and even you yourself would be a stranger.

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thw.coventry.sch.uk

MemoryMemory

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The Phenomenon of MemoryThe Phenomenon of Memory

Memory is any indication that learning has

persisted over time.

It is our ability to store and

retrieve information.

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commons.wikimedia.org

Memory TestMemory TestName the Seven Dwarfs……SneezySleepyDopeyDocHappyBashfulGrumpy

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Flashbulb MemoryFlashbulb MemoryA unique and highly emotional moment

may give rise to a clear, strong, and persistent memory called flashbulb

memory. However, this memory is not free from errors.

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President Bush being told of 9/11 attack.

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bis

brainvat.wordpress.com

Flashbulb MemoryFlashbulb Memory

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Stages of MemoryStages of Memory

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Keyboard

(Encoding)

Disk(Storag

e)

Monitor(Retrieva

l)Sequential Process

Information ProcessingInformation ProcessingThe Atkinson-Schiffrin (1968) three-stage model of memory includes a)

sensory memory, b) short-term memory, and c) long-term memory.

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Problems with the ModelProblems with the Model

1. Some information skips the first two stages and enters long-term memory automatically.

2. Since we cannot focus all the sensory information in the environment, we select information (through attention) that is important to us.

3. The nature of short-term memory is more complex.

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Working MemoryWorking MemoryAlan Baddeley (2002) proposes that working

memory contains auditory and visual processing controlled by the central executive through an

episodic buffer.

Working Memory – rehearse or use, if not - fade

Frontal Lobe – complex thinking

Parietal and TemporalLobes – auditory and visual information

Talk Drive

Encoding: Getting Encoding: Getting Information InInformation In

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How We Encode

1. Some information (route to your school) is automatically processed.

2. However, new or unusual information (friend’s new cell-phone number) requires attention and effort.

peterboroughmoves.com

Sodahead.comStory – Little Johnny

Automatic ProcessingAutomatic Processing

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We process an enormous amount of information effortlessly, such as the

following: 1. Space: While reading a

textbook, you automatically encode the place of a picture on a page.

2. Time: We unintentionally note the events that take place in a day.

3. Frequency: You effortlessly keep track of things that happen to you.

shoponline2011.com

Effortful ProcessingEffortful Processing

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Committing novel

information to memory

requires effort just like

learning a concept from a textbook. Such

processing leads to

durable and accessible memories.

Spencer G

rant/ Photo E

dit

© B

ananastock/ Alam

y

Where you ate yesterday

StudyingPsychology

RehearsalRehearsal

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Effortful learning usually

requires rehearsal or conscious

repetition.

Ebbinghaus studied

rehearsal by using nonsense syllables: TUV YOF GEK XOZ

Hermann Ebbinghaus(1850-1909)

http://ww

w.isbn3-540-21358-9.de

RehearsalRehearsal

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The more times the nonsense syllables were practiced on

Day 1,the fewer

repetitions were required to

remember them on Day 2.

The amount remembered depends on the time spent learning!!!!!!

Memory EffectsMemory Effects

1. Next-in-line-Effect: When you are so anxious about being next that you cannot remember what the person just before you in line says, but you can recall what other people around you say.

2. Spacing Effect: We retain information better when we rehearse over time. RESTUDY material to prepare for your AP Exam

3. Serial Position Effect: When your recall is better for first and last items on a list, but poor for middle items.

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Spacing EffectSpacing EffectDistributing rehearsal (spacing effect) is better than practicing all at once. Robert

Frost’s poem could be memorized with fair ease if spread over time.

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ACQUAINTED WITH THE NIGHT

Robert Frost

I have been one acquainted with the night.

I have walked out in rain — and back in rain.

I have outwalked the furthest city light.

… …

seeingandwriting.com

Serial Position EffectSerial Position Effect

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1. TUV2. ZOF3. GEK4. WAV5. XOZ6. TIK7. FUT8. WIB9. SAR10. POZ11. REY12. GIJ

Better recallPrimacy Effect

Better recallRecency Effect

Poor recall

Serial-Position Activity

Von Restorff Effect (Isolation Von Restorff Effect (Isolation Effect)Effect)

The Von Restorff Effect is when an otherwise homogenous list contains some items that stand out because they are unique in some regard.

There can also be a reverse effect here. You remember the unique item, but the attention that it grabs from you is removed from other items -- thus you may in fact remember less overall.

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•Jump•Cut•Run•Fly•Duck-billed platypus•Read•Build•Lay

If you want people to remember something make it stand out.

What We EncodeWhat We Encode

1. Encoding by meaning

2. Encoding by images

3. Encoding by organization

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Encoding MeaningEncoding Meaning

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Q: Did the word begin with a capital letter?

StructuralEncodingQ: Did the word

rhyme with the word “weight”?Q: Would the word fit in the sentence? He met a __________ in the street.

PhonemicEncoding

SemanticEncoding

“Whale”

Craik and Lockhart (1972)

Intermediate

Deep

Shallow

ResultsResults

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Visual EncodingVisual EncodingMental pictures (imagery) are a

powerful aid to effortful processing, especially when combined with

semantic encoding.

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Showing adverse effects of tanning and smoking in a picture may be more powerful than simply

talking about it.

Both photos: H

o/AP Photo

MnemonicsMnemonics

Imagery is at the heart of many memory aids. Mnemonic

techniques use vivid imagery in aiding memory.

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1.Method of Loci

2.Link Method

Method of LociMethod of Loci

Greek scholars imagined themselves moving through a familiar series of locations; associating each place as a visual representation of the to-be-remembered topic

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faculty.washington.edu

Method of LociMethod of Loci

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List of Items

CharcoalPensBed SheetsHammer...Rug

Imagined Locations

BackyardStudyBedroomGarage...Living Room

Link MethodLink Method

Involves forming a mental image of items to be remembered in a way that links them together.

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List of Items

NewspaperShaving creamPenUmbrella...Lamp

Organizing Information for Organizing Information for EncodingEncoding

Break down complex information into broad concepts and further subdivide

them into categories and subcategories.

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1.Chunking

2.Hierarchy

Short-term memory activity

ChunkingChunkingOrganizing items into a familiar,

manageable unit. Try to remember the numbers below.

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1-7-7-6-1-4-9-2-1-8-1-2-1-9-4-1

If you are well versed with American history, chunk the numbers together and see if you can recall them better.

1776 1492 1812 1941.

ChunkingChunking

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Acronyms are another way of chunking information to

remember it.HOMES = Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, Superior

PEMDAS = Parentheses, Exponent, Multiply, Divide, Add, Subtract

ROY G. BIV = Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Indigo, Violet

HierarchyHierarchy

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Complex information broken down into broad concepts and further subdivided into categories and

subcategories.

Encoding Summarized in a Encoding Summarized in a HierarchyHierarchy

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MemoryMemory

Storage: Retaining Information Sensory Memory Working/Short-term Memory

Long-Term Memory Storing Memories in the Brain

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Storage: Retaining Storage: Retaining InformationInformation

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Storage is at the heart of memory. Three stores of

memory are shown below:

SensoryMemory

WorkingMemory

Long-termMemory

Encoding

RetrievalEncoding

Events

Retrieval

Short-term – Long-term Short-term – Long-term Memory Memory

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Sensory MemorySensory Memory

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SensoryMemory

WorkingMemory

Long-termMemory

Encoding

RetrievalEncoding

Events

Retrieval

Sensory MemorySensory Memory

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Whole Report – Iconic Whole Report – Iconic MemoryMemory

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The exposure time for the stimulus is so smallthat items cannot be rehearsed.

R G T

F M Q

L Z S50 ms (1/20 second)

“Recall”R T M Z

(44% recall)

A momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli Sperling (1960)

Partial ReportPartial Report

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Low Tone

Medium Tone

High Tone

“Recall”J R S

(100% recall)

Sperling (1960) argued that sensory memory capacity was larger than what was

originally thought.

50 ms (1/20 second)

S X TJ R SP K Y

Time DelayTime Delay

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“Recall”N _ _

(33% recall)

TimeDelay

50 ms (1/20 second)

A D IN L VO G H

Low Tone

Medium Tone

High Tone

Sensory MemorySensory Memory

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The longer the delay, the greater the memory loss.

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0.15 0.30 0.50 1.00

Time (Seconds)

Short-Term MemoryShort-Term Memory

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Sensory MemoriesSensory Memories

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Echoic Memory – a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli

Hepatic (Haptic) Memory – a momentary sensory memory of a stimuli connected to touch

facebook.com

Sensory MemoriesSensory Memories

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Iconic0.5 sec. long

Echoic3-4 sec. long

Hepatic< 1 sec. long

The duration of sensory memory varies for the different

senses.

Working MemoryWorking Memory

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SensoryMemory

WorkingMemory

Long-termMemory

Encoding

RetrievalEncoding

Events

Retrieval

Working MemoryWorking MemoryWorking memory, the new name for short-term memory, has a limited capacity (7±2)

and a short duration (20 seconds).

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Sir George Hamilton observed that he could accurately remember up

to 7 beans thrown on the floor. If there were more beans, he guessed.

CapacityCapacity

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You should be able to

recall 7±2 letters.

The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two: Some Limits on

Our Capacity for Processing Information

(1956).

George Miller

M U T G I K T L R S Y P

Ready?

Repeat to RememberRepeat to Remember

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ChunkingChunking

F-B-I-T-W-A-C-I-A-I-B-M

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The capacity of the working memory may be increased by

“Chunking.”

FBI TWA CIA IBM

4 chunks

DurationDuration

Brown/Peterson and Peterson (1958/1959) measured the duration of working memory

by manipulating rehearsal.

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CH??

The duration of the working memory is about 20 sec.

CHJMKTHIJ547

547544541…

Working Memory DurationWorking Memory Duration

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Long-Term MemoryLong-Term Memory

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SensoryMemory

WorkingMemory

Long-termMemory

Encoding

RetrievalEncoding

Events

Retrieval

Long-Term MemoryLong-Term MemoryUnlimited capacity store. Estimates on

capacity range from 1000 billion to 1,000,000 billion bits of information

(Landauer, 1986).

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The Clark’s nutcracker can locate 6,000 caches ofburied pine seeds during winter and spring.

R.J. E

rwin/ Photo R

esearchers

Memory FeatsMemory Feats

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Memory StoresMemory Stores

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FeatureSensoryMemory

Working Memory

LTM

Encoding Copy Phonemic Semantic

Capacity Unlimited7±2

ChunksVery Large

Duration 0.25 sec. 20 sec. Years

Storing Memories in the Storing Memories in the BrainBrain

1. Through electrical stimulation of the brain, Wilder Penfield (1967) concluded that old memories were etched into the brain.

2. Loftus and Loftus (1980) reviewed Penfield's data and showed that only a handful of brain stimulated patients reported flashbacks.

3. Using rats, Lashley (1950) suggested that even after removing parts of the brain, the animals retain partial memory of the maze.

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Synaptic ChangesSynaptic ChangesIn Aplysia (California Sea Snail),

Kandel and Schwartz (1982) showed that serotonin release from neurons

increased after conditioning.

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Photo: S

cientific Am

erican

Synaptic ChangesSynaptic ChangesLong-Term Potentiation (LTP) refers to synaptic

enhancement after learning (Lynch, 2002).

An increase in neurotransmitter release

or receptors on the receiving neuron

indicates strengthening of synapses.

Increased synaptic efficiency makes for more efficient neural circuits.

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Both P

hotos: From

N. T

oni et al., Nature, 402, N

ov. 25 1999. Courtesy of D

ominique M

uller

Stress Hormones & MemoryStress Hormones & Memory

Heightened emotions (stress-related or otherwise) make for stronger

memories. Continued stress may disrupt memory.

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Scott Barbour/ G

etty Images

Stress Hormones & Stress Hormones & MemoryMemory

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Storing Implicit & Explicit Storing Implicit & Explicit MemoriesMemories

Explicit Memory refers to facts and experiences that one can consciously know

and declare. Implicit memory involves learning an action while the individual

does not know or declare what she knows.

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Hippocampus

Hippocampus – a neural center in the limbic system

that processes explicit memories.

Weidenfield &

Nicolson archives

Anterograde AmnesiaAnterograde Amnesia

Anterograde

Amnesia(HM)

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No New Memories

Surgery

After losing his hippocampus in surgery, patient Henry M. (HM) remembered everything before the operation but

cannot make new memories. We call this anterograde amnesia.

Memory Intact

Henry MolaisonHenry Molaison

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Implicit MemoryImplicit Memory

HM learned the Tower of Hanoi (game) after his surgery. Each time he plays it, he is unable to

remember the fact that he has already played the game.69

HM is unable to make new memories that are declarative (explicit), but he can form new memories that are procedural

(implicit).

CBA

Studies of HM supported the general distinction between short-term and long-term stores of memory

Anterograde AmnesiaAnterograde Amnesia

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CerebellumCerebellum – a neural center in the

hindbrain that processes implicit memories.