Medicinal Plants Used in the Treatment of Mental and

Research ArticleMedicinal Plants Used in the Treatment of Mental andNeurological Disorders in Ghana

Patrick Amoateng 1 Emmanuel Quansah2 Thomas K Karikari 34

Alex Asase5 Dorcas Osei-Safo 6 Kennedy Kwami EdemKukuia 1

Isaac Kingsley Amponsah7 and Alexander K Nyarko1

1Department of Pharmacology amp Toxicology School of Pharmacy College of Health Sciences University of Ghana PO Box LG 43Legon Accra Ghana

2Pharmacology School of Health and Life Sciences De Montfort University Leicester LE1 9BH UK3School of Life Sciences University of Warwick Coventry CV4 7AL UK4Midlands Integrative Biosciences Training Partnership University of Warwick Coventry CV4 7AL UK5Department of Plant and Environmental Biology School of Biological Sciences College of Basic amp Applied SciencesUniversity of Ghana PO Box LG 55 Legon Accra Ghana

6Department of Chemistry School of Physical andMathematical Sciences College of Basic and Applied Sciences University of GhanaPO Box LG 56 Legon Accra Ghana

7Department of Pharmacognosy Faculty of Pharmacy amp Pharmaceutical Sciences College of Health SciencesKwame Nkrumah University of Science amp Technology Kumasi Ghana

Correspondence should be addressed to Patrick Amoateng pamoatengugedugh

Received 11 September 2018 Accepted 29 November 2018 Published 20 December 2018

Academic Editor Youn C Kim

Copyright copy 2018 Patrick Amoateng et al This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons AttributionLicense which permits unrestricted use distribution and reproduction in any medium provided the original work is properlycited

Ethnopharmacological Relevance Mental and neurological disorders are a serious public health challenge globally particularly indeveloping countrieswhere cultural factors and limited access to standard healthcare have led to a reliance on traditionalmedicinesHowever ethnopharmacological characterization of traditional medicines used to treat these diseases is lacking In this studyan ethnobotanical description of plant species used in treating mental and neurological disorders in Ghana and an update oftheir experimentally validated pharmacological relevance are providedMaterials and Methods Two hundred herbalists agreed toparticipate but sixty-six specialized in treating mental and neurological disorders were interviewed on their traditional medicalpractice Literature review was conducted to verify the experimentally validated pharmacological importance of the reportedplants Results Thirty-two plant species belonging to twenty-eight families were identified Most plant species had either analgesic(50) anxiolytic (188) or anticonvulsant (156) properties Others had reported sedative anti-Alzheimerrsquos disease motorcoordination antipsychotic antidepressant cognitive enhancement and neuroprotective properties While Ageratum conyzoidesL (Asteraceae) and Ocimum gratissimum L (Lamiaceae) were the most commonly mentioned species with analgesic propertiesLantana camara L (Verbenaceae) was the most-reported anxiolytic product with Cymbopogon citratus DC (Gramineae)Mangifera indica L Tetrapleura tetraptera Schum Taub (Fabaceae) and Persea Americana Mill (Lauraceae) being the moststudied anticonvulsants Conclusions This study provides the first report specifically on medicinal plants used in treating mentaland neurological disorders in Ghana Most of the identified plants have been scientifically confirmed to possess neuro- andpsychopharmacological properties and may serve as templates for drug development

1 Introduction

TheWorld Health Organization (WHO) estimates that morethan one billion people suffer from central and peripheral

nervous system (CNSPNS) disorders globally [1 2] Thesediseases include Parkinsonrsquos disease epilepsy schizophreniabipolar disorder Alzheimerrsquos disease and other dementiasneuroinfections brain tumors traumatic disorders and

HindawiEvidence-Based Complementary and Alternative MedicineVolume 2018 Article ID 8590381 14 pageshttpsdoiorg10115520188590381

2 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

cerebrovascular diseases such as stroke and migraine Morethan 6 million people reportedly die each year due to strokewith over 80 of these deaths occurring in low- and middle-income countries [2] Moreover although little researchattention has been paid to diseases such as schizophreniabipolar disorder and other psychotic disorders in Africasome studies have shown that schizophrenia is a major psy-chiatric diagnosis leading to in-patient admissions on thesecontinents [3ndash6] In addition the CNSPNS disease burdenin Africa is exacerbated by the numerous but understudiedneurological impairments associated with common tropicaldiseases such as the neglected tropical diseases [7]

Ghana is host to a wide array of medicinal flora andtakes pride in the longstanding cultural use of traditionaland alternative medicines (TAMs) as exhibited by the severalpublished works on the ethnobotanical use of TAMs inthe country [8ndash11] Nonetheless there are concerns aboutthe safety and efficacy claims of some TAMs [12] In orderto address these concerns while enhancing the therapeu-tic potentials of TAMs and ensuring minimum adverseeffects the Ghanaian Government academics and TAMpractitioners have institutionalized measures to regulateherbal medicine practice and also integrate TAMs into themainstream healthcare system For example the GhanaFederation of Traditional Medical Practitioners Association(GHAFTRAM) was established in 1999 to help modernizerestructure and regulate the traditional medical industry inthe country [13] GHAFTRAM has members from all partsof Ghana working together towards advancing the devel-opment of TAMs In addition an undergraduate programin herbal medicine which complements university trainingwith hands-on internships at a herbal medicine researchcentre as well as herbal and allopathic practitioners has beenestablished [14] On passing their professional qualifyingexamination graduates are certified and regulated by GhanarsquosTraditionalMedical PracticeCouncil and some are employedby the Government to practice as medical herbalists inherbal clinics established within public hospitals to work inpartnership with medical and allied health staff to providecurative and preventive medical care [12 14]

The foregoing measures emphasize that TAMs continueto play a significant role in the treatment of various disor-ders including those of CNSPNS origin [15ndash17] Howeverthere have been no studies focusing primarily on the doc-umentation of traditional methods of treating mental andneurological disorders in Ghana and how these may informhealthcare practice policy and drug development Conse-quently comprehensive information on plant species plantparts used cultural practices and methods of preparationand use of these TAMs are lacking Moreover the therapeuticpotential CNS properties and the safety profile of most ofthese products are largely unknownThepresent study soughtto address this knowledge gap by using a guided survey todocument TAMs used in the treatment of mental and neu-rological disorders in Ghana based on traditional knowledgeMoreover we aimed to ascertain the scientifically confirmedpharmacological relevance of these medicinal products thatmay justify their clinical use and further research to isolatecompounds of interest to drug discovery and development

Specifically the study was aimed at (a) identifying commonlyused TAMs for CNSPNS disorders and their modes ofpreparation and (b) documenting the therapeutic potentialsof these products

2 Materials and Methods

21 Selection of Participants Obtaining prior Informed Con-sent Ethical Approval and Data Collection An ethnob-otanical approach was used to explore the knowledge andtreatment practices of mental and nervous system disordersby traditionalmedical practitioners (TMPs) from various dis-tricts and subdistricts of the Greater Accra and Brong-Ahaforegions of Ghana Study participants were TMPs who wereall members of GHAFTRAM attending a meeting in AccraThe study objectivesmethod and planned use of informationwere explained to the TMPs before the interviews Amongthe 200 TMPs present at the GHAFTRAM meeting 66were included in this study The excluded delegates werenot specialized in the treatment of mental and neurologicaldiseases as they found such patients quite difficult tomanage

A guided questionnaire interview approach was usedduring the interviews conducted in both English and Twi alocal Ghanaian dialect information on the types and partsof plant materials used the methods of preparation the localnames of plants and the mode of administration of herbalproducts were obtained To be included in the interviewone had to be a (a) TMP practicing in Ghana potentiallytreating mental and neurological diseases directly or havingsome level of knowledge on products used in treating suchpatients or (b) registered member of GHAFTRAM willing toparticipate in the survey Approval for this study was grantedby the Scientific and Technical Committee of the NoguchiMemorial Institute for Medical Research Accra Ghanareference number STC-4 (2) 2013-14 Prior to the studypermission was granted from the leadership of GHAFTRAMand all participants duly signed informed consents

22 Data Management and Analysis A list of the plantsobtained from the survey was subjected to thorough reviewusing Internet search engines (such as google scholar) andjournal databases such as Medline Embase Scopus andPubmed to confirm their therapeutic potential A search ofGhanaian andWestAfricanherbal pharmacopoeias was doneusing the following search terms ldquoneurological disordersrdquoldquopsychiatric disordersrdquo ldquoschizophreniardquo ldquoParkinsonrsquos diseaserdquoldquoAlzheimerrsquos diseaserdquo and ldquomental disordersrdquo in combinationwith either ldquoGhanardquo ldquoWest Africardquo or ldquoAfricardquo

Data obtained from the ethnobotanical study were ana-lyzed using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences version220 for Windows

3 Results

31 Sociodemographic Characteristics of Respondents Intotal 66 TMPs were interviewed 65 and 1 from the GreaterAccra and Brong-Ahafo regions respectively About 561were males and 439 were females About 409 of the

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 3

Table 1 Sociodemographic characteristics of traditional medical practitioners who treat mental and neurological disorders in Ghana

Variable Frequency Percentage ()SexMale 37 561Female 29 439Age (years)20-29 1 1530-39 8 12140-49 12 18250-59 27 40960 and above 18 273Marital statusSingle 15 227Married 43 652Divorced 1 15Widowed 7 106Highest educational levelNo Education 5 78Primary 34 531Secondary 18 281Tertiary 7 109

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40

Relatives

Divinespiritual

Formal training

No of traditional medical practitioners

Figure 1 Source of traditional medical practitionersrsquo knowledge for the treatment of mental and nervous system disorders in Ghana

TMPs were either 50-59-year-old or 60 years and above(273) In addition while 652 were married 227 weresingle 106 were widowed and 15 were divorced MostTMPs had either primary school (531) or secondary school(281) education (Table 1) only 109 had some form ofpostsecondary education

32 Source of the Knowledge of Herbal Medicine Practice andDuration of Practice The TMPsrsquo knowledge of traditionalhealing including knowledge to treat mental and neurolog-ical disorders was mainly acquired from relatives (Figure 1)About 365 had practiced for 16-20 years while 27 hadpracticed for 1-5 years (Table 2)

33 Treatment of Mental and Neurological Diseases Most ofthe TMPs (606) had specific herbs for treating a variety ofmental and neurological disorders However only 364 hadactually treated such patients Out of these 197 had treateda maximum of 5 patients with only 15 having treated more

than 20 patients Overall 318 of the treated patients hadcompletely recovered (Table 3)

34 Species Medicinal Uses and Experimentally ValidatedPharmacological Relevance of Plants In all 32 plant specieswere provided by the TMPs and these came from 28 dif-ferent plant families (Table 4) The families ApocynaceaeAsteraceae and Meliaceae were the most mentioned plantfamilies with Apocynaceae having the highest frequency ofmentions and Asteraceae having the highest number of plantspecies (Figure 2) Rauwolfia vomitoria Afz was the plantwith the highest frequency of mention (mentioned 7 timesFigure 3) About 66 of the plants (21 species) used have beenpreviously reported to have neuropharmacological activitiesHalf of the identified TAMs had analgesic (50) propertieswith the others having anxiolytic (188) sedative (63)anticonvulsant (156) and antidepressant (94)propertiesR vomitoria Afz belonging to the family Apocynaceaehowever has been previously reported to have antipsychoticproperties [16 18] (Table 5)


Table 2 Sources of knowledge and duration of practice for traditional medicine practitioners who treat mental and neurological disordersin Ghana

Variable Frequency Percentage ()Source of the knowledge of herbal medical practiceInheritance (knowledge passed on from others) 38 633Divinespiritual 14 233Formal training 8 133Years of herbal medical practice1-5 17 2706-10 10 15911-15 13 20616-20 23 365

Table 3 Treatment of mental and neurological disorders by traditional medical practitioners in Ghana

Variable Frequency (n) Percentage ()Knowledge of herbs for treating mental and neurological disordersNo 26 394Yes 40 606Total number of patients treated throughout herbal medical practice0 42 6361-5 13 1976-10 5 7611-15 3 4516-20 2 30Above 20 1 15Treatment options usedNot applicable 42 636Divinespiritual only 1 15Herbs only 16 243Herbs and divinespiritual 7 106Recovery status of patients treatedNot applicableno recovery 42 636Partial recovery 3 45Total recovery 21 318

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

Num

ber o

f tim

es fa

mily

was

men

tione

d

Apocynace

ae

Asterac

eae

Meliacea

e

Sapindace

ae

Caesalp

iniaceae

Verben

aceae

Lamiac

eae

Liliacea

e

Passiflorac

eae

Loranthace

ae

Lecythidace

ae

Rubiaceae

Rutaceae

Palmae

Tiliacea

e

Gramineae

Myrtace

ae

Anacardiac

eae

Cucurbita

ceae

Musaceae

Nephrolepidace

ae

Lauraceae

Euphorbiaceae

Rosaceae

Scrophular

iaceae

Malvace

ae

Combretace

ae

Fabaceae

Figure 2 Plant families commonly used in the treatment of mental and nervous system disorders in Ghana


Table4Lo

caln

amesplant

partsandmetho

dsof

preparationof

tradition

alAfrican

medicines

used

intre

atingnervou

ssystem

andmentaldiso

rdersinGhana

Species

Family

Growth

form

sLo

caln

ames

indiffe

rent

lang

uages

Vouchers

pecimen

Frequenc

yof

mentio

nPlan

tpart

used

Metho

dof

prep

aration

Ageratum

conyzoides

Aste

raceae

Herb

Ewemim

aNyigbeFa

nteAhaban

Kank

anE

fumom

oeT

wiGu-ekuro

Adwo

a-ku

raG

uaku

oGu-ekuraNzema

Ebuaku

loG

a-Dan

gmeNtumum

u

PA01U

GSO

PGH17

3Leaves

Thefresh

leaves

arem

acerated

andtheliquidob

tained

isinstilledinto

then

ostrilsthe

fresh

leaves

canalso

bebo

iled

sievedanddrankas

requ

ired

Alliu

msativ

umLiliaceae

Herb

TwiGyene

Kank

anG

aAda

ngmeAy

aHau

saTafarmuw

aPA

02U

GSO

PGH17

2Who

leplant

-

Alsto

nia

boonei

Apocyn

aceae

Tree

TwiNyame-du

aNyamedua

Onyam

eduaO

senNuruEw

eSiaketreke

FanteNyenaSinuroNyameduaN

zema

Baku

nin

PA03U

GSO

PGH17

2Ba

rkTh

eleavesa

rebo

iledanddrank

asrequ

ired

Azadira

tcha

indica

Meliaceae

Tree

FanteNim

Abo

odeA

bodu

aEw

eLiliti

Ga-Dan

gmeKintsoA

santeGyedu

aTw

iNim

siDua

gyane

PA04

UGSO

PGH17

1LeavesR

oots

Theb

oiledleavesroo

tsared

rank

asrequ

ired

Berth

olletia

excels

Lecythidaceae

Brazilnu

tPA

05U

GSO

PGH17

1NutLeaves

Theleavesnu

tsareb

oiledand

sievedextractisd

rank

asrequ

ired

Bidens

pilosa

Aste

raceae

Herb

TwiDwire

ntwiG

yinantwiEw

eDzanikpikpi

PA06

UGSO

PGH17

1Leaves

Thefresh

leaves

arem

acerated

andtheliquidob

tained

isinstilledinto

then

ose

Bligh

iaun

ijucata

Sapind

aceae

Tree

AsanteAkyeAkan

AkyibiriT

wi

AkyebiriFan

teE

tedu

aPA

07U

GSO

PGH17

3Ba

rkR

oots

Thed

riedbarksrootsa

rebo

iled

anddrankas

requ

iredthee

xtract

canalso

besm

earedon

theb

ody

Cassia

occid

entalis

Caesalpiniaceae

Nkw

adow

abde120576

PA08U

GSO

PGH17

3Leaves

Theleavesa

rebo

iledanddrank

asrequ

ired


Table4Con

tinued

Species

Family

Growth

form

sLo

caln

ames

indiffe

rent

lang

uages

Vouchers

pecimen

Frequenc

yof

mentio

nPlan

tpart

used

Metho

dof

prep

aration

Cinchona

pubescens

Rubiaceae

Shrub

PA09U

GSO

PGH17

1

Citru

sau

rantifolia

Rutaceae

TwiAnk

aadw

eaA

kenk

aaAnk

aatwaree

FanteAnk

amaEw

eMum

oeA

sante

Ank

aatwareeD

agba

niN

yamsaL

imbu

riGa-Ada

ngmeAb

onuaH

ausa

OlomankilisiNzemaDom

unliMole

Leem

uGaKp

ete

PA10U

GSO

PGH17

1PeelJuice

Thep

eelsares

queezeddirectly

ontheforeheadandinto

then

ose

Cocos

nucifera

Palm

aeTree

Twiku

beE

weAgone

PA11

UGSO

PGH17

1Juice

Drin

king

thefresh

coconu

tjuice

atwill

Corchorus

olito

rius

Tiliaceae

Herbaceou

sEw

eAd

emeS

inguiFa

nteOturoT

wi

Otoro

PA12U

GSO

PGH17

1Jutemallow

Leaves

Hot

infusio

nismadefrom

the

leaves

anddrankas

requ

ired

Cymbopogon

citratus

Graminae

Herb

EweTigbeFa

nteTi

ahaban

Ga-Dan

gmeTi-ba

PA13U

GSO

PGH17

1LeavesO

il

Adecoctionismadefrom

the

either

thefreshdrie

dleaves

and

theo

ilycontentapp

liedas

amassage

Eucalyptus

globu

lus

Myrtaceae

Eucalyptus

PA14U

GSO

PGH17

1Oil

Coldinfusio

nismadea

ndthe

oilycontento

btainedisrubb

edon

theb

ody

Khaya

senegalen

sisMeliaceae

Tree

Hau

saM

adwachiM

adachiE

weLo

go

FanteOku

mG

aAda

ngmeKu

gaT

wi

Kuntun

kuri

MoleKu

kaB

rong

Ko

robaaNzemaAnane

PA15U

GSO

PGH17

4Ba

rkTh

eleavesa

rebo

iledanddrank

asrequ

ired

Lantan

acamara

Verbenaceae

Shrub

AkanAnansed

okon

oPA

16U

GSO

PGH17

3LeavesStem

Theleavesste

mareb

oiledand

theliquidob

taineddrank

asrequ

ired

Man

gifera

indica

Anacardiaceae

Tree

EweAsanteTw

iFa

nteM

ango

AmangoGaMango

PA17U

GSO

PGH17

1Ba

rkAdecoctionismadefrom

the

driedbark

anddrankas

requ

ired

Mom

ordica

charantia

Cucurbita

ceae

Herbaceou

sTw

iNyann

yaN

yinaN

yinyaEw

eKa

kleDan

gmeNyanylaN

yanyraG

aNyanyraN

zemaNyanya

PA18U

GSO

PGH17

1

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 7Ta

ble4Con

tinued

Species

Family

Growth

form

sLo

caln

ames

indiffe

rent

lang

uages

Vouchers

pecimen

Frequenc

yof

mentio

nPlan

tpart

used

Metho

dof

prep

aration

Musa

paradisia

caMusaceae

Herbaceou

sTw

iBrod

eNzemaBa

nnaG

aAmadaa

PA19U

GSO

PGH17

1Leaves

Theleavesa

rebo

iledanddrank

asrequ

ired

Nephrolepis

cordifolia

Nephrolepidaceae

TwiMm120576n

PA20U

GSO

PGH17

1Leaves

Theleavesa

remacerated

andthe

liquidinstillednasally

orinhaled

Theleavesc

anbe

boiledandthe

extractedliq

uidused

asab

athing

liquid

Occim

umgratissim

umLamiaceae

Shrub

EweBa

busuiDzeveti

GaSuluT

wi

Onu

numN

unum

AsanteNun

um

Ga-Dan

gmeSuluH

ausa

Dardo

yatagidiN

zemaAmalokoWassa

Aprim

Fan

teO

nunu

m

PA21U

GSO

PGH17

3Leaves

Theleavesa

rebo

iledanddrank

asrequ

ired

Passiflora

edulis

Passifloraceae

Passionfruittree

PA22U

GSO

PGH17

2Leaves

Flow

ers

FruitLeaves

Boiling

grin

ding

Persea

america

naLauraceae

Tree

Dan

gmePayaT

wiPeeAkan

Paya

Pae

PA23U

GSO

PGH17

1Freshand

driedleaves


the

either

thefreshdrie

dleaves

and

drankas

requ

ired

FantePae

Phyllantus

nurir

iEu

phob

iaceae

Herbaceou

sTw

iAw

ommaguw

akyiE

weLane

Krobo

OfobiokpaiOfobiG

aOmatsoatsi

PA24U

GSO

PGH17

1

Rauw

olfia

vomito

ria

Apocyn

aceae

Shrub

TwiKa

kapenp

enEweDod

emakpo

woe

FanteKa

kapenp

enG

a-Dan

gme

ApototsoH

ausaW

adaNzema

BakapembeneW

assaA

neene

PA25U

GSO

PGH17

7Ro

ots

Ther

ootsareb

oiledandthe

extracto

btainedareinstilledinto

then

ose

Rubu

sfru

ticosus

Rosaceae

Bram

ble

PA26U

GSO

PGH17

1Be

rries

leaves

and

flowe

rs

Blenddryleaves

andmixwith

honey

Scoparia

dulcis

Scroph

ulariaceae

PA27U

GSO

PGH17

1-

-

Sida

acuta

Malvaceae

Branchlets

EweAfid

emeGaShwo

botoT

wi

Obraneatuto

PA28U

GSO

PGH17

1Leaves

Theleavesa

rebo

iledanddrank

asrequ

ired

Tapina

nthu

sglo

bifer

rus

Loranthaceae

ParasiticTree

Twink

ranp

anMoleWelebe

PA29U

GSO

PGH17

2Leavesstem

Theleavesste

mareb

oiledand

theliquidob

taineddrank

asrequ

ired

Term

inalia

catapa

Com

bretaceae

abrfo

nkate120576

PA30U

GSO

PGH17

1Yello

wed

leaves

Theleavesa

rebo

iledandthe

liquiddrankas

requ

ired

Tetra

pleura

tetra

ptera

Fabaceae

Tree

TwiPr120576kes120576Za

teZ

amturi

Any

iAp

rekeseK

yekeFan

teE

semE

we

Prekese

PA31U

GSO

PGH17

1Seed

Thes

eeds

areg

roun

dandthe

liquidextractd

rank

asrequ

ired

Vernonia

amygdalin

aAste

raceae

Shrub

GaTatsoAkp

aDagba

niB

iebing

ira

EweGbo

Gbo

tiAsanteMbo

nasere

Mpo

nasereN

zemaAy

eanw

ole

Ga-Dan

gmeTatsh

o

PA32U

GSO

PGH17

1Leaves


the

either

thefreshdrie

dleaves

and

drankas

requ

ired


0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

Rauw

olfia

vom

itoria

Khay

a se

nega

lensis

Ager

atum

cony

zoid

es

Blig

hia

uniju

gata

Cassi

a oc

ciden

talis

Lant

ana

cam

ara

Ocim

um gr

atiss

imum

Num

ber o

f tim

es sp

ecie

s was

men

tione

d

Figure 3 Most frequently used plant species in the treatment of mental and nervous system disorders in Ghana (only species with three ormore mentions are shown)

35 Preparation and Administration of Herbal ProductsThe TAMs were prepared mostly as mixtures of two ormore species In some cases however the products wereadministered as monopreparations (prepared using a singleplant species) The mode of preparation employed includeddecoction infusion and maceration with decoction beingthe commonest (Table 4) While roots fruits flowers stemsstem barks whole plant of shrubs etc were all used in thepreparation of these products (all together 424) leaves(576) were the commonest plant part used The Ghanaianvernacular names of the plant species are listed in Table 5

Given that most TMPs do not preserve these TAMs theygenerally prepared the products only when required Theproducts were administered orally nasally or applied on theforehead for periods ranging from one week to several yearsor until the patient recovers The TMPs mostly used patientfeedback and disappearance of symptoms to assess treatmentoutcomesWhere there is only a partial recovery or treatmentfailure the patients are often referred to the nearest hospital

4 Discussion

Mental and neurological disorders remain a major publichealth concern [2] The disease burden is even more promi-nent in the developing world including Ghana [3 5 6]Recent discoveries and clinical usage of the anticancer agenttaxol and the antimalarial artemisinin derived from plantshave boosted interest in natural products as templates forthe development of novel drug scaffolds [19 20] TAMs arewidely accepted in African communities and there appearsto be an increasing reliance on these products [13] In GhanaTAMs are used as the main treatment paradigm for a varietyof diseases but they are also used as complements to othermedicines or as dietary supplements [21] However thoroughexamination and documentation of the medicinal propertiesof these products against mental and neurological disordersis lacking

In the present study several plant species (32 species)used by local TMPs to treatmental and neurological disorders

were reported with most species belonging to the familiesAsteraceae Apocynaceae andMeliaceaeThese are large andwidespread plant families with several species In particularthe Asteraceae family is of great importance due to itshigh numbers of medicinal species used in the treatmentof a wide array of diseases including tuberculosis malariaand inflammatory disorders [11 15 22] Members of theAsteraceae family are also known for their wide range ofeconomically important products including cooking oils andphytochemicals such as sesquiterpene lactones alkaloidsand tannins [23] The family Apocynaceae also has a widerange of species that are of pharmacological importance withsome members synthesizing alkaloids useful against highblood pressure and inflammation and others synthesizingcardiac glycosides that affect heart function [24] The familyMeliaceae on the other hand is known for its species that areprocessed into important products including vegetable oil aswell as phytochemicals with anti-inflammatory antioxidanthepatoprotective and cognitive-enhancing properties [2526]

While the plants used in treating CNSPNS disorders inGhana varied greatly R vomitoria Afz was frequently men-tioned (175) by the TMPs who had knowledge of naturalproducts for treating these disorders Herbal preparations ofthis plant are also used byTMPs in otherAfrican countries forthe treatment of mental disorders [27] and have been shownto be relatively safe with LD

50of 175 gkg [28] Remarkably

R vomitoria Afz has been found to have activity on thenervous system especially on locomotor behavior anxietyand psychosis [16 18 29] Reserpine which is one of thenumerous alkaloids of this species has been used in themanagement of schizophrenia hypertension and psychiatricdisorders [30] Beyond its CNS effect extracts from the plantare reported to have anticancer (due to the alstonine and 120573-carboline alkaloid) [31] antipyretic anti-inflammatory [32]and antidiabetic activities [33]

The natural products used by the TMPs in treatingmental and neurological disorders fall into the followingbroad categories analgesics anxiolytics antidepressants


Table 5 Plant species used for the treatment of mental and nervous system disorders in Ghana and scientific validation of theirethnopharmacological activities

Botanical name Family CNS usesAgeratum conyzoides Linn Asteraceae Analgesia [15 42 43]Allium sativum Linn Liliaceae Motor coordination[44] Analgesia [45]Alstonia boonei DeWild Apocynaceae Analgesia [24]

Azadirachta indica A Juss Meliaceae Analgesia [25 46] Anxiolytic [47] Alzheimers disease[26]

Bertholletia excelsa HampB Lecythidaceae NoneBidens pilosa Linn Asteraceae Analgesia [48]Blighia unijugata Bak Sapindaceae NoneCassia occidentalis Linn Caesalpiniaceae NoneCinchona pubescens Vahl Rubiaceae NoneCitrus aurantifolia Swingle Rutaceae NoneCocos nucifera Linn Palmae Analgesia [49ndash51]Corchorus olitorius Linn Tiliaceae Anticonvulsant [52]

Cymbopogon citratus DC Graminae Anxiolytic [53ndash56] Sedative [53] Anticonvulsant[53 54 57] Analgesia [58]

Eucalyptus globulus Labill Myrtaceae NoneKhaya senegalensis (Desr) A Juss Meliaceae NoneLantana camara Linn Verbenaceae Anxiolytic [59 60]

Mangifera indica Linn FTA AnacardiaceaeAnalgesia [61 62]

Cognitive performance [63][64] Neuroprotection anticonvulsant [65]

Momordica charantia Linn Cucurbitaceae Analgesia [66ndash68] Antidepressant Anxiolytic [69]Musa paradisiacaWalker et Sillans Musaceae NoneNephrolepis cordifolia Linn Presl Nephrolepidaceae NoneOcimum gratissimum Linn Lamiaceae Analgesia antidepressant [70ndash74] and anxiolytic [75]Passiflora edulis Sims Passifloraceae Anxiolytic [76ndash81] and sedative [78 81 82]Persea AmericanaMill FWTA Lauraceae Analgesia and anticonvulsant [83 84]Phyllanthus niruri Schumet Thnn Euphobiaceae Analgesia [85 86]Rauwolfia vomitoria Afz Apocynaceae Antipsychotic [16 18 29]Rubus fruticosus Linn Rosaceae NoneScoparia dulcis Linn Scrophulariaceae Analgesia [87 88]Sida acuta Burn F Malvaceae Analgesia and antidepressant [89 90]Tapinanthus globiferus A Rich Loranthaceae NoneTerminalia catappa Linn Combretaceae NoneTetrapleura tetraptera Schum Taub Fabaceae Anticonvulsant [91 92] Analgesia [92]Vernonia amygdalina Del Cent Pl Afr Asteraceae Analgesia [22]

antipsychotics and anticonvulsants Of these those withanalgesic (pain relieving) anxiolytic (anti-anxiety) and anti-convulsant (anti-epileptic) effects were the most commonlyused and this possibly reflects the common disorders treatedby the TMPs In particular half of the identified TAMs wereanalgesics possibly suggesting that theTMPsweremost oftenpresentedwith patients suffering fromheadachemigraine orother associated conditions Headache or cephalalgia is usedto describe pain in the head and could be a symptom of anumber of different conditions associated with the head andneck [1] Although limited studies have been conducted to

assess the epidemiology of headache and migraine in Ghanaand Africa headache is quite common among Africans andis often exacerbated by the hot climate in most Africancountries [34ndash36] In assessing the profile of neurologicaldisorders in an adult neurology clinic in Ghana cliniciansrecorded a number of headache andmigraine cases althoughthe frequency was found to be relatively low [37] This lowfrequency was suggested to be due to the fact that primaryheadaches among Ghanaians are commonly reported to andmanaged by community pharmacists and primary health-care physicians [37] although there are increasing reports


indicating that several individuals with headache or migraineopt for traditional and herbal therapies [34 35]The analgesicspecies frequently used by the TMPs were A conyzoidesL and O gratissimum L Also important are the anxiolytic(antianxiety) and anticonvulsant (antiepileptic) products thatwere often used by the TMPs suggesting a potentially highprevalence of anxiety disorders and epilepsy and seizuredisorders Epilepsy seizures and anxiety disorders featureprominently among the mental and neurological conditionsprevalent in Ghana [5 37] On the other hand L camaraL was the most frequently mentioned anxiolytic productwhileC citratusDC M indica L T tetraptera Schum Tauband Persea Americana Mill were among the most frequentlystudied anticonvulsants used by the TMPs

Given that drugs for managing mental disorders are oftenin shortage in Ghanaian psychiatric hospitals [6 38] it maybe important that TAMs whose therapeutic relevance hasbeen confirmed experimentally are considered for clinicalusage The long history of TAMs usage in African societieswith seemingly minimal adverse effects [21 39] supportthis perspective While clinical integration of TAMs may bebeneficial at present this should be approached with cautiondue to the inadequacy of studies exploring their efficacyand safety Therefore increasing TAMs-based research inGhana would be a crucial step towards rigorous estab-lishment of their safety therapeutic and adverse reactionprofiles

Thenatural products identified in this study are a valuablecollection of resources that may provide leads for drug dis-covery and developmentHowever a potential criticismof thetraditional approach being employed by the TMPs in relationto the pharmaceutical industry approach to drug discoveryis that whole plant extracts may contain several bioactivecomponents making it difficult to attribute therapeutic ben-efits and mechanism(s) of action to particular compounds(Rasoanaivo et al 2011) Moreover some plant extract com-ponents may be negative modulators of active drug ingredi-ents with adverse implications for drug potential A feasiblemeans to refine extend and enhance the beneficial effectsof the plant products identified in this study is to isolatescreen and characterize bioactive compounds responsible forthe positive disease-modifying effects reported On the otherhand it is possible that components of the different plantextracts used in combination may produce positive inter-actions leading to complementarity in observed therapeuticeffects that aremore effective than single components admin-istered at equal doses In such a case plant extracts whosebenefits are observed when used as combinations by thetraditional healers should be explored further to identify theirpossible synergistic activities For example the antimalarialdrugs Quinimax (a combination of quinone cinchonineand quinidine) andMalarone (proguanil and avoquone) areproduced and marketed as synergistic complementary drugs(Bunnag et al 1989 Fivelman et al 2004) Further drugdiscovery and development research should be conductedon the reported plant products to identify lead compoundswhose in vivo therapeutic capacities would be revealed in pre-clinical and clinical studiesThis would enable the industrial-scale production andmarketing of successful drug candidates

following drug authority approval The high cost of the drugdiscovery and development process would however requirestrengthening academia-industry collaborative research andbetter provision of research funding and infrastructure [5 4041]

5 Conclusion

The identified natural products used in Ghanaian commu-nities are a potential source of a novel class of drugs forthe management of mental and neurological disorders Manyof the plant species used have been investigated for theirCNS-specific pharmacologic effects with the majority havinganalgesic anxiolytic or anticonvulsant properties Howeverthe most prominent and often used plant R vomitoria Afzhas potent antipsychotic properties The increased relianceand the claimed therapeutic value of the identified TAMsindicate that there is an urgent need for the preservation andextensive investigation of these products to establish theirclinical effectiveness Such studies may help in the isolationand purification of the bioactive compounds confirm thesafety and tolerability of these products and enable theclinical integration of TAMs

Abbreviations

CNS Central nervous systemGHAFTRAM Ghana Federation of Traditional Medical

Practitionersrsquo AssociationGPs General practitionersTAMs Traditional African medicinesTMPs Traditional medicine practitioners

Data Availability

The data used to support the findings of this study areavailable from the corresponding author upon request

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest inthe publication of this manuscript

Acknowledgments

We are grateful to the leadership of GHAFRAM for facilitat-ing the study and the herbal practitioners who spent timeparticipating in the study This study was funded by theOffice of Research Innovation and Development (ORID)University of Ghana Accra Ghana grant awarded to DrPatrick Amoateng (reference number URF6ILG-0022012-2013) TKK is a member of the Midlands Integrative Bio-sciences Training Partnership which is funded by the UKrsquosBiotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council(BBSRC) Grant no BBJ0145321


References

[1] M I Calvo and R Y Cavero ldquoMedicinal plants used for neu-rological and mental disorders in Navarra and their validationfrom official sourcesrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 169pp 263ndash268 2015

[2] WHOWhat Are Neurological Disorders WorldHealth Organi-zation 2016 httpwwwwhointfeaturesqa55en

[3] A FekaduC Hanlon E Gebre-Eyesus et al ldquoBurden ofmentaldisorders and unmet needs among street homeless people inAddis Ababa Ethiopiardquo BMC Medicine vol 12 no 1 2014

[4] D Mamah A Owoso A W Mbwayo et al ldquoClasses of psy-chotic experiences in kenyan children and adolescentsrdquo ChildPsychiatry amp Human Development vol 44 no 3 pp 452ndash4592013

[5] E Quansah and T K Karikari ldquoNeuroscience-related researchin ghana A systematic evaluation of direction and capacityrdquoMetabolic Brain Disease vol 31 no 1 pp 11ndash24 2016

[6] M Roberts C Mogan and J B Asare ldquoAn overview of Ghanarsquosmental health system results from an assessment using theWorldHealthOrganizationrsquosAssessment Instrument forMentalHealth Systems (WHO-AIMS)rdquo International Journal of MentalHealth Systems vol 8 no 1 p 16 2014

[7] E Quansah E Sarpong and T K Karikari ldquoDisregard ofneurological impairments associated with neglected tropicaldiseases in Africardquo eNeurologicalSci vol 3 pp 11ndash14 2016

[8] F Duah P Owusu J Knapp D Slatkin and P Schiff ldquoCon-stituents of West African Medicinal Plantsrdquo Planta Medica vol42 pp 275ndash278 1981

[9] D Dwuma-Badu J S K Ayim T T Dabra et al ldquoConstituentsof West African medicinal plants XIV Constituents of Piperguineense Schum and Thonnrdquo Lloydia vol 39 no 1 pp 60ndash64 1976

[10] K D Kwofie N H Tung M Suzuki-Ohashi et al ldquoAntit-rypanosomal activities and mechanisms of action of noveltetracyclic iridoids from Morinda lucida Benthrdquo AntimicrobialAgents and Chemotherapy vol 60 no 6 pp 3283ndash3290 2016

[11] J M Nguta R Appiah-Opong A K Nyarko et al ldquoIn vitroantimycobacterial and cytotoxic data on medicinal plants usedto treat tuberculosisrdquoData in Brief vol 7 pp 1124ndash1130 2016

[12] M A Boateng A Danso-Appiah B K Turkson and B PTersboslashl ldquoIntegrating biomedical and herbal medicine in Ghana- experiences from the Kumasi South Hospital A qualitativestudyrdquo BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine vol 16no 1 2016

[13] WHO WHO Global Atlas of Traditional Complementary andAlternative Medicine World Health Organization 2005

[14] Y Adusi-Poku L K-N Okine F K Hlortsi-Akakpo et alldquoAssesssing herbal medical practitioners in professional qual-ifying examination in Ghana a modelrdquo African Journal ofTraditional Complementary and Alternative Medicines vol 7no 1 pp 85ndash87 2010

[15] A A Abena G S Kintsangoula-Mbaya J Diantama and DBioka ldquoAnalgesic effects of Ageratum conyzoides extract in theratrdquo LrsquoEncephale vol 19 no 4 pp 329ndash332 1993

[16] S A Bisong R Brown and E E Osim ldquoComparative effectsof Rauwolfia vomitoria and chlorpromazine on locomotorbehaviour and anxiety in micerdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacologyvol 132 no 1 pp 334ndash339 2010

[17] J R S Tabuti C B Kukunda and P JWaako ldquoMedicinal plantsused by traditional medicine practitioners in the treatment

of tuberculosis and related ailments in Ugandardquo Journal ofEthnopharmacology vol 127 no 1 pp 130ndash136 2010

[18] S Bisong R Brown and E Osim ldquoComparative effects ofRauwolfia vomitoria and chlorpromazine on social behaviourand painrdquo North American Journal of Medical Sciences vol 3no 1 pp 48ndash54 2011

[19] C Khanna M Rosenberg and D M Vail ldquoA review ofpaclitaxel and novel formulations including those suitable foruse in dogsrdquo Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine vol 29 no4 pp 1006ndash1012 2015

[20] LHMiller andX Su ldquoArtemisinin discovery from theChineseherbal gardenrdquo Cell vol 146 no 6 pp 855ndash858 2011

[21] JM Nguta R Appiah-Opong A K Nyarko D Yeboah-Manuand P G A Addo ldquoMedicinal plants used to treat TB inGhanardquoInternational Journal of Mycobacteriology vol 4 no 2 pp 116ndash123 2015

[22] A A Adedapo O J Aremu and A A Oyagbemi ldquoAnti-Ox-idant anti-inflammatory and antinociceptive properties of theacetone leaf extract ofVernoniaAmygdalina in some laboratoryanimalsrdquoAdvanced Pharmaceutical Bulletin vol 4 pp 591ndash5982014

[23] S Guenne N Ouattara A Hilou J F Millogo and O GNacoulma ldquoAntioxidant enzyme inhibition activities andpolyphenol contents of threeAsteraceae species used in BurkinaFaso traditionally medicinerdquo International Journal of Pharmacyand Pharmaceutical Sciences vol 3 no 5 pp 524ndash528 2011

[24] O A Olajide S O Awe J M Makinde et al ldquoStudies onthe anti-inflammatory antipyretic and analgesic properties ofAlstonia boonei stem barkrdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol71 no 1-2 pp 179ndash186 2000

[25] K Ilango G Maharajan and S Narasimhan ldquoAnti-nociceptiveand anti-inflammatory activities of Azadirachta indica fruitskin extract and its isolated constituent azadiradionerdquo NaturalProduct Research vol 27 no 16 pp 1463ndash1467 2013

[26] R Maiti S Kumar S Acharya and M Raghavendra ldquoRole ofaqueous extract of Azadirachta indica leaves in an experimentalmodel of Alzheimer1015840s disease in ratsrdquo International Journal ofApplied and Basic Medical Research vol 3 no 1 p 37 2013

[27] M I Akpanabiatu I B Umoh E U Eyong E E Edet and F EUboh ldquoInfluence of Rauwolfia vomitoria root bark on cardiacenzymes o normal Wistar albino ratsrdquo Biopharmaceuticals vol14 pp 273ndash278 2006

[28] A O Olatokunboh Y O Kayode and O K Adeola ldquoAnticon-vulsant activity of Rauvolfia Vomitoria (Afzel)rdquoAfrican Journalof Pharmacy and Pharmacology vol 3 no 6 pp 319ndash322 2009

[29] S A Bisong R E Brown and E E Osim ldquoComparative extra-pyramidal effects of Rauwolfia vomitoria chlorpromazine andreserpine in micerdquo Journal of Natural Medicines vol 67 no 1pp 107ndash112 2013

[30] F Lopez-Munoz V S Bhatara C Alamo and E CuencaldquoHistorical approach to reserpine discovery and its introductionin psychiatryrdquo Actas Espanolas de Psiquiatrıa vol 32 no 6 pp387ndash395 2004

[31] D L Bemis J L Capodice P Gorroochurn A E Katz and RButtyan ldquoAnti-prostate cancer activity of a 120573-carboline alkaloidenriched extract from Rauwolfia vomitoriardquo International Jour-nal of Oncology vol 29 no 5 pp 1065ndash1073 2006

[32] G Kweifio-Okai D Bird B Field et al ldquoAntiinflammatoryactivity of a Ghanaian antiarthritic herbal preparation IIIrdquoJournal of Ethnopharmacology vol 46 no 1 pp 7ndash15 1995


[33] J I A Campbell A Mortensen and P Moslashlgaard ldquoTissue lipidlowering-effect of a traditional Nigerian anti-diabetic infusionof Rauwolfia vomitoria foilage and Citrus aurantium fruitrdquoJournal of Ethnopharmacology vol 104 no 3 pp 379ndash3862006

[34] R T Haimanot ldquoHeadache in the Tropics Sub-SaharanAfricardquoin Handbook of Headache P Martelletti and T J Steiner Edspp 533ndash540 Springer Milan 2011

[35] T Haimanot B Seraw L Forsgren J Ekstedt and KEkbom ldquoMigraine chronic tension-type headache and clusterheadache in an ethiopian rural communityrdquoCephalalgia vol 15no 6 pp 482ndash488 1995

[36] B O Osuntokun B S Schoenberg V Nottidge et al ldquoMigraineheadache in a rural community in nigeria Results of a pilotstudyrdquo Neuroepidemiology vol 1 no 1 pp 31ndash39 1982

[37] F S Sarfo J Akassi E Badu A Okorozo B Ovbiagele and AAkpalu ldquoProfile of neurological disorders in an adult neurologyclinic in Kumasi Ghanardquo eNeurologicalSci vol 3 pp 69ndash742016

[38] D Silberberg and E Katabira ldquoNeurological Disordersrdquo inDisease and Mortality in Sub-Saharan Africa D T Jamison RG Feachem M W Makgoba E R Bos F K Baingana K JHofman et al Eds World Bank Washington DC USA 2ndedition 2006 httpwwwncbinlmnihgovbooksNBK2295

[39] L JMcGawN Lall J JMMeyer and J N Eloff ldquoThepotentialof South African plants against Mycobacterium infectionsrdquoJournal of Ethnopharmacology vol 119 no 3 pp 482ndash500 2008

[40] T K Karikari A E Cobham and I S Ndams ldquoBuildingsustainable neuroscience capacity in Africa the role of non-profit organisationsrdquoMetabolic Brain Disease 2015

[41] E Quansah and T K Karikari ldquoMotor neuron diseases in sub-saharan africa the need for more population-based studiesrdquoBioMed Research International vol 2015 Article ID 298409 9pages 2015

[42] H Hossain U K Karmakar S K Biswas et al ldquoAntinociceptiveand antioxidant potential of the crude ethanol extract of theleaves of Ageratum conyzoides grown in Bangladeshrdquo Pharma-ceutical Biology vol 51 no 7 pp 893ndash898 2013

[43] L A Yamamoto J C Soldera J A Emim R O GodinhoC Souccar and A J Lapa ldquoPharmacological screening ofAgeratum conyzoides L (mentrasto)rdquo Memorias do InstitutoOswaldo Cruz vol 86 no 2 pp 145ndash147 1991

[44] M Aminuddin G Partadiredja and D C R Sari ldquoThe effectsof black garlic (Allium sativum L) ethanol extract on theestimated total number of Purkinje cells and motor coordina-tion of male adolescent Wistar rats treated with monosodiumglutamaterdquo Anatomical Science International vol 90 no 2 pp75ndash81 2014

[45] G R Kumar and K P Reddy ldquoReduced nociceptive responsesinmicewith alloxan induced hyperglycemia after garlic (Alliumsativum Linn) treatmentrdquo Indian Journal of ExperimentalBiology (IJEB) vol 37 no 7 pp 662ndash666 1999

[46] N Khanna M Goswami P Sen and A Ray ldquoAntinociceptiveaction of Azadirachta indica (Neem) in mice Possible mecha-nisms involvedrdquo Indian Journal of Experimental Biology (IJEB)vol 33 no 11 pp 848ndash850 1995

[47] A K Jaiswal S K Bhattacharya and S B Acharya ldquoAnxiolyticactivity ofAzadirachta indica leaf extract in ratsrdquo Indian Journalof Experimental Biology vol 32 no 7 pp 489ndash491 1994

[48] A F Fotso F Longo P D D Djomeni et al ldquoAnalgesicand antiinflammatory activities of the ethyl acetate fraction of

Bidens pilosa (Asteraceae)rdquo Inflammopharmacology vol 22 no2 pp 105ndash114 2014

[49] D S Alviano K F Rodrigues S G Leitao et al ldquoAntinocicep-tive and free radical scavenging activities of Cocos nucifera L(Palmae) husk fiber aqueous extractrdquo Journal of Ethnopharma-cology vol 92 no 2-3 pp 269ndash273 2004

[50] S Naskar U K Mazumder G Pramanik P Saha P KHaldar and M Gupta ldquoEvaluation of antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory activity of hydromethanol extract of cocosnucifera lrdquo Inflammopharmacology vol 21 no 1 pp 31ndash352013

[51] S Rinaldi D O Silva F Bello et al ldquoCharacterization of theantinociceptive and anti-inflammatory activities from Cocosnucifera L (Palmae)rdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 122no 3 pp 541ndash546 2009

[52] M Gupta U K Mazumder D Pal S Bhattacharya and SChakrabarty ldquoStudies on brain biogenic amines in methanolicextract of Cuscuta reflexa Roxb and Corchorus olitorius linnsees treatedmicerdquoActa Poloniae Pharmaceutica Drug Researchvol 60 no 3 pp 207ndash210 2003

[53] M M Blanco C A R A Costa A O Freire J G SantosJr and M Costa ldquoNeurobehavioral effect of essential oil ofCymbopogon citratus in micerdquo Phytomedicine vol 16 no 2-3pp 265ndash270 2009

[54] E A Carlini J De DP Contar A R Silva-Filho N GDa Silveira-Filho M L Frochtengarten and O F A BuenoldquoPharmacology of lemongrass (Cymbopogon citratus Stapf) IEffects of teas prepared from the leaves on laboratory animalsrdquoJournal of Ethnopharmacology vol 17 no 1 pp 37ndash64 1986

[55] C A R D A Costa D O Kohn VM De Lima A C GarganoJ C Florio and M Costa ldquoThe GABAergic system contributesto the anxiolytic-like effect of essential oil from Cymbopogoncitratus (lemongrass)rdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 137no 1 pp 828ndash836 2011

[56] J LeiteMDe Lourdes V Seabra EMaluf et al ldquoPharmacologyof lemongrass (Cymbopogon citratus Stapf) III Assessmentof eventual toxic hypnotic and anxiolytic effects on humansrdquoJournal of Ethnopharmacology vol 17 no 1 pp 75ndash83 1986

[57] M R Silva R M Ximenes J G M da Costa L K A MLeal A A de Lopes and G S de Barros Viana ldquoComparativeanticonvulsant activities of the essential oils (EOs) fromCymbo-pogon winterianus Jowitt and Cymbopogon citratus (DC) Stapfin micerdquoNaunyn-Schmiedebergrsquos Archives of Pharmacology vol381 no 5 pp 415ndash426 2010

[58] G S B Viana T G Vale R S N Pinho and F J A MatosldquoAntinociceptive effect of the essential oil from Cymbopogoncitratus in micerdquo Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol 70 no 3pp 323ndash327 2000

[59] I Kazmi M Afzal B Ali Z A Damanhouri A Ahmaol and FAnwar ldquoAnxiolytic potential of ursolic acid derivative-a stearoylglucoside isolated from Lantana camara L (verbanaceae)rdquoAsian Pacific Journal of Tropical Medicine vol 6 no 6 pp 433ndash437 2013

[60] I Kazmi G Gupta M Afzal M Rahman and F AnwarldquoPharmacological evaluation of anxiolytic activity of ursolicacid stearoyl glucoside isolated from lantana camarardquo CNSNeuroscience ampTherapeutics vol 18 no 8 pp 707-708 2012

[61] G Garrido D Gonzalez C Delporte et al ldquoAnalgesic and anti-inflammatory effects of Mangifera indica L extract (Vimang)rdquoPhytotherapy Research vol 15 no 1 pp 18ndash21 2001

[62] MAA Khan andMT Islam ldquoAnalgesic and cytotoxic activityof Acorus calamus L Kigelia pinnata L Mangifera indica L


and Tabernaemontana divaricata Lrdquo Journal of Pharmacy andBioallied Sciences vol 4 no 2 pp 149ndash154 2012

[63] S Kumar K KMaheshwari andV Singh ldquoEffects ofMangiferaindica fruit extract on cognitive deficits in micerdquo Journal ofEnvironmental Biology vol 30 pp 563ndash566 2009

[64] Y Lemus-Molina M V Sanchez-Gomez R Delgado-Hernandez and C Matute ldquoMangifera indica L extractattenuates glutamate-induced neurotoxicity on rat corticalneuronsrdquo NeuroToxicology vol 30 no 6 pp 1053ndash1058 2009

[65] G L Viswanatha C G Mohan H Shylaja H C Yuvaraj andV Sunil ldquoAnticonvulsant activity of 12346-penta-O-galloyl-120573-d-glucopyranose isolated from leaves of Mangifera indicardquoNaunyn-Schmiedebergrsquos Archives of Pharmacology vol 386 no7 pp 599ndash604 2013

[66] A R Biswas S Ramaswamy and J S Bapna ldquoAnalgesic effectof Momordica charantia seed extract in mice and ratsrdquo Journalof Ethnopharmacology vol 31 no 1 pp 115ndash118 1991

[67] V Jain A Pareek N Paliwal Y Ratan A S Jaggi and NSingh ldquoAntinociceptive and antiallodynic effects of momordicacharantia L in tibial and sural nerve transection-inducedneuropathic pain in ratsrdquo Nutritional Neuroscience vol 17 no2 pp 88ndash96 2014

[68] R Patel N Mahobia N Upwar N Waseem H Talaviya andZ Patel ldquoAnalgesic and antipyretic activities of Momordicacharantia linn fruitsrdquo Journal of Advanced PharmaceuticalTechnology amp Research vol 1 no 4 pp 415ndash418 2010

[69] I O Ishola A A Akinyede and A M Sholarin ldquoAntide-pressant and anxiolytic properties of the methanolic extract ofMomordica charantia Linn (Cucurbitaceae) and its mechanismof actionrdquoDrug Research vol 64 no 7 pp 368ndash376 2014

[70] P I Aziba D Bass and Y Elegbe ldquoPharmacological inves-tigation of Ocimum gratissimum in rodentsrdquo PhytotherapyResearch vol 13 no 5 pp 427ndash429 1999

[71] L I G Paula-FreireM L AndersenG RMolska D O Kohnand E L A Carlini ldquoEvaluation of the antinociceptive activityof ocimum gratissimum L (Lamiaceae) essential oil and itsisolated active principles in micerdquo Phytotherapy Research vol27 no 8 pp 1220ndash1224 2013

[72] M Rabelo E P Souza P M G Soares A V Miranda F J AMatos and D N Criddle ldquoAntinociceptive properties of theessential oil of Ocimum gratissimum L (Labiatae) in micerdquoBrazilian Journal of Medical and Biological Research vol 36 no4 pp 521ndash524 2003

[73] Y Tanko G M Magaji M Yerima R A Magaji and AMohammed ldquoAnti-nociceptive and anti-inflammatory activi-ties of aqueous leaves extract ofOcimumGratissimum (Labiate)in Rodentsrdquo African Journal of Traditional Complementary andAlternative Medicines vol 5 no 2 pp 141ndash146 2008

[74] M Zamin ldquoAn analgesic and hepatoprotective plant Ocimumgratissimumrdquo Pakistan Journal of Biological Sciences vol 14 no20 pp 954-955 2011

[75] C O Okoli A C Ezike O C Agwagah and P A Akah ldquoAnti-convulsant and anxiolytic evaluation of leaf extracts ofOcimumgratissimum a culinary herbrdquo Pharmacognosy Research vol 2no 1 pp 36ndash40 2010

[76] P R Barbosa S S Valvassori C L Bordignon Jr et al ldquoTheaqueous extracts of Passiflora alata and Passiflora edulis reduceanxiety-related behaviors without affecting memory process inratsrdquo Journal of Medicinal Food vol 11 no 2 pp 282ndash288 2008

[77] MColetaM T BatistaMG Campos et al ldquoNeuropharmaco-logical evaluation of the putative anxiolytic effects of Passiflora

edulis Sims its sub-fractions and flavonoid constituentsrdquo Phy-totherapy Research vol 20 no 12 pp 1067ndash1073 2006

[78] J Deng Y Zhou M Bai H Li and L Li ldquoAnxiolytic andsedative activities of Passiflora edulis f flavicarpardquo Journal ofEthnopharmacology vol 128 no 1 pp 148ndash153 2010

[79] A Otify C George A Elsayed and M A Farag ldquoMechanisticevidence of Passiflora edulis (Passifloraceae) anxiolytic activityin relation to its metabolite fingerprint as revealed via LC-MSand chemometricsrdquo Food amp Function vol 6 no 12 pp 3807ndash3817 2015

[80] R D Petry F Reginatto and F de-Paris ldquoComparative pharma-cological study of hydroethanol extracts of Passiflora alata andPassiflora edulis leavesrdquo Phytotherapy Research vol 15 no 2 pp162ndash164 2001

[81] L M Sena S M Zucolotto F H Reginatto E P Schenkeland T C M De Lima ldquoNeuropharmacological activity ofthe pericarp of Passiflora edulis flavicarpa Degener Putativeinvolvement ofC-glycosylflavonoidsrdquoExperimental Biology andMedicine vol 234 no 8 pp 967ndash975 2009

[82] N Klein A C Gazola T C M De Lima E Schenkel KNieber and V Butterweck ldquoAssessment of sedative effects ofpassiflora edulis f flavicarpa and passiflora alata extracts inmice measured by telemetryrdquo Phytotherapy Research vol 28no 5 pp 706ndash713 2014

[83] O O Adeyemi S O Okpo and O O Ogunti ldquoAnalgesic andanti-inflammatory effects of the aqueous extract of leaves ofPersea americana Mill (Lauraceae)rdquo Fitoterapia vol 73 no 5pp 375ndash380 2002

[84] J A O Ojewole and G J Amabeoku ldquoAnticonvulsant effectof Persea americana mill (Lauraceae) (avocado) leaf aqueousextract in micerdquo Phytotherapy Research vol 20 no 8 pp 696ndash700 2006

[85] J Moreira L C Klein-Junior V Cechinel Filho and F deCampos Buzzi ldquoAnti-hyperalgesic activity of corilagin a tanninisolated from Phyllanthus niruri L (Euphorbiaceae)rdquo Journal ofEthnopharmacology vol 146 no 1 pp 318ndash323 2013

[86] I C Obidike O A Salawu M Ndukuba C O Okoli andU A Osunkwo ldquoThe anti-inflammatory and antinociceptiveproperties of the chloroform fraction from Phyllanthus niruriplant is mediated via the peripheral nervous systemrdquo Journal ofDietary Supplements vol 7 no 4 pp 341ndash350 2010

[87] M Ahmed H A Shikha S K Sadhu M T Rahman and BK Datta ldquoAnalgesic diuretic and anti-inflammatory principlefromScoparia dulcisrdquoDie Pharmazie vol 56 pp 657ndash660 2001

[88] SM Freire LM Torres N F Roque C Souccar andA J LapaldquoAnalgesic activity of a triterpene isolated from Scoparia dulcisL (vassourinha)rdquoMemorias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz vol 86no 2 pp 149ndash151 1991

[89] G F Ibironke A S Umukoro and D C Ajonijebu ldquoCentralnervous system activity of the ethanol leaf extract of Sida acutain ratsrdquo African Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences vol43 pp 11ndash16 2014

[90] K Konate I H N Bassole A Hilou et al ldquoToxicity assessmentand analgesic activity investigation of aqueous acetone extractsof Sida acuta Burn f and Sida cordifolia L (Malvaceae)medicinal plants of Burkina Fasordquo BMC Complementary andAlternative Medicine vol 12 Article ID 120 2012

[91] J I Nwaiwu and P A Akah ldquoAnticonvulsant activity of thevolatile oil from the fruit of tetrapleura tetrapterardquo Journal ofEthnopharmacology vol 18 no 2 pp 103ndash107 1986


[92] J A O Ojewole ldquoAnalgesic and anticonvulsant properties ofTetrapleura tetraptera (Taub) (Fabaceae) fruit aqueous extractin micerdquo Phytotherapy Research vol 19 no 12 pp 1023ndash10292005

Stem Cells International

Hindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018


MEDIATORSINFLAMMATION

of

EndocrinologyInternational Journal of



Disease Markers


BioMed Research International

OncologyJournal of



Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity


PPAR Research

Hindawi Publishing Corporation httpwwwhindawicom Volume 2013Hindawiwwwhindawicom

The Scientific World Journal

Volume 2018

Immunology ResearchHindawiwwwhindawicom Volume 2018

Journal of

ObesityJournal of



Computational and Mathematical Methods in Medicine


Behavioural Neurology

OphthalmologyJournal of


Diabetes ResearchJournal of



Research and TreatmentAIDS


Gastroenterology Research and Practice


Parkinsonrsquos Disease

Evidence-Based Complementary andAlternative Medicine

Volume 2018Hindawiwwwhindawicom

Submit your manuscripts atwwwhindawicom


cerebrovascular diseases such as stroke and migraine Morethan 6 million people reportedly die each year due to strokewith over 80 of these deaths occurring in low- and middle-income countries [2] Moreover although little researchattention has been paid to diseases such as schizophreniabipolar disorder and other psychotic disorders in Africasome studies have shown that schizophrenia is a major psy-chiatric diagnosis leading to in-patient admissions on thesecontinents [3ndash6] In addition the CNSPNS disease burdenin Africa is exacerbated by the numerous but understudiedneurological impairments associated with common tropicaldiseases such as the neglected tropical diseases [7]

Ghana is host to a wide array of medicinal flora andtakes pride in the longstanding cultural use of traditionaland alternative medicines (TAMs) as exhibited by the severalpublished works on the ethnobotanical use of TAMs inthe country [8ndash11] Nonetheless there are concerns aboutthe safety and efficacy claims of some TAMs [12] In orderto address these concerns while enhancing the therapeu-tic potentials of TAMs and ensuring minimum adverseeffects the Ghanaian Government academics and TAMpractitioners have institutionalized measures to regulateherbal medicine practice and also integrate TAMs into themainstream healthcare system For example the GhanaFederation of Traditional Medical Practitioners Association(GHAFTRAM) was established in 1999 to help modernizerestructure and regulate the traditional medical industry inthe country [13] GHAFTRAM has members from all partsof Ghana working together towards advancing the devel-opment of TAMs In addition an undergraduate programin herbal medicine which complements university trainingwith hands-on internships at a herbal medicine researchcentre as well as herbal and allopathic practitioners has beenestablished [14] On passing their professional qualifyingexamination graduates are certified and regulated by GhanarsquosTraditionalMedical PracticeCouncil and some are employedby the Government to practice as medical herbalists inherbal clinics established within public hospitals to work inpartnership with medical and allied health staff to providecurative and preventive medical care [12 14]

The foregoing measures emphasize that TAMs continueto play a significant role in the treatment of various disor-ders including those of CNSPNS origin [15ndash17] Howeverthere have been no studies focusing primarily on the doc-umentation of traditional methods of treating mental andneurological disorders in Ghana and how these may informhealthcare practice policy and drug development Conse-quently comprehensive information on plant species plantparts used cultural practices and methods of preparationand use of these TAMs are lacking Moreover the therapeuticpotential CNS properties and the safety profile of most ofthese products are largely unknownThepresent study soughtto address this knowledge gap by using a guided survey todocument TAMs used in the treatment of mental and neu-rological disorders in Ghana based on traditional knowledgeMoreover we aimed to ascertain the scientifically confirmedpharmacological relevance of these medicinal products thatmay justify their clinical use and further research to isolatecompounds of interest to drug discovery and development

Specifically the study was aimed at (a) identifying commonlyused TAMs for CNSPNS disorders and their modes ofpreparation and (b) documenting the therapeutic potentialsof these products

2 Materials and Methods

21 Selection of Participants Obtaining prior Informed Con-sent Ethical Approval and Data Collection An ethnob-otanical approach was used to explore the knowledge andtreatment practices of mental and nervous system disordersby traditionalmedical practitioners (TMPs) from various dis-tricts and subdistricts of the Greater Accra and Brong-Ahaforegions of Ghana Study participants were TMPs who wereall members of GHAFTRAM attending a meeting in AccraThe study objectivesmethod and planned use of informationwere explained to the TMPs before the interviews Amongthe 200 TMPs present at the GHAFTRAM meeting 66were included in this study The excluded delegates werenot specialized in the treatment of mental and neurologicaldiseases as they found such patients quite difficult tomanage

A guided questionnaire interview approach was usedduring the interviews conducted in both English and Twi alocal Ghanaian dialect information on the types and partsof plant materials used the methods of preparation the localnames of plants and the mode of administration of herbalproducts were obtained To be included in the interviewone had to be a (a) TMP practicing in Ghana potentiallytreating mental and neurological diseases directly or havingsome level of knowledge on products used in treating suchpatients or (b) registered member of GHAFTRAM willing toparticipate in the survey Approval for this study was grantedby the Scientific and Technical Committee of the NoguchiMemorial Institute for Medical Research Accra Ghanareference number STC-4 (2) 2013-14 Prior to the studypermission was granted from the leadership of GHAFTRAMand all participants duly signed informed consents

22 Data Management and Analysis A list of the plantsobtained from the survey was subjected to thorough reviewusing Internet search engines (such as google scholar) andjournal databases such as Medline Embase Scopus andPubmed to confirm their therapeutic potential A search ofGhanaian andWestAfricanherbal pharmacopoeias was doneusing the following search terms ldquoneurological disordersrdquoldquopsychiatric disordersrdquo ldquoschizophreniardquo ldquoParkinsonrsquos diseaserdquoldquoAlzheimerrsquos diseaserdquo and ldquomental disordersrdquo in combinationwith either ldquoGhanardquo ldquoWest Africardquo or ldquoAfricardquo

Data obtained from the ethnobotanical study were ana-lyzed using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences version220 for Windows

3 Results

31 Sociodemographic Characteristics of Respondents Intotal 66 TMPs were interviewed 65 and 1 from the GreaterAccra and Brong-Ahafo regions respectively About 561were males and 439 were females About 409 of the




0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40

Relatives

Divinespiritual

Formal training













0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

Num

ber o

f tim

es fa

mily

was

men

tione

d

Apocynace

ae

Asterac

eae

Meliacea

e

Sapindace

ae

Caesalp

iniaceae

Verben

aceae

Lamiac

eae

Liliacea

e

Passiflorac

eae

Loranthace

ae

Lecythidace

ae

Rubiaceae

Rutaceae

Palmae

Tiliacea

e

Gramineae

Myrtace

ae

Anacardiac

eae

Cucurbita

ceae

Musaceae

Nephrolepidace

ae

Lauraceae

Euphorbiaceae

Rosaceae

Scrophular

iaceae

Malvace

ae

Combretace

ae

Fabaceae



Table4Lo

caln

amesplant

partsandmetho

dsof

preparationof

tradition

alAfrican

medicines

used

intre

atingnervou

ssystem

andmentaldiso

rdersinGhana

Species

Family

Growth

form

sLo

caln

ames

indiffe

rent

lang

uages

Vouchers

pecimen

Frequenc

yof

mentio

nPlan

tpart

used

Metho

dof

prep

aration

Ageratum

conyzoides

Aste

raceae

Herb

Ewemim

aNyigbeFa

nteAhaban

Kank

anE

fumom

oeT

wiGu-ekuro

Adwo

a-ku

raG

uaku

oGu-ekuraNzema

Ebuaku

loG

a-Dan

gmeNtumum

u

PA01U

GSO

PGH17

3Leaves

Thefresh

leaves

arem

acerated

andtheliquidob

tained

isinstilledinto

then

ostrilsthe

fresh

leaves

canalso

bebo

iled

sievedanddrankas

requ

ired

Alliu

msativ

umLiliaceae

Herb

TwiGyene

Kank

anG

aAda

ngmeAy

aHau

saTafarmuw

aPA

02U

GSO

PGH17

2Who

leplant

-

Alsto

nia

boonei

Apocyn

aceae

Tree

TwiNyame-du

aNyamedua

Onyam

eduaO

senNuruEw

eSiaketreke


zema

Baku

nin

PA03U

GSO

PGH17

2Ba

rkTh

eleavesa

rebo

iledanddrank

asrequ

ired

Azadira

tcha

indica

Meliaceae

Tree

FanteNim

Abo

odeA

bodu

aEw

eLiliti

Ga-Dan

gmeKintsoA

santeGyedu

aTw

iNim

siDua

gyane

PA04

UGSO

PGH17

1LeavesR

oots

Theb

oiledleavesroo

tsared

rank

asrequ

ired

Berth

olletia

excels

Lecythidaceae

Brazilnu

tPA

05U

GSO

PGH17

1NutLeaves

Theleavesnu

tsareb

oiledand

sievedextractisd

rank

asrequ

ired

Bidens

pilosa

Aste

raceae

Herb

TwiDwire

ntwiG

yinantwiEw

eDzanikpikpi

PA06

UGSO

PGH17

1Leaves

Thefresh

leaves

arem

acerated

andtheliquidob

tained

isinstilledinto

then

ose

Bligh

iaun

ijucata

Sapind

aceae

Tree

AsanteAkyeAkan

AkyibiriT

wi

AkyebiriFan

teE

tedu

aPA

07U

GSO

PGH17

3Ba

rkR

oots

Thed

riedbarksrootsa

rebo

iled

anddrankas

requ

iredthee

xtract

canalso

besm

earedon

theb

ody

Cassia

occid

entalis

Caesalpiniaceae

Nkw

adow

abde120576

PA08U

GSO

PGH17

3Leaves

Theleavesa

rebo

iledanddrank

asrequ

ired


Table4Con

tinued

Species

Family

Growth

form

sLo

caln

ames

indiffe

rent

lang

uages

Vouchers

pecimen

Frequenc

yof

mentio

nPlan

tpart

used

Metho

dof

prep

aration

Cinchona

pubescens

Rubiaceae

Shrub

PA09U

GSO

PGH17

1

Citru

sau

rantifolia

Rutaceae

TwiAnk

aadw

eaA

kenk

aaAnk

aatwaree

FanteAnk

amaEw

eMum

oeA

sante

Ank

aatwareeD

agba

niN

yamsaL

imbu

riGa-Ada

ngmeAb

onuaH

ausa


unliMole

Leem

uGaKp

ete

PA10U

GSO

PGH17

1PeelJuice

Thep

eelsares

queezeddirectly


then

ose

Cocos

nucifera

Palm

aeTree

Twiku

beE

weAgone

PA11

UGSO

PGH17

1Juice

Drin

king

thefresh

coconu

tjuice

atwill

Corchorus

olito

rius

Tiliaceae

Herbaceou

sEw

eAd

emeS

inguiFa

nteOturoT

wi

Otoro

PA12U

GSO

PGH17

1Jutemallow

Leaves

Hot

infusio

nismadefrom

the

leaves

anddrankas

requ

ired

Cymbopogon

citratus

Graminae

Herb

EweTigbeFa

nteTi

ahaban

Ga-Dan

gmeTi-ba

PA13U

GSO

PGH17

1LeavesO

il


the

either

thefreshdrie

dleaves

and

theo

ilycontentapp

liedas

amassage

Eucalyptus

globu

lus

Myrtaceae

Eucalyptus

PA14U

GSO

PGH17

1Oil

Coldinfusio

nismadea

ndthe

oilycontento

btainedisrubb

edon

theb

ody

Khaya

senegalen

sisMeliaceae

Tree

Hau

saM

adwachiM

adachiE

weLo

go

FanteOku

mG

aAda

ngmeKu

gaT

wi

Kuntun

kuri

MoleKu

kaB

rong

Ko

robaaNzemaAnane

PA15U

GSO

PGH17

4Ba

rkTh

eleavesa

rebo

iledanddrank

asrequ

ired

Lantan

acamara

Verbenaceae

Shrub

AkanAnansed

okon

oPA

16U

GSO

PGH17

3LeavesStem

Theleavesste

mareb

oiledand

theliquidob

taineddrank

asrequ

ired

Man

gifera

indica

Anacardiaceae

Tree

EweAsanteTw

iFa

nteM

ango

AmangoGaMango

PA17U

GSO

PGH17

1Ba


the

driedbark

anddrankas

requ

ired

Mom

ordica

charantia

Cucurbita

ceae

Herbaceou

sTw

iNyann

yaN

yinaN

yinyaEw

eKa

kleDan

gmeNyanylaN

yanyraG

aNyanyraN

zemaNyanya

PA18U

GSO

PGH17

1


ble4Con

tinued

Species

Family

Growth

form

sLo

caln

ames

indiffe

rent

lang

uages

Vouchers

pecimen

Frequenc

yof

mentio

nPlan

tpart

used

Metho

dof

prep

aration

Musa

paradisia

caMusaceae

Herbaceou

sTw

iBrod

eNzemaBa

nnaG

aAmadaa

PA19U

GSO

PGH17

1Leaves

Theleavesa

rebo

iledanddrank

asrequ

ired

Nephrolepis

cordifolia

Nephrolepidaceae

TwiMm120576n

PA20U

GSO

PGH17

1Leaves

Theleavesa

remacerated

andthe


orinhaled

Theleavesc

anbe

boiledandthe

extractedliq

uidused

asab

athing

liquid

Occim

umgratissim

umLamiaceae

Shrub

EweBa

busuiDzeveti

GaSuluT

wi

Onu

numN

unum

AsanteNun

um

Ga-Dan

gmeSuluH

ausa

Dardo

yatagidiN

zemaAmalokoWassa

Aprim

Fan

teO

nunu

m

PA21U

GSO

PGH17

3Leaves

Theleavesa

rebo

iledanddrank

asrequ

ired

Passiflora

edulis

Passifloraceae

Passionfruittree

PA22U

GSO

PGH17

2Leaves

Flow

ers

FruitLeaves

Boiling

grin

ding

Persea

america

naLauraceae

Tree

Dan

gmePayaT

wiPeeAkan

Paya

Pae

PA23U

GSO

PGH17

1Freshand

driedleaves


the

either

thefreshdrie

dleaves

and

drankas

requ

ired

FantePae

Phyllantus

nurir

iEu

phob

iaceae

Herbaceou

sTw

iAw

ommaguw

akyiE

weLane

Krobo

OfobiokpaiOfobiG

aOmatsoatsi

PA24U

GSO

PGH17

1

Rauw

olfia

vomito

ria

Apocyn

aceae

Shrub

TwiKa

kapenp

enEweDod

emakpo

woe

FanteKa

kapenp

enG

a-Dan

gme

ApototsoH

ausaW

adaNzema

BakapembeneW

assaA

neene

PA25U

GSO

PGH17

7Ro

ots

Ther

ootsareb

oiledandthe

extracto


then

ose

Rubu

sfru

ticosus

Rosaceae

Bram

ble

PA26U

GSO

PGH17

1Be

rries

leaves

and

flowe

rs

Blenddryleaves

andmixwith

honey

Scoparia

dulcis

Scroph

ulariaceae

PA27U

GSO

PGH17

1-

-

Sida

acuta

Malvaceae

Branchlets

EweAfid

emeGaShwo

botoT

wi

Obraneatuto

PA28U

GSO

PGH17

1Leaves

Theleavesa

rebo

iledanddrank

asrequ

ired

Tapina

nthu

sglo

bifer

rus

Loranthaceae

ParasiticTree

Twink

ranp

anMoleWelebe

PA29U

GSO

PGH17

2Leavesstem

Theleavesste

mareb

oiledand

theliquidob

taineddrank

asrequ

ired

Term

inalia

catapa

Com

bretaceae

abrfo

nkate120576

PA30U

GSO

PGH17

1Yello

wed

leaves

Theleavesa

rebo

iledandthe

liquiddrankas

requ

ired

Tetra

pleura

tetra

ptera

Fabaceae

Tree


teZ

amturi

Any

iAp

rekeseK

yekeFan

teE

semE

we

Prekese

PA31U

GSO

PGH17

1Seed

Thes

eeds

areg

roun

dandthe

liquidextractd

rank

asrequ

ired

Vernonia

amygdalin

aAste

raceae

Shrub

GaTatsoAkp

aDagba

niB

iebing

ira

EweGbo

Gbo

tiAsanteMbo

nasere

Mpo

nasereN

zemaAy

eanw

ole

Ga-Dan

gmeTatsh

o

PA32U

GSO

PGH17

1Leaves


the

either

thefreshdrie

dleaves

and

drankas

requ

ired


0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

Rauw

olfia

vom

itoria

Khay

a se

nega

lensis

Ager

atum

cony

zoid

es

Blig

hia

uniju

gata

Cassi

a oc

ciden

talis

Lant

ana

cam

ara

Ocim

um gr

atiss

imum

Num

ber o

f tim

es sp

ecie

s was

men

tione

d




4 Discussion

























5 Conclusion


Abbreviations



Data Availability




Acknowledgments



References








































































































of




Disease Markers



OncologyJournal of





PPAR Research



Volume 2018


Journal of

ObesityJournal of






















0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40

Relatives

Divinespiritual

Formal training













0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

Num

ber o

f tim

es fa

mily

was

men

tione

d

Apocynace

ae

Asterac

eae

Meliacea

e

Sapindace

ae

Caesalp

iniaceae

Verben

aceae

Lamiac

eae

Liliacea

e

Passiflorac

eae

Loranthace

ae

Lecythidace

ae

Rubiaceae

Rutaceae

Palmae

Tiliacea

e

Gramineae

Myrtace

ae

Anacardiac

eae

Cucurbita

ceae

Musaceae

Nephrolepidace

ae

Lauraceae

Euphorbiaceae

Rosaceae

Scrophular

iaceae

Malvace

ae

Combretace

ae

Fabaceae



Table4Lo

caln

amesplant

partsandmetho

dsof

preparationof

tradition

alAfrican

medicines

used

intre

atingnervou

ssystem

andmentaldiso

rdersinGhana

Species

Family

Growth

form

sLo

caln

ames

indiffe

rent

lang

uages

Vouchers

pecimen

Frequenc

yof

mentio

nPlan

tpart

used

Metho

dof

prep

aration

Ageratum

conyzoides

Aste

raceae

Herb

Ewemim

aNyigbeFa

nteAhaban

Kank

anE

fumom

oeT

wiGu-ekuro

Adwo

a-ku

raG

uaku

oGu-ekuraNzema

Ebuaku

loG

a-Dan

gmeNtumum

u

PA01U

GSO

PGH17

3Leaves

Thefresh

leaves

arem

acerated

andtheliquidob

tained

isinstilledinto

then

ostrilsthe

fresh

leaves

canalso

bebo

iled

sievedanddrankas

requ

ired

Alliu

msativ

umLiliaceae

Herb

TwiGyene

Kank

anG

aAda

ngmeAy

aHau

saTafarmuw

aPA

02U

GSO

PGH17

2Who

leplant

-

Alsto

nia

boonei

Apocyn

aceae

Tree

TwiNyame-du

aNyamedua

Onyam

eduaO

senNuruEw

eSiaketreke


zema

Baku

nin

PA03U

GSO

PGH17

2Ba

rkTh

eleavesa

rebo

iledanddrank

asrequ

ired

Azadira

tcha

indica

Meliaceae

Tree

FanteNim

Abo

odeA

bodu

aEw

eLiliti

Ga-Dan

gmeKintsoA

santeGyedu

aTw

iNim

siDua

gyane

PA04

UGSO

PGH17

1LeavesR

oots

Theb

oiledleavesroo

tsared

rank

asrequ

ired

Berth

olletia

excels

Lecythidaceae

Brazilnu

tPA

05U

GSO

PGH17

1NutLeaves

Theleavesnu

tsareb

oiledand

sievedextractisd

rank

asrequ

ired

Bidens

pilosa

Aste

raceae

Herb

TwiDwire

ntwiG

yinantwiEw

eDzanikpikpi

PA06

UGSO

PGH17

1Leaves

Thefresh

leaves

arem

acerated

andtheliquidob

tained

isinstilledinto

then

ose

Bligh

iaun

ijucata

Sapind

aceae

Tree

AsanteAkyeAkan

AkyibiriT

wi

AkyebiriFan

teE

tedu

aPA

07U

GSO

PGH17

3Ba

rkR

oots

Thed

riedbarksrootsa

rebo

iled

anddrankas

requ

iredthee

xtract

canalso

besm

earedon

theb

ody

Cassia

occid

entalis

Caesalpiniaceae

Nkw

adow

abde120576

PA08U

GSO

PGH17

3Leaves

Theleavesa

rebo

iledanddrank

asrequ

ired


Table4Con

tinued

Species

Family

Growth

form

sLo

caln

ames

indiffe

rent

lang

uages

Vouchers

pecimen

Frequenc

yof

mentio

nPlan

tpart

used

Metho

dof

prep

aration

Cinchona

pubescens

Rubiaceae

Shrub

PA09U

GSO

PGH17

1

Citru

sau

rantifolia

Rutaceae

TwiAnk

aadw

eaA

kenk

aaAnk

aatwaree

FanteAnk

amaEw

eMum

oeA

sante

Ank

aatwareeD

agba

niN

yamsaL

imbu

riGa-Ada

ngmeAb

onuaH

ausa


unliMole

Leem

uGaKp

ete

PA10U

GSO

PGH17

1PeelJuice

Thep

eelsares

queezeddirectly


then

ose

Cocos

nucifera

Palm

aeTree

Twiku

beE

weAgone

PA11

UGSO

PGH17

1Juice

Drin

king

thefresh

coconu

tjuice

atwill

Corchorus

olito

rius

Tiliaceae

Herbaceou

sEw

eAd

emeS

inguiFa

nteOturoT

wi

Otoro

PA12U

GSO

PGH17

1Jutemallow

Leaves

Hot

infusio

nismadefrom

the

leaves

anddrankas

requ

ired

Cymbopogon

citratus

Graminae

Herb

EweTigbeFa

nteTi

ahaban

Ga-Dan

gmeTi-ba

PA13U

GSO

PGH17

1LeavesO

il


the

either

thefreshdrie

dleaves

and

theo

ilycontentapp

liedas

amassage

Eucalyptus

globu

lus

Myrtaceae

Eucalyptus

PA14U

GSO

PGH17

1Oil

Coldinfusio

nismadea

ndthe

oilycontento

btainedisrubb

edon

theb

ody

Khaya

senegalen

sisMeliaceae

Tree

Hau

saM

adwachiM

adachiE

weLo

go

FanteOku

mG

aAda

ngmeKu

gaT

wi

Kuntun

kuri

MoleKu

kaB

rong

Ko

robaaNzemaAnane

PA15U

GSO

PGH17

4Ba

rkTh

eleavesa

rebo

iledanddrank

asrequ

ired

Lantan

acamara

Verbenaceae

Shrub

AkanAnansed

okon

oPA

16U

GSO

PGH17

3LeavesStem

Theleavesste

mareb

oiledand

theliquidob

taineddrank

asrequ

ired

Man

gifera

indica

Anacardiaceae

Tree

EweAsanteTw

iFa

nteM

ango

AmangoGaMango

PA17U

GSO

PGH17

1Ba


the

driedbark

anddrankas

requ

ired

Mom

ordica

charantia

Cucurbita

ceae

Herbaceou

sTw

iNyann

yaN

yinaN

yinyaEw

eKa

kleDan

gmeNyanylaN

yanyraG

aNyanyraN

zemaNyanya

PA18U

GSO

PGH17

1


ble4Con

tinued

Species

Family

Growth

form

sLo

caln

ames

indiffe

rent

lang

uages

Vouchers

pecimen

Frequenc

yof

mentio

nPlan

tpart

used

Metho

dof

prep

aration

Musa

paradisia

caMusaceae

Herbaceou

sTw

iBrod

eNzemaBa

nnaG

aAmadaa

PA19U

GSO

PGH17

1Leaves

Theleavesa

rebo

iledanddrank

asrequ

ired

Nephrolepis

cordifolia

Nephrolepidaceae

TwiMm120576n

PA20U

GSO

PGH17

1Leaves

Theleavesa

remacerated

andthe


orinhaled

Theleavesc

anbe

boiledandthe

extractedliq

uidused

asab

athing

liquid

Occim

umgratissim

umLamiaceae

Shrub

EweBa

busuiDzeveti

GaSuluT

wi

Onu

numN

unum

AsanteNun

um

Ga-Dan

gmeSuluH

ausa

Dardo

yatagidiN

zemaAmalokoWassa

Aprim

Fan

teO

nunu

m

PA21U

GSO

PGH17

3Leaves

Theleavesa

rebo

iledanddrank

asrequ

ired

Passiflora

edulis

Passifloraceae

Passionfruittree

PA22U

GSO

PGH17

2Leaves

Flow

ers

FruitLeaves

Boiling

grin

ding

Persea

america

naLauraceae

Tree

Dan

gmePayaT

wiPeeAkan

Paya

Pae

PA23U

GSO

PGH17

1Freshand

driedleaves


the

either

thefreshdrie

dleaves

and

drankas

requ

ired

FantePae

Phyllantus

nurir

iEu

phob

iaceae

Herbaceou

sTw

iAw

ommaguw

akyiE

weLane

Krobo

OfobiokpaiOfobiG

aOmatsoatsi

PA24U

GSO

PGH17

1

Rauw

olfia

vomito

ria

Apocyn

aceae

Shrub

TwiKa

kapenp

enEweDod

emakpo

woe

FanteKa

kapenp

enG

a-Dan

gme

ApototsoH

ausaW

adaNzema

BakapembeneW

assaA

neene

PA25U

GSO

PGH17

7Ro

ots

Ther

ootsareb

oiledandthe

extracto


then

ose

Rubu

sfru

ticosus

Rosaceae

Bram

ble

PA26U

GSO

PGH17

1Be

rries

leaves

and

flowe

rs

Blenddryleaves

andmixwith

honey

Scoparia

dulcis

Scroph

ulariaceae

PA27U

GSO

PGH17

1-

-

Sida

acuta

Malvaceae

Branchlets

EweAfid

emeGaShwo

botoT

wi

Obraneatuto

PA28U

GSO

PGH17

1Leaves

Theleavesa

rebo

iledanddrank

asrequ

ired

Tapina

nthu

sglo

bifer

rus

Loranthaceae

ParasiticTree

Twink

ranp

anMoleWelebe

PA29U

GSO

PGH17

2Leavesstem

Theleavesste

mareb

oiledand

theliquidob

taineddrank

asrequ

ired

Term

inalia

catapa

Com

bretaceae

abrfo

nkate120576

PA30U

GSO

PGH17

1Yello

wed

leaves

Theleavesa

rebo

iledandthe

liquiddrankas

requ

ired

Tetra

pleura

tetra

ptera

Fabaceae

Tree


teZ

amturi

Any

iAp

rekeseK

yekeFan

teE

semE

we

Prekese

PA31U

GSO

PGH17

1Seed

Thes

eeds

areg

roun

dandthe

liquidextractd

rank

asrequ

ired

Vernonia

amygdalin

aAste

raceae

Shrub

GaTatsoAkp

aDagba

niB

iebing

ira

EweGbo

Gbo

tiAsanteMbo

nasere

Mpo

nasereN

zemaAy

eanw

ole

Ga-Dan

gmeTatsh

o

PA32U

GSO

PGH17

1Leaves


the

either

thefreshdrie

dleaves

and

drankas

requ

ired


0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

Rauw

olfia

vom

itoria

Khay

a se

nega

lensis

Ager

atum

cony

zoid

es

Blig

hia

uniju

gata

Cassi

a oc

ciden

talis

Lant

ana

cam

ara

Ocim

um gr

atiss

imum

Num

ber o

f tim

es sp

ecie

s was

men

tione

d




4 Discussion

























5 Conclusion


Abbreviations



Data Availability




Acknowledgments



References








































































































of




Disease Markers



OncologyJournal of





PPAR Research



Volume 2018


Journal of

ObesityJournal of
























0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

Num

ber o

f tim

es fa

mily

was

men

tione

d

Apocynace

ae

Asterac

eae

Meliacea

e

Sapindace

ae

Caesalp

iniaceae

Verben

aceae

Lamiac

eae

Liliacea

e

Passiflorac

eae

Loranthace

ae

Lecythidace

ae

Rubiaceae

Rutaceae

Palmae

Tiliacea

e

Gramineae

Myrtace

ae

Anacardiac

eae

Cucurbita

ceae

Musaceae

Nephrolepidace

ae

Lauraceae

Euphorbiaceae

Rosaceae

Scrophular

iaceae

Malvace

ae

Combretace

ae

Fabaceae



Table4Lo

caln

amesplant

partsandmetho

dsof

preparationof

tradition

alAfrican

medicines

used

intre

atingnervou

ssystem

andmentaldiso

rdersinGhana

Species

Family

Growth

form

sLo

caln

ames

indiffe

rent

lang

uages

Vouchers

pecimen

Frequenc

yof

mentio

nPlan

tpart

used

Metho

dof

prep

aration

Ageratum

conyzoides

Aste

raceae

Herb

Ewemim

aNyigbeFa

nteAhaban

Kank

anE

fumom

oeT

wiGu-ekuro

Adwo

a-ku

raG

uaku

oGu-ekuraNzema

Ebuaku

loG

a-Dan

gmeNtumum

u

PA01U

GSO

PGH17

3Leaves

Thefresh

leaves

arem

acerated

andtheliquidob

tained

isinstilledinto

then

ostrilsthe

fresh

leaves

canalso

bebo

iled

sievedanddrankas

requ

ired

Alliu

msativ

umLiliaceae

Herb

TwiGyene

Kank

anG

aAda

ngmeAy

aHau

saTafarmuw

aPA

02U

GSO

PGH17

2Who

leplant

-

Alsto

nia

boonei

Apocyn

aceae

Tree

TwiNyame-du

aNyamedua

Onyam

eduaO

senNuruEw

eSiaketreke


zema

Baku

nin

PA03U

GSO

PGH17

2Ba

rkTh

eleavesa

rebo

iledanddrank

asrequ

ired

Azadira

tcha

indica

Meliaceae

Tree

FanteNim

Abo

odeA

bodu

aEw

eLiliti

Ga-Dan

gmeKintsoA

santeGyedu

aTw

iNim

siDua

gyane

PA04

UGSO

PGH17

1LeavesR

oots

Theb

oiledleavesroo

tsared

rank

asrequ

ired

Berth

olletia

excels

Lecythidaceae

Brazilnu

tPA

05U

GSO

PGH17

1NutLeaves

Theleavesnu

tsareb

oiledand

sievedextractisd

rank

asrequ

ired

Bidens

pilosa

Aste

raceae

Herb

TwiDwire

ntwiG

yinantwiEw

eDzanikpikpi

PA06

UGSO

PGH17

1Leaves

Thefresh

leaves

arem

acerated

andtheliquidob

tained

isinstilledinto

then

ose

Bligh

iaun

ijucata

Sapind

aceae

Tree

AsanteAkyeAkan

AkyibiriT

wi

AkyebiriFan

teE

tedu

aPA

07U

GSO

PGH17

3Ba

rkR

oots

Thed

riedbarksrootsa

rebo

iled

anddrankas

requ

iredthee

xtract

canalso

besm

earedon

theb

ody

Cassia

occid

entalis

Caesalpiniaceae

Nkw

adow

abde120576

PA08U

GSO

PGH17

3Leaves

Theleavesa

rebo

iledanddrank

asrequ

ired


Table4Con

tinued

Species

Family

Growth

form

sLo

caln

ames

indiffe

rent

lang

uages

Vouchers

pecimen

Frequenc

yof

mentio

nPlan

tpart

used

Metho

dof

prep

aration

Cinchona

pubescens

Rubiaceae

Shrub

PA09U

GSO

PGH17

1

Citru

sau

rantifolia

Rutaceae

TwiAnk

aadw

eaA

kenk

aaAnk

aatwaree

FanteAnk

amaEw

eMum

oeA

sante

Ank

aatwareeD

agba

niN

yamsaL

imbu

riGa-Ada

ngmeAb

onuaH

ausa


unliMole

Leem

uGaKp

ete

PA10U

GSO

PGH17

1PeelJuice

Thep

eelsares

queezeddirectly


then

ose

Cocos

nucifera

Palm

aeTree

Twiku

beE

weAgone

PA11

UGSO

PGH17

1Juice

Drin

king

thefresh

coconu

tjuice

atwill

Corchorus

olito

rius

Tiliaceae

Herbaceou

sEw

eAd

emeS

inguiFa

nteOturoT

wi

Otoro

PA12U

GSO

PGH17

1Jutemallow

Leaves

Hot

infusio

nismadefrom

the

leaves

anddrankas

requ

ired

Cymbopogon

citratus

Graminae

Herb

EweTigbeFa

nteTi

ahaban

Ga-Dan

gmeTi-ba

PA13U

GSO

PGH17

1LeavesO

il


the

either

thefreshdrie

dleaves

and

theo

ilycontentapp

liedas

amassage

Eucalyptus

globu

lus

Myrtaceae

Eucalyptus

PA14U

GSO

PGH17

1Oil

Coldinfusio

nismadea

ndthe

oilycontento

btainedisrubb

edon

theb

ody

Khaya

senegalen

sisMeliaceae

Tree

Hau

saM

adwachiM

adachiE

weLo

go

FanteOku

mG

aAda

ngmeKu

gaT

wi

Kuntun

kuri

MoleKu

kaB

rong

Ko

robaaNzemaAnane

PA15U

GSO

PGH17

4Ba

rkTh

eleavesa

rebo

iledanddrank

asrequ

ired

Lantan

acamara

Verbenaceae

Shrub

AkanAnansed

okon

oPA

16U

GSO

PGH17

3LeavesStem

Theleavesste

mareb

oiledand

theliquidob

taineddrank

asrequ

ired

Man

gifera

indica

Anacardiaceae

Tree

EweAsanteTw

iFa

nteM

ango

AmangoGaMango

PA17U

GSO

PGH17

1Ba


the

driedbark

anddrankas

requ

ired

Mom

ordica

charantia

Cucurbita

ceae

Herbaceou

sTw

iNyann

yaN

yinaN

yinyaEw

eKa

kleDan

gmeNyanylaN

yanyraG

aNyanyraN

zemaNyanya

PA18U

GSO

PGH17

1


ble4Con

tinued

Species

Family

Growth

form

sLo

caln

ames

indiffe

rent

lang

uages

Vouchers

pecimen

Frequenc

yof

mentio

nPlan

tpart

used

Metho

dof

prep

aration

Musa

paradisia

caMusaceae

Herbaceou

sTw

iBrod

eNzemaBa

nnaG

aAmadaa

PA19U

GSO

PGH17

1Leaves

Theleavesa

rebo

iledanddrank

asrequ

ired

Nephrolepis

cordifolia

Nephrolepidaceae

TwiMm120576n

PA20U

GSO

PGH17

1Leaves

Theleavesa

remacerated

andthe


orinhaled

Theleavesc

anbe

boiledandthe

extractedliq

uidused

asab

athing

liquid

Occim

umgratissim

umLamiaceae

Shrub

EweBa

busuiDzeveti

GaSuluT

wi

Onu

numN

unum

AsanteNun

um

Ga-Dan

gmeSuluH

ausa

Dardo

yatagidiN

zemaAmalokoWassa

Aprim

Fan

teO

nunu

m

PA21U

GSO

PGH17

3Leaves

Theleavesa

rebo

iledanddrank

asrequ

ired

Passiflora

edulis

Passifloraceae

Passionfruittree

PA22U

GSO

PGH17

2Leaves

Flow

ers

FruitLeaves

Boiling

grin

ding

Persea

america

naLauraceae

Tree

Dan

gmePayaT

wiPeeAkan

Paya

Pae

PA23U

GSO

PGH17

1Freshand

driedleaves


the

either

thefreshdrie

dleaves

and

drankas

requ

ired

FantePae

Phyllantus

nurir

iEu

phob

iaceae

Herbaceou

sTw

iAw

ommaguw

akyiE

weLane

Krobo

OfobiokpaiOfobiG

aOmatsoatsi

PA24U

GSO

PGH17

1

Rauw

olfia

vomito

ria

Apocyn

aceae

Shrub

TwiKa

kapenp

enEweDod

emakpo

woe

FanteKa

kapenp

enG

a-Dan

gme

ApototsoH

ausaW

adaNzema

BakapembeneW

assaA

neene

PA25U

GSO

PGH17

7Ro

ots

Ther

ootsareb

oiledandthe

extracto


then

ose

Rubu

sfru

ticosus

Rosaceae

Bram

ble

PA26U

GSO

PGH17

1Be

rries

leaves

and

flowe

rs

Blenddryleaves

andmixwith

honey

Scoparia

dulcis

Scroph

ulariaceae

PA27U

GSO

PGH17

1-

-

Sida

acuta

Malvaceae

Branchlets

EweAfid

emeGaShwo

botoT

wi

Obraneatuto

PA28U

GSO

PGH17

1Leaves

Theleavesa

rebo

iledanddrank

asrequ

ired

Tapina

nthu

sglo

bifer

rus

Loranthaceae

ParasiticTree

Twink

ranp

anMoleWelebe

PA29U

GSO

PGH17

2Leavesstem

Theleavesste

mareb

oiledand

theliquidob

taineddrank

asrequ

ired

Term

inalia

catapa

Com

bretaceae

abrfo

nkate120576

PA30U

GSO

PGH17

1Yello

wed

leaves

Theleavesa

rebo

iledandthe

liquiddrankas

requ

ired

Tetra

pleura

tetra

ptera

Fabaceae

Tree


teZ

amturi

Any

iAp

rekeseK

yekeFan

teE

semE

we

Prekese

PA31U

GSO

PGH17

1Seed

Thes

eeds

areg

roun

dandthe

liquidextractd

rank

asrequ

ired

Vernonia

amygdalin

aAste

raceae

Shrub

GaTatsoAkp

aDagba

niB

iebing

ira

EweGbo

Gbo

tiAsanteMbo

nasere

Mpo

nasereN

zemaAy

eanw

ole

Ga-Dan

gmeTatsh

o

PA32U

GSO

PGH17

1Leaves


the

either

thefreshdrie

dleaves

and

drankas

requ

ired


0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

Rauw

olfia

vom

itoria

Khay

a se

nega

lensis

Ager

atum

cony

zoid

es

Blig

hia

uniju

gata

Cassi

a oc

ciden

talis

Lant

ana

cam

ara

Ocim

um gr

atiss

imum

Num

ber o

f tim

es sp

ecie

s was

men

tione

d




4 Discussion

























5 Conclusion


Abbreviations



Data Availability




Acknowledgments



References








































































































of




Disease Markers



OncologyJournal of





PPAR Research



Volume 2018


Journal of

ObesityJournal of




















Table4Lo

caln

amesplant

partsandmetho

dsof

preparationof

tradition

alAfrican

medicines

used

intre

atingnervou

ssystem

andmentaldiso

rdersinGhana

Species

Family

Growth

form

sLo

caln

ames

indiffe

rent

lang

uages

Vouchers

pecimen

Frequenc

yof

mentio

nPlan

tpart

used

Metho

dof

prep

aration

Ageratum

conyzoides

Aste

raceae

Herb

Ewemim

aNyigbeFa

nteAhaban

Kank

anE

fumom

oeT

wiGu-ekuro

Adwo

a-ku

raG

uaku

oGu-ekuraNzema

Ebuaku

loG

a-Dan

gmeNtumum

u

PA01U

GSO

PGH17

3Leaves

Thefresh

leaves

arem

acerated

andtheliquidob

tained

isinstilledinto

then

ostrilsthe

fresh

leaves

canalso

bebo

iled

sievedanddrankas

requ

ired

Alliu

msativ

umLiliaceae

Herb

TwiGyene

Kank

anG

aAda

ngmeAy

aHau

saTafarmuw

aPA

02U

GSO

PGH17

2Who

leplant

-

Alsto

nia

boonei

Apocyn

aceae

Tree

TwiNyame-du

aNyamedua

Onyam

eduaO

senNuruEw

eSiaketreke


zema

Baku

nin

PA03U

GSO

PGH17

2Ba

rkTh

eleavesa

rebo

iledanddrank

asrequ

ired

Azadira

tcha

indica

Meliaceae

Tree

FanteNim

Abo

odeA

bodu

aEw

eLiliti

Ga-Dan

gmeKintsoA

santeGyedu

aTw

iNim

siDua

gyane

PA04

UGSO

PGH17

1LeavesR

oots

Theb

oiledleavesroo

tsared

rank

asrequ

ired

Berth

olletia

excels

Lecythidaceae

Brazilnu

tPA

05U

GSO

PGH17

1NutLeaves

Theleavesnu

tsareb

oiledand

sievedextractisd

rank

asrequ

ired

Bidens

pilosa

Aste

raceae

Herb

TwiDwire

ntwiG

yinantwiEw

eDzanikpikpi

PA06

UGSO

PGH17

1Leaves

Thefresh

leaves

arem

acerated

andtheliquidob

tained

isinstilledinto

then

ose

Bligh

iaun

ijucata

Sapind

aceae

Tree

AsanteAkyeAkan

AkyibiriT

wi

AkyebiriFan

teE

tedu

aPA

07U

GSO

PGH17

3Ba

rkR

oots

Thed

riedbarksrootsa

rebo

iled

anddrankas

requ

iredthee

xtract

canalso

besm

earedon

theb

ody

Cassia

occid

entalis

Caesalpiniaceae

Nkw

adow

abde120576

PA08U

GSO

PGH17

3Leaves

Theleavesa

rebo

iledanddrank

asrequ

ired


Table4Con

tinued

Species

Family

Growth

form

sLo

caln

ames

indiffe

rent

lang

uages

Vouchers

pecimen

Frequenc

yof

mentio

nPlan

tpart

used

Metho

dof

prep

aration

Cinchona

pubescens

Rubiaceae

Shrub

PA09U

GSO

PGH17

1

Citru

sau

rantifolia

Rutaceae

TwiAnk

aadw

eaA

kenk

aaAnk

aatwaree

FanteAnk

amaEw

eMum

oeA

sante

Ank

aatwareeD

agba

niN

yamsaL

imbu

riGa-Ada

ngmeAb

onuaH

ausa


unliMole

Leem

uGaKp

ete

PA10U

GSO

PGH17

1PeelJuice

Thep

eelsares

queezeddirectly


then

ose

Cocos

nucifera

Palm

aeTree

Twiku

beE

weAgone

PA11

UGSO

PGH17

1Juice

Drin

king

thefresh

coconu

tjuice

atwill

Corchorus

olito

rius

Tiliaceae

Herbaceou

sEw

eAd

emeS

inguiFa

nteOturoT

wi

Otoro

PA12U

GSO

PGH17

1Jutemallow

Leaves

Hot

infusio

nismadefrom

the

leaves

anddrankas

requ

ired

Cymbopogon

citratus

Graminae

Herb

EweTigbeFa

nteTi

ahaban

Ga-Dan

gmeTi-ba

PA13U

GSO

PGH17

1LeavesO

il


the

either

thefreshdrie

dleaves

and

theo

ilycontentapp

liedas

amassage

Eucalyptus

globu

lus

Myrtaceae

Eucalyptus

PA14U

GSO

PGH17

1Oil

Coldinfusio

nismadea

ndthe

oilycontento

btainedisrubb

edon

theb

ody

Khaya

senegalen

sisMeliaceae

Tree

Hau

saM

adwachiM

adachiE

weLo

go

FanteOku

mG

aAda

ngmeKu

gaT

wi

Kuntun

kuri

MoleKu

kaB

rong

Ko

robaaNzemaAnane

PA15U

GSO

PGH17

4Ba

rkTh

eleavesa

rebo

iledanddrank

asrequ

ired

Lantan

acamara

Verbenaceae

Shrub

AkanAnansed

okon

oPA

16U

GSO

PGH17

3LeavesStem

Theleavesste

mareb

oiledand

theliquidob

taineddrank

asrequ

ired

Man

gifera

indica

Anacardiaceae

Tree

EweAsanteTw

iFa

nteM

ango

AmangoGaMango

PA17U

GSO

PGH17

1Ba


the

driedbark

anddrankas

requ

ired

Mom

ordica

charantia

Cucurbita

ceae

Herbaceou

sTw

iNyann

yaN

yinaN

yinyaEw

eKa

kleDan

gmeNyanylaN

yanyraG

aNyanyraN

zemaNyanya

PA18U

GSO

PGH17

1


ble4Con

tinued

Species

Family

Growth

form

sLo

caln

ames

indiffe

rent

lang

uages

Vouchers

pecimen

Frequenc

yof

mentio

nPlan

tpart

used

Metho

dof

prep

aration

Musa

paradisia

caMusaceae

Herbaceou

sTw

iBrod

eNzemaBa

nnaG

aAmadaa

PA19U

GSO

PGH17

1Leaves

Theleavesa

rebo

iledanddrank

asrequ

ired

Nephrolepis

cordifolia

Nephrolepidaceae

TwiMm120576n

PA20U

GSO

PGH17

1Leaves

Theleavesa

remacerated

andthe


orinhaled

Theleavesc

anbe

boiledandthe

extractedliq

uidused

asab

athing

liquid

Occim

umgratissim

umLamiaceae

Shrub

EweBa

busuiDzeveti

GaSuluT

wi

Onu

numN

unum

AsanteNun

um

Ga-Dan

gmeSuluH

ausa

Dardo

yatagidiN

zemaAmalokoWassa

Aprim

Fan

teO

nunu

m

PA21U

GSO

PGH17

3Leaves

Theleavesa

rebo

iledanddrank

asrequ

ired

Passiflora

edulis

Passifloraceae

Passionfruittree

PA22U

GSO

PGH17

2Leaves

Flow

ers

FruitLeaves

Boiling

grin

ding

Persea

america

naLauraceae

Tree

Dan

gmePayaT

wiPeeAkan

Paya

Pae

PA23U

GSO

PGH17

1Freshand

driedleaves


the

either

thefreshdrie

dleaves

and

drankas

requ

ired

FantePae

Phyllantus

nurir

iEu

phob

iaceae

Herbaceou

sTw

iAw

ommaguw

akyiE

weLane

Krobo

OfobiokpaiOfobiG

aOmatsoatsi

PA24U

GSO

PGH17

1

Rauw

olfia

vomito

ria

Apocyn

aceae

Shrub

TwiKa

kapenp

enEweDod

emakpo

woe

FanteKa

kapenp

enG

a-Dan

gme

ApototsoH

ausaW

adaNzema

BakapembeneW

assaA

neene

PA25U

GSO

PGH17

7Ro

ots

Ther

ootsareb

oiledandthe

extracto


then

ose

Rubu

sfru

ticosus

Rosaceae

Bram

ble

PA26U

GSO

PGH17

1Be

rries

leaves

and

flowe

rs

Blenddryleaves

andmixwith

honey

Scoparia

dulcis

Scroph

ulariaceae

PA27U

GSO

PGH17

1-

-

Sida

acuta

Malvaceae

Branchlets

EweAfid

emeGaShwo

botoT

wi

Obraneatuto

PA28U

GSO

PGH17

1Leaves

Theleavesa

rebo

iledanddrank

asrequ

ired

Tapina

nthu

sglo

bifer

rus

Loranthaceae

ParasiticTree

Twink

ranp

anMoleWelebe

PA29U

GSO

PGH17

2Leavesstem

Theleavesste

mareb

oiledand

theliquidob

taineddrank

asrequ

ired

Term

inalia

catapa

Com

bretaceae

abrfo

nkate120576

PA30U

GSO

PGH17

1Yello

wed

leaves

Theleavesa

rebo

iledandthe

liquiddrankas

requ

ired

Tetra

pleura

tetra

ptera

Fabaceae

Tree


teZ

amturi

Any

iAp

rekeseK

yekeFan

teE

semE

we

Prekese

PA31U

GSO

PGH17

1Seed

Thes

eeds

areg

roun

dandthe

liquidextractd

rank

asrequ

ired

Vernonia

amygdalin

aAste

raceae

Shrub

GaTatsoAkp

aDagba

niB

iebing

ira

EweGbo

Gbo

tiAsanteMbo

nasere

Mpo

nasereN

zemaAy

eanw

ole

Ga-Dan

gmeTatsh

o

PA32U

GSO

PGH17

1Leaves


the

either

thefreshdrie

dleaves

and

drankas

requ

ired


0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

Rauw

olfia

vom

itoria

Khay

a se

nega

lensis

Ager

atum

cony

zoid

es

Blig

hia

uniju

gata

Cassi

a oc

ciden

talis

Lant

ana

cam

ara

Ocim

um gr

atiss

imum

Num

ber o

f tim

es sp

ecie

s was

men

tione

d




4 Discussion

























5 Conclusion


Abbreviations



Data Availability




Acknowledgments



References








































































































of




Disease Markers



OncologyJournal of





PPAR Research



Volume 2018


Journal of

ObesityJournal of




















Table4Con

tinued

Species

Family

Growth

form

sLo

caln

ames

indiffe

rent

lang

uages

Vouchers

pecimen

Frequenc

yof

mentio

nPlan

tpart

used

Metho

dof

prep

aration

Cinchona

pubescens

Rubiaceae

Shrub

PA09U

GSO

PGH17

1

Citru

sau

rantifolia

Rutaceae

TwiAnk

aadw

eaA

kenk

aaAnk

aatwaree

FanteAnk

amaEw

eMum

oeA

sante

Ank

aatwareeD

agba

niN

yamsaL

imbu

riGa-Ada

ngmeAb

onuaH

ausa


unliMole

Leem

uGaKp

ete

PA10U

GSO

PGH17

1PeelJuice

Thep

eelsares

queezeddirectly


then

ose

Cocos

nucifera

Palm

aeTree

Twiku

beE

weAgone

PA11

UGSO

PGH17

1Juice

Drin

king

thefresh

coconu

tjuice

atwill

Corchorus

olito

rius

Tiliaceae

Herbaceou

sEw

eAd

emeS

inguiFa

nteOturoT

wi

Otoro

PA12U

GSO

PGH17

1Jutemallow

Leaves

Hot

infusio

nismadefrom

the

leaves

anddrankas

requ

ired

Cymbopogon

citratus

Graminae

Herb

EweTigbeFa

nteTi

ahaban

Ga-Dan

gmeTi-ba

PA13U

GSO

PGH17

1LeavesO

il


the

either

thefreshdrie

dleaves

and

theo

ilycontentapp

liedas

amassage

Eucalyptus

globu

lus

Myrtaceae

Eucalyptus

PA14U

GSO

PGH17

1Oil

Coldinfusio

nismadea

ndthe

oilycontento

btainedisrubb

edon

theb

ody

Khaya

senegalen

sisMeliaceae

Tree

Hau

saM

adwachiM

adachiE

weLo

go

FanteOku

mG

aAda

ngmeKu

gaT

wi

Kuntun

kuri

MoleKu

kaB

rong

Ko

robaaNzemaAnane

PA15U

GSO

PGH17

4Ba

rkTh

eleavesa

rebo

iledanddrank

asrequ

ired

Lantan

acamara

Verbenaceae

Shrub

AkanAnansed

okon

oPA

16U

GSO

PGH17

3LeavesStem

Theleavesste

mareb

oiledand

theliquidob

taineddrank

asrequ

ired

Man

gifera

indica

Anacardiaceae

Tree

EweAsanteTw

iFa

nteM

ango

AmangoGaMango

PA17U

GSO

PGH17

1Ba


the

driedbark

anddrankas

requ

ired

Mom

ordica

charantia

Cucurbita

ceae

Herbaceou

sTw

iNyann

yaN

yinaN

yinyaEw

eKa

kleDan

gmeNyanylaN

yanyraG

aNyanyraN

zemaNyanya

PA18U

GSO

PGH17

1


ble4Con

tinued

Species

Family

Growth

form

sLo

caln

ames

indiffe

rent

lang

uages

Vouchers

pecimen

Frequenc

yof

mentio

nPlan

tpart

used

Metho

dof

prep

aration

Musa

paradisia

caMusaceae

Herbaceou

sTw

iBrod

eNzemaBa

nnaG

aAmadaa

PA19U

GSO

PGH17

1Leaves

Theleavesa

rebo

iledanddrank

asrequ

ired

Nephrolepis

cordifolia

Nephrolepidaceae

TwiMm120576n

PA20U

GSO

PGH17

1Leaves

Theleavesa

remacerated

andthe


orinhaled

Theleavesc

anbe

boiledandthe

extractedliq

uidused

asab

athing

liquid

Occim

umgratissim

umLamiaceae

Shrub

EweBa

busuiDzeveti

GaSuluT

wi

Onu

numN

unum

AsanteNun

um

Ga-Dan

gmeSuluH

ausa

Dardo

yatagidiN

zemaAmalokoWassa

Aprim

Fan

teO

nunu

m

PA21U

GSO

PGH17

3Leaves

Theleavesa

rebo

iledanddrank

asrequ

ired

Passiflora

edulis

Passifloraceae

Passionfruittree

PA22U

GSO

PGH17

2Leaves

Flow

ers

FruitLeaves

Boiling

grin

ding

Persea

america

naLauraceae

Tree

Dan

gmePayaT

wiPeeAkan

Paya

Pae

PA23U

GSO

PGH17

1Freshand

driedleaves


the

either

thefreshdrie

dleaves

and

drankas

requ

ired

FantePae

Phyllantus

nurir

iEu

phob

iaceae

Herbaceou

sTw

iAw

ommaguw

akyiE

weLane

Krobo

OfobiokpaiOfobiG

aOmatsoatsi

PA24U

GSO

PGH17

1

Rauw

olfia

vomito

ria

Apocyn

aceae

Shrub

TwiKa

kapenp

enEweDod

emakpo

woe

FanteKa

kapenp

enG

a-Dan

gme

ApototsoH

ausaW

adaNzema

BakapembeneW

assaA

neene

PA25U

GSO

PGH17

7Ro

ots

Ther

ootsareb

oiledandthe

extracto


then

ose

Rubu

sfru

ticosus

Rosaceae

Bram

ble

PA26U

GSO

PGH17

1Be

rries

leaves

and

flowe

rs

Blenddryleaves

andmixwith

honey

Scoparia

dulcis

Scroph

ulariaceae

PA27U

GSO

PGH17

1-

-

Sida

acuta

Malvaceae

Branchlets

EweAfid

emeGaShwo

botoT

wi

Obraneatuto

PA28U

GSO

PGH17

1Leaves

Theleavesa

rebo

iledanddrank

asrequ

ired

Tapina

nthu

sglo

bifer

rus

Loranthaceae

ParasiticTree

Twink

ranp

anMoleWelebe

PA29U

GSO

PGH17

2Leavesstem

Theleavesste

mareb

oiledand

theliquidob

taineddrank

asrequ

ired

Term

inalia

catapa

Com

bretaceae

abrfo

nkate120576

PA30U

GSO

PGH17

1Yello

wed

leaves

Theleavesa

rebo

iledandthe

liquiddrankas

requ

ired

Tetra

pleura

tetra

ptera

Fabaceae

Tree


teZ

amturi

Any

iAp

rekeseK

yekeFan

teE

semE

we

Prekese

PA31U

GSO

PGH17

1Seed

Thes

eeds

areg

roun

dandthe

liquidextractd

rank

asrequ

ired

Vernonia

amygdalin

aAste

raceae

Shrub

GaTatsoAkp

aDagba

niB

iebing

ira

EweGbo

Gbo

tiAsanteMbo

nasere

Mpo

nasereN

zemaAy

eanw

ole

Ga-Dan

gmeTatsh

o

PA32U

GSO

PGH17

1Leaves


the

either

thefreshdrie

dleaves

and

drankas

requ

ired


0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

Rauw

olfia

vom

itoria

Khay

a se

nega

lensis

Ager

atum

cony

zoid

es

Blig

hia

uniju

gata

Cassi

a oc

ciden

talis

Lant

ana

cam

ara

Ocim

um gr

atiss

imum

Num

ber o

f tim

es sp

ecie

s was

men

tione

d




4 Discussion

























5 Conclusion


Abbreviations



Data Availability




Acknowledgments



References








































































































of




Disease Markers



OncologyJournal of





PPAR Research



Volume 2018


Journal of

ObesityJournal of




















ble4Con

tinued

Species

Family

Growth

form

sLo

caln

ames

indiffe

rent

lang

uages

Vouchers

pecimen

Frequenc

yof

mentio

nPlan

tpart

used

Metho

dof

prep

aration

Musa

paradisia

caMusaceae

Herbaceou

sTw

iBrod

eNzemaBa

nnaG

aAmadaa

PA19U

GSO

PGH17

1Leaves

Theleavesa

rebo

iledanddrank

asrequ

ired

Nephrolepis

cordifolia

Nephrolepidaceae

TwiMm120576n

PA20U

GSO

PGH17

1Leaves

Theleavesa

remacerated

andthe


orinhaled

Theleavesc

anbe

boiledandthe

extractedliq

uidused

asab

athing

liquid

Occim

umgratissim

umLamiaceae

Shrub

EweBa

busuiDzeveti

GaSuluT

wi

Onu

numN

unum

AsanteNun

um

Ga-Dan

gmeSuluH

ausa

Dardo

yatagidiN

zemaAmalokoWassa

Aprim

Fan

teO

nunu

m

PA21U

GSO

PGH17

3Leaves

Theleavesa

rebo

iledanddrank

asrequ

ired

Passiflora

edulis

Passifloraceae

Passionfruittree

PA22U

GSO

PGH17

2Leaves

Flow

ers

FruitLeaves

Boiling

grin

ding

Persea

america

naLauraceae

Tree

Dan

gmePayaT

wiPeeAkan

Paya

Pae

PA23U

GSO

PGH17

1Freshand

driedleaves


the

either

thefreshdrie

dleaves

and

drankas

requ

ired

FantePae

Phyllantus

nurir

iEu

phob

iaceae

Herbaceou

sTw

iAw

ommaguw

akyiE

weLane

Krobo

OfobiokpaiOfobiG

aOmatsoatsi

PA24U

GSO

PGH17

1

Rauw

olfia

vomito

ria

Apocyn

aceae

Shrub

TwiKa

kapenp

enEweDod

emakpo

woe

FanteKa

kapenp

enG

a-Dan

gme

ApototsoH

ausaW

adaNzema

BakapembeneW

assaA

neene

PA25U

GSO

PGH17

7Ro

ots

Ther

ootsareb

oiledandthe

extracto


then

ose

Rubu

sfru

ticosus

Rosaceae

Bram

ble

PA26U

GSO

PGH17

1Be

rries

leaves

and

flowe

rs

Blenddryleaves

andmixwith

honey

Scoparia

dulcis

Scroph

ulariaceae

PA27U

GSO

PGH17

1-

-

Sida

acuta

Malvaceae

Branchlets

EweAfid

emeGaShwo

botoT

wi

Obraneatuto

PA28U

GSO

PGH17

1Leaves

Theleavesa

rebo

iledanddrank

asrequ

ired

Tapina

nthu

sglo

bifer

rus

Loranthaceae

ParasiticTree

Twink

ranp

anMoleWelebe

PA29U

GSO

PGH17

2Leavesstem

Theleavesste

mareb

oiledand

theliquidob

taineddrank

asrequ

ired

Term

inalia

catapa

Com

bretaceae

abrfo

nkate120576

PA30U

GSO

PGH17

1Yello

wed

leaves

Theleavesa

rebo

iledandthe

liquiddrankas

requ

ired

Tetra

pleura

tetra

ptera

Fabaceae

Tree


teZ

amturi

Any

iAp

rekeseK

yekeFan

teE

semE

we

Prekese

PA31U

GSO

PGH17

1Seed

Thes

eeds

areg

roun

dandthe

liquidextractd

rank

asrequ

ired

Vernonia

amygdalin

aAste

raceae

Shrub

GaTatsoAkp

aDagba

niB

iebing

ira

EweGbo

Gbo

tiAsanteMbo

nasere

Mpo

nasereN

zemaAy

eanw

ole

Ga-Dan

gmeTatsh

o

PA32U

GSO

PGH17

1Leaves


the

either

thefreshdrie

dleaves

and

drankas

requ

ired


0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

Rauw

olfia

vom

itoria

Khay

a se

nega

lensis

Ager

atum

cony

zoid

es

Blig

hia

uniju

gata

Cassi

a oc

ciden

talis

Lant

ana

cam

ara

Ocim

um gr

atiss

imum

Num

ber o

f tim

es sp

ecie

s was

men

tione

d




4 Discussion

























5 Conclusion


Abbreviations



Data Availability




Acknowledgments



References








































































































of




Disease Markers



OncologyJournal of





PPAR Research



Volume 2018


Journal of

ObesityJournal of




















0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

Rauw

olfia

vom

itoria

Khay

a se

nega

lensis

Ager

atum

cony

zoid

es

Blig

hia

uniju

gata

Cassi

a oc

ciden

talis

Lant

ana

cam

ara

Ocim

um gr

atiss

imum

Num

ber o

f tim

es sp

ecie

s was

men

tione

d




4 Discussion

























5 Conclusion


Abbreviations



Data Availability




Acknowledgments



References








































































































of




Disease Markers



OncologyJournal of





PPAR Research



Volume 2018


Journal of

ObesityJournal of




































5 Conclusion


Abbreviations



Data Availability




Acknowledgments



References








































































































of




Disease Markers



OncologyJournal of





PPAR Research



Volume 2018


Journal of

ObesityJournal of
























5 Conclusion


Abbreviations



Data Availability




Acknowledgments



References








































































































of




Disease Markers



OncologyJournal of





PPAR Research



Volume 2018


Journal of

ObesityJournal of




















References








































































































of




Disease Markers



OncologyJournal of





PPAR Research



Volume 2018


Journal of

ObesityJournal of

























































































of




Disease Markers



OncologyJournal of





PPAR Research



Volume 2018


Journal of

ObesityJournal of

























































of




Disease Markers



OncologyJournal of





PPAR Research



Volume 2018


Journal of

ObesityJournal of

























of




Disease Markers



OncologyJournal of





PPAR Research



Volume 2018


Journal of

ObesityJournal of























of




Disease Markers



OncologyJournal of





PPAR Research



Volume 2018


Journal of

ObesityJournal of



















Documents

Medicinal Plants Used in the Treatment of Mental and