U.S. Government APCurrent Events Assignment

AP Government students must remain cognizant of current events and issues that may affect public policy. There are numerous sources that will enable you to develop an interest in the everyday issues related to government interests and issues and assist you in your preparation for the AP Exam. You are to collect 20 political articles. Summarize and analyze each article in a least one paragraph. Be sure to document the source, date and author, if available.

NewspapersThe Charlotte ObserverNew York TimesUSA TodayWashington Post

Television Programs *Several Political Talk Shows Appear on CNN, MSNBC, and FOX News networks

--Meet the Press --Sean Hannity --This Week --The O’Reilly Report--Face the Nation --Huckabee--Fox News Sunday --Nightline--Washington Week in Review --Glenn Beck --Late Edition --Your World with Neil Cavuto--Rachel Maddow --Keith Olberman -Countdown--The McLaughlin Group --Capital Report--Crossfire --Hardball--C-Span

Magazines --Newsweek--Time--US News and World Report

Media Assignment

Instructions: Display your understanding of the Media and Politics using an outline or graphic organizers.

1. What If…. The Media had to reveal all of their sources?2. Media’s Functions3. History4. Television5. The Media and Political Campaigns6. The Media and the Government7. Government Regulation of the Media8. Bias in the Media9. Key Terms

LEARNING OBJECTIVESAfter students have read and studied this chapter, they should be able to: Identify the major functions performed by the mass media in our society, including

entertainment, reporting news, identifying public problems, socializing new generations, and providing a political forum.

Trace the historical development of the press from the colonial period to modern electronic media:

o A partisan press.o Development of mass-readership newspapers.o The popular press and yellow journalism.o The advent of radio and TV.o The appearance of cable TV and the Internet.

Discuss campaign advertising, “spin,” and the presidential debates. Describe the relationship between the First Amendment protection of freedom of the press

and government’s regulation of the media. Explain the media’s impact on politics, both on electoral politics and the investigative

reporting of the government. Describe different forms of alleged bias in the media.

TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION

Ask students to watch entertainment TV for one evening in an objective manner, recording all references to societal issues or problems. Do TV programs appear to be attempting to influence public opinion?

How has the role of media evolved in recent times? What topics are more likely to receive national news coverage? Why is this so?

Why are First Amendment protections so important? Do you support any limitations on First Amendment protections? What about television or radio shows that incite violence or demonstrate hate? Should these shows be limited? Who should get to decide what is acceptable? Why is this important?

What kinds of bias do you see in the media? What are some examples?

BEYOND THE BOOKAs an example of the media’s investigative function, consider the investigation conducted by

Washington Post reporters Bob Woodward and Carl Bernstein. Their reporting uncovered high-level Nixon administration misconduct, thus prompting President Nixon’s resignation in 1974. Have your students read All the President’s Men or watch Alan Pakula’s film version of the book with Robert Redford, Dustin Hoffman and Jason Robards.

Despite such celebrated incidents, the dirty little secret of the press is the extent to which news stories are actually rewritten press releases. In the smaller media markets, the releases are often not even greatly revised. The overwhelming majority of all news is created by someone and fed to the media. Very little is initiated by the media itself through investigative reporting or other means. To an extent, the media’s true power rests in its ability to choose which news releases it considers important. Statements made by major figures such as the president are always important, however. This allows top officials to place false information into circulation that may have a political effect even if media commentators point out that the information is in fact false. You could ask your students for examples of this. Politically active students of either party will probably be able to respond with examples of such misleading information put in circulation by the other party!

The Telecommunications Act of 1996 provided for certain means by which the government could regulate the media. It mandated that television manufacturers include a “V-chip” in each set that can be used by parents to block programs that include sex or violence. Another provision of the act prohibited the transmission of “indecent or patently offensive” material through the Internet. The courts have ruled this component unconstitutional, however. Should the Court be willing to relax its application of the First Amendment so that Congress can more effectively address this matter?

CHAPTER OUTLINE

The media provide the public with information. Our understanding of reporting is based on newspapers, long the dominant form. Today, however, TV has a much greater role.I. The Media’s Functions

A. Entertainment. Many current political issues are reflected in entertainment shows. While the purpose is to entertain the public, these programs can stimulate public discussion of important issues. For example, the television show The West Wing often focuses on public policy debates.

B. Reporting the News. In a democracy the public must be informed about issues that will affect them. The media must serve as the eyes and the ears of the public if it is to be informed about important issues related to the governing process.

C. Identifying Public Problems. Identifying public problems occurs in two ways. The media sets the public agenda by identifying public problems and serving as a forum for various policy alternatives. The primacy of certain issues follows from the importance that the media places on these issues. The media also uses investigation to uncover wrongdoing by government officials or candidates.

D. Socializing New Generations. This occurs by the transmission of historical information that is important for the continuation of the political culture. This function is particularly important in the socialization of immigrants and of children who “learn to be American” through the transmission of values by television.

E. Providing a Political Forum. Officeholders attempt to gain support for policies. Politicians use the media to generate interest in their campaigns, and voters also express their opinions through the media. An important example of this is the “letters to the editor” section of newspapers.

F. Making Profits. Most of the news media are private for-profit enterprises. Making a profit is a major (if not the major) goal of the business. Most revenue comes from selling advertising. The price charged for advertising is based on the circulation (print media) or the size of the audience (electronic media). The dependence on advertising revenue can give advertisers undue influence. An alternative form is public broadcasting, but this medium is also dependent on subsidies from corporations and governments.

II. A History of the Media in the United StatesThe role of the media has increased drastically from what it was during our nation’s founding. Part of the early media’s weakness was its inability to rapidly move information around the vast area of the country. Of course, the media was crucial at certain points in our early history. Publications such as The Federalist Papers and Common Sense were very important to the development of the nation.A. The Rise of the Political Press. The rise of the political press began with the founding

of the nation. President Washington set a somewhat dubious example by advocating managed news, information generated and distributed by the government in such a way as to give government interests priority over candor. Most papers at this time were

affiliated with partisan factions. Some periodicals were even subsidized by the government.

B. The Development of Mass-Readership Newspapers. Technological changes had a major impact on the development of mass readership of the printed media. The development of the high-speed rotary press allowed newspapers to publish in volume at lower costs. With the increase in circulation came a growth in advertising. The telegraph added impact by promoting the rapid flow of information between widely separated locations.

C. The Popular Press and Yellow Journalism. The rapid rise in readership led to fierce competition in the popular press. To attract more readers, the press sought stories that were exciting. Sensationalistic articles attracted a large audience. This sensationalism became known as “yellow journalism.” In addition, newspaper owners in this period frequently used their power to bias the reportage toward their own beliefs.

D. The Age of the Electromagnetic Signal. The electromagnetic signal greatly transformed the media in the twentieth century. Information could now be transmitted from almost anywhere on the globe if individuals had the right equipment. This allowed the print media to obtain information about global events and report to their readers within hours.

E. The Revolution in the Electronic Media. The revolution of the electronic media has not ended. Cable television, which is available in most areas, has greatly increased the choices viewers have. Channels are devoted to nonstop news (CNN, MSNBC, Fox News) and to the operation of the government (C-Span). These types of options allow the public access to detailed information about world events and the operation of the government. Conversely, the public may choose to tune out events that used to be carried by all stations, like the national conventions, the State of the Union address, and presidential press conferences. Broadcasting is increasingly tailored to specialized audiences, a development called narrowcasting.

F. Talk-Show Politics and Internet Broadcasting. Radio and television “talk” shows also have proven to be a rapidly growing format for political information. Dominated by conservatives, talk show listeners are self-selected and typically share the host’s viewpoint or ideology.

G. The Internet, Blogging and Podcasting. Another growing electronic means of communication is the Internet, which allows individuals to communicate ideas and opinions instantaneously. Many traditional media outlets have begun using the Internet as a way of reaching viewers/users. Political campaigns will almost inevitably have at least one Web site. Web logs, or blogs, provide numerous forums for political commentary. News organizations have also begun using podcasting as a way of distributing their programs, allowing for downloading onto mobile devices or personal computers.

III. The Primacy of TelevisionCurrently the most influential type of media is television. A. The Increase in News-Type Programming. In 1963, the major networks devoted only

eleven minutes a day to national news (a 15-minute show minus ad time). Today that is up to about three hours. Many all-news channels are also available.

B. Television’s Influence on the Political Process. Viewers can actually see news and history as it is happening. The collapse of the Twin Towers of the World Trade Center was transmitted live to viewers in the United States and throughout the rest of the world. It is very difficult for the print media or the radio media to compete effectively with this type of television. Most people indicate that their primary source for news is television. By its nature, television news concentrates on stories that are highly visual. A subject like Congress is not very photogenic. Also, television news may tell its stories in a rather superficial manner, failing to provide the context the viewer needs for a full understanding of complex issues.

IV. The Media and Political CampaignsThe media have a major impact on political campaigns Voters now receive most information from the electronic media, especially television. Campaigns seek to use the media in three broad areas: advertisement, management of news coverage, and campaign debates.A. Advertising. Paid-for political announcements (advertising) are the most obvious of the

methods to reach potential voters. Increasingly these brief messages are negative attacks on the opposition. While many voters have complained about negative campaigns, research indicates that such messages are effective. Even when advertisements are not attacks on the opposition, time constraints dictate that messages will be superficial and will not delve deeply into substantive policy positions. Completing the symbiotic relationship is the reality that television gains extraordinary revenues from the barrage of political advertisements.

B. Management of News Coverage. Unlike ads, news coverage is free. Instead of letting the media determine what is important in the campaign, the campaign staff attempts to manipulate the media into presenting “news” in a fashion that is favorable to the candidate. This can be accomplished by: Planning political events to accommodate the press (for example, a candidate

stages an event early in the day to be included in the evening news broadcast). Developing a good working relationship with reporters. Convincing the media to put the right “spin” or interpretation on a story.

C. Going for the Knockout Punch—Presidential Debates. Debates between the candidates offer voters the opportunity to see and hear the candidates in a controlled setting. In the past, not all presidential candidates were willing to debate. If an incumbent was significantly ahead of the challenger, the incumbent had nothing to gain by debating. Today, presidential debates have become such a fixture it would be hard for an

incumbent to duck them. Typically, the way the candidates behave and present themselves matters much more than the policy details that are debated. Debates do not always affect the outcome of an election, but sometimes they are crucial. In the first-ever such debate, John Kennedy appeared poised on television, while Richard Nixon appeared sweaty and bothered. Al Gore may have damaged himself in the debates of 2000 by appearing arrogant. In 2004, George W. Bush developed a commanding lead over John Kerry in the days before the first debate. Bush did poorly in the first debate and his body language seemed to indicate that he was shaken by Kerry’s criticisms. Kerry, on the other hand, was calm and collected. After the debates were over, Bush’s lead was gone and the election was again too close to call.

D. Political Campaigns and the Internet. In recent campaigns, the Internet has played an increasingly prominent role, as candidates use Web sites to convey their messages as well as solicit contributions. Howard Dean used the Internet to take an early lead in the quest for the Democratic nomination. The Internet also has been a useful tool for voters, with one study reporting that one-fifth of voters used the Internet to obtain information about elections.

E. The Media’s Impact on the Voters. A limitation on the media’s impact is that many viewers pay selective attention and mostly notice coverage that confirms their own beliefs. Also, the media’s focus on the “horse-race” aspects of the contest gives short shrift to the issues.

V. The Media and the GovernmentBy focusing attention on controversial actions, the media can sometimes pressure the government into changing course.A. Prepackaged News. One of the more cynical and Orwellian uses of the media is the

Bush Administration’s creation of pieces supporting its policies that are staged to look like news programs. In addition, the Bush Administration paid conservative commentator Armstrong Williams $240,000 to write in support of administration programs.

B. The Media and the Presidency. The relationship between the media and the presidency is symbiotic, each needing the other to accomplish major objectives. The media needs news and the president needs to report his ideas to the public to gain public support. The White House Press Corps maintains a full-time presence at the White House, and is frequently briefed by the president’s press secretary. Before radio, the only way for a governmental official to reach the public was in person or through the print media. Franklin Roosevelt became the first president to make extensive and effective use of radio to sell his programs to the public. Every president since FDR has used the electronic media to gain public support for specific proposals.

C. Setting the Public Agenda. The media helps to determine the public agenda by focusing attention on certain issues. In this capacity, the media communicates the government’s point of view to the public and the public’s views to the government.

VI. Government Regulation of the MediaThe government has far more control over the broadcast media than it does over print. The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) exercises this power.A. Controlling Ownership of the Media. The Telecommunications Act of 1996 enabled

telephone companies to enter cable businesses and other communications markets, resulting in the growth of media and communications conglomerates. 1. Media Conglomerates. Corporate conglomerates now own all of the major

networks.2. Increased Media Concentration. In 2002, the FCC sought to relax the rules

restricting concentrated ownership of the media. In particular, the FCC would have let one company own both the newspaper and a TV station in a given market. Opposition to the new rules was great and Congress swiftly forced the FCC to cancel them. With this media concentration has come the gradual disappearance of coverage of local and regional issues.

B. Government Control of Content. The Supreme Court did not extend First Amendment protection to the cinema until 1952. The Internet received such protection almost immediately, however. Cable TV received broad protection in 2000.1. Control of Broadcasting. The Court has never extended full protection to broadcast

radio and TV. Therefore, the FCC can regulate “indecency” or “profanity.” In 2004, the FCC levied much higher fines for such offenses than in past years.

2. Government Control of the Media During the Second Gulf War. The Bush administration was able to win a degree of favorable coverage by letting journalists travel with the troops as “embedded” reporters.

3. The Government’s Attempt to Control the Media During the Current War on Terrorism. In the wake of 9/11 the government has asserted a greater need to place limits on the release of information that could be used by terrorists and other enemies of our nation.

C. The Public’s Right to Media AccessAs a result of agreements with local governments, most cable systems provide public access channels that are available for free use by ordinary citizens. The courts have ruled that these broadcasts have full First Amendment protection.

VII. Bias in the MediaThere are claims that several forms of bias exist in the media.A. Do the Media Have a Partisan Bias? People on both sides of the political spectrum

claim that the media has an ideological or partisan bias. Some claim that the media is dominated by left-leaning reporters and editors who favor liberal elected officials, candidates and policies. Others find the press to have an economically conservative bias.

B. A Commercial Bias? Many believe that the real bias of the media is not partisan or ideological, but rather, in favor of stories that will produce big ratings and increased advertising revenues.

VIII. FeaturesA. What If . . . The Media Had to Reveal All of Their Sources?

Such a move would have an adverse impact on the willingness of their sources to come forward with important information, resulting in a less informed public. On the other hand, some predict that the reporters would find alternative avenues for presenting this information in such a way, such as through blogs, to avoid a judicial order to reveal sources.

B. Which Side Are You On? Are Internet Campaigns the Wave of the Future?The Internet is great for raising money and mobilizing activists. Attack ads on the Internet are far nastier than would be allowed on TV. The Internet is also a productive source of false rumors. One thing it is relatively useless for is get-out-the-vote drives.

C. Beyond Our Borders: Government Controlled Media AbroadThe protection offered to the media in the United States is the exception rather than the rule. Nations such as Iran, China, Russia and North Korea restrict political debate and commentary, forbid criticism of the state and frequently operate the media as an arm of the government.

D. Politics and Diversity—Racial Profiling in the Media.A complaint by minority leaders is that poor or criminal persons are too often represented by African Americans and other minority group members. Muslim Americans have complained that they are only depicted as terrorists. The growing diversity on newsroom staffs may help counteract these problems.

Burns:

Lecture Notes:

A. The media helps to determine the public agenda by focusing attention on certain issues. In this capacity, the media communicates the governmental officials’ point of view for the benefit of the public, and, conversely, helps the government understand society’s point of view.

B. While the media in the United States is one of the least regulated institutions of its type anywhere in the world, the government does regulate some aspects of the media. Such regulations must not abridge the freedom of the press clause of the First Amendment. There is a major distinction between the printed media and the broadcast media. The government does not regulate the print media as much as it regulates the broadcast media. Supreme Court decisions have indicated that any person can start a newspaper, but in order to broadcast news, an individual must have

the permission of the government. The government can therefore place some restrictions on the broadcast media that it cannot place on the print media.

C. The Telecommunications Act of 1996 provided for other means by which the government could regulate the media. It mandated that television manufacturers include a “V-chip” in each set that can be used by parents to block programs that include sex or violence. Another provision of the Act prohibited the transmission of “indecent or patently offensive” material via the Internet. Two federal district courts ruled this component unconstitutional.

D. The broadcasting industry has eliminated the need for the government to control the content of the media by establishing its own voluntary code of content. This code regulates content of violence, nudity, profanity and sex in television shows.

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This chapter focuses on the role of the media in politics. It begins with a review of the news media’s historical development and the current trends in reporting. The chapter chronicles the switch from a partisan to an objective press, examining issues of press freedom and conformity. The final section indicates what roles the news media can and cannot be expected to adequately perform in the American political system. The chapter ends with a discussion on the relationship between the media and the public in the modern age. The main points in this chapter are:

The American press was initially tied to the nation’s political party system (the partisan press) but gradually developed an independent position (the objective press). In the process, the news shifted from a political orientation, which emphasized political values and ideas, to journalistic orientation, which stresses newsworthy information and evaluations.

Although the United States has thousands of separate news organizations, they present a common version of the news which reflects journalists’ shared view of what the news is. Freedom of the press in the United States does not result in a robust marketplace of ideas.

In fulfilling its responsibility to provide public information, the news media capably perform three significant roles—those of signaler (the press brings relevant events and problems into public view), common carrier (the press serves as a channel through which political leaders can address the public), and watchdog (the press scrutinizes official behavior for evidence of deceitful, careless, or corrupt acts). These roles are within the news media’s capacity because they fit with the values, incentives, and accountability of the press.

The press cannot do the job of political institutions, even through it sometimes tries to do so. The nature of journalism is incompatible with the characteristics required for the role of public representative.

The chapter’s opening section shows how the media are concerned mainly with the dramatic story that is also timely and compelling. The Monica Lewinsky scandal preoccupied the media while other key social problems, such as the impending Social Security crisis, are hardly mentioned by the press.

In the nation’s first century, the press was allied closely with the political parties and helped in parties to mobilize public opinion (see the early roles of Hamilton and Jefferson). Gradually, the press freed itself from this relationship and developed a form of reporting, promoted by Adolph Ochs of the New York Times and known as objective journalism, that emphasized the fair and accurate reporting of newsworthy developments. The foundations of modern American news now rest on the presentation and evaluation of significant events, not on the advocacy of partisan ideas. The development of the news media in the twentieth century has continued with the advent of radio and then television, which created a truly national media in the United States and has affected the presentation and delivery of the news. Most recently, the growth of the Internet has provided citizens with a new and easier access to means of political communication.

The nation’s news organizations do not differ greatly in their reporting. The reasons behind this include pack journalism, groupthink, and media concentration, as seen in the recent growth of the "megamedia" conglomerates. However, an underlying reason is that reporters do not take partisan sides. Also, news production is concentrated (radio with "canned news," the role of the Associated Press, and the domination of the six television networks). Finally, the competitive pressures not to be different, the face pace of journalism, and shared professional values all contribute to this pervasive uniformity. The development of megamedia also has reduced the resources devoted to the news and created an emphasis on "soft" news programming.

The press performs four basic roles in a free society. In their signaler role, journalists communicate information to the public about events and problems that they consider important, relevant, and therefore newsworthy. Within this role, the media focuses the public’s attention on what to think about, and so engage in agenda setting. As an example, note the chapter’s point about the media’s stress on the crime issue and the public’s increased sensitivity to the problem during the 1993-1994 time frame. The press also serves as a common carrier, in that it provides political leaders with a channel for addressing the public. (See the OLC audio, "The Nixon-Kennedy Debates," at www.mhhe.com/patterson5.) Journalists cultivate ties to leaders but also are less deferential to them when compared to the past. Third, the press acts as a public protector or watchdog by

exposing deceitful, careless, or corrupt officials. In recent years, this had led to greater degree of negative press and media criticism of leaders. Scandals such as Iran-Contra and Watergate have contributed to this trend. But in general, the American media can and, to a significant degree, do perform these roles adequately; nevertheless, the public’s confidence in the media has declined in recent years. (See the OLC simulation, "News Media," at www.mhhe.com/patterson5.)

The press is less well suited, however, to the other role it plays, that of public representative. This role requires a consistent political viewpoint and public accountability, neither of which the press possesses. In particular, the media do not wish to represent political values or choice. This commitment to impartiality is quite different from the attitudes held by journalists in other democratic nations. The media cannot be substituted for effective political institutions nor can it create an organized community. The press’s strength lies ultimately in its capacity to inform the public, not in its claims to represent the people.

Ch. 10 The Media and American Politics

Americans spend on average an hour a day consuming news. As people grow older, they devote even more time to the news. In the last decade, many Americans believe that the news media have become too arrogant, cynical, scandal-minded, and destructive.

The content and style of news coverage is driven by market research in which viewers and readers are asked what they want to see reported and how they want it presented.

Media bashing has become a national past time. People often blame the media for many of our ills—for increasing tension between the races, biased attacks upon public officials, sleaze and sensationalism—and for being more interested in making money than conveying information.

Ch. 10 The Media and American Politics

Media bashing has become a national pastime. People often blame the media for many of our ills—increasing tension between the races, biased attacks upon public officials, sleaze, and sensationalism—and for being more interested in making money than in conveying information.

The media is often called the fourth state and the fourth branch of government.

Mass media - means of communication that reach the mass public. The mass media include newspaper and magazines, radio, television (broadcast, cable, and satellite), films, recordings, books, and electronic communication.

News media that part of the mass media that emphasizes the newse.g. 60 Minutes, 20/20, Dateline, Larry King, Oprah Winfrey, Chris Matthews, and Geraldo Rivera

Until 1960 most people got their news from newspapers. Today they rely on television, although there are several other sources. Whenever there is a crisis, Iraq, elections, and impeachment—find people in tuned to TV sets.

The internet is becoming an increasingly important source of news for Americans, taking its place alongside print, radio, and television.

The Pervasiveness of TelevisionThe average American watches 4.3 hours per day, almost homes have at least two sets. In politics, people rely on television to learn more about candidates and issues, news images, slogans sometimes overshadow substance. Interest groups advocating one position or another—health care, trade agreements, affirmative action—also use paid advertising on television and radio to influence voters.

Issue ads commercial advertising on radio and television advocating a particular position on an issue, paid for by interest groups and often designed influence voters’ choice on election day.

The Persistence of RadioNetwork news and rise of cable television have not displaced radio On the contrary, radio continues to reach more American households than does television. Nine of 10 Americans listen to the radio every day, especially in cars. Talk show hosts like Rush Limbaugh, Alan Keyes, Michael Reagan, G. Gordon Liddy, and liberals Mary Mason, Tom Leykis, or Mario Cuomo. Candidates and Politicians appear as guests and make widespread use of promoting themselves and their ideas.

Newspapers See Critics’ Choice and Public’s Choice p. 228There has been a rise of nationwide newspapers. The Wall Street Journal 1.7 million in circulation—business and finance, USA Today created in 1982 1.6 million, The New York Times 1 million . But the figures mask a troubling decline in readership among younger persons. The fear is the newspaper value and importance will decline as their readers die off.

WWWThe internet began as a Pentagon research project in the 1970s the Web has blossomed into an international phenomenon. There are over 1 billion documents on the Web and 15 million unique domains registered worldwide. Americans search the internet for various topics, including stock quotes and sports scores.

In politics, learn about candidates and positions in an inexpensive way. It also helps to raise money quickly and inexpersively.

The Changing Role of American News MediaAlexander Hamilton and Thomas Jefferson had newspapers to write and support them and their positions that competed for several years. This began the nucleus of competing newspaper networks throughout the nation. The early American press served as a mouthpiece for political leaders.

The Jacksonian era of the 1820s and 1830s was characterized by expansion of the right to vote to all white adult males through the elimination of property qualifications for voting. The press began to shift its appeal away from elite readers and toward large masses of less well educated and less politically interested readers. The popularization of newspapers and the rise in literacy altered the relationship between politicians and the press. Newspapers began to experiment with a new way to finance newspapers charging a penny, paid on delivery, instead of the annual subscription fee of $8 to $10

THE INFLUENCE OF THE MEDIA ON POLITICS The media has been referred to as the fourth state or the fourth branch of government. The media does influence our culture and politics.

Mass media means of communication that reach the mass public. The mass media include newspaper and magazines, radio, television (broadcast, cable, and satellite) films, recordings, books, and electronic communication.

News media that part of the mass media that emphasizes the news. 60 Minutes, 20/20, Dateline, and talk shows with Larry King, Oprah Winfrey, Chris Matthews and Geraldo Rivera.

As the media disseminates information to large numbers of people, it is big business bringing in lots of money.

Is the media pervasive and what is the role as a linking mechanism between politicians and government officials and the public?

Where do Americans get their news? Newspapers #1 until 1960 but television is the primary source today. The internet is fast becoming a key source of informationAnd radio is a source as well but not as popular as others.

Issue ad commercial advertising on radio and television advocating a particular position on an issue, paid for by interest groups and often designed to influence voters’choices on election day

The Changing Role of American News MediaPolitical Mouthpiece The press has long served as a mouthpiece for political parties and leaders.

Financial Independence Newspapers initially targeted a well-educated and affluent readership but over time the lowered prices, shifted from subscription to payment upon delivery, which expanded circulation and place more emphasis on advertising and it enabled newspapers to become financially independent of political parties. But overtime the penny press reshaped the definition of news as it sought to appeal to less politically aware readers with human interest stories and reports on sports, crime, public trials, and social activities.

“Objective Journalism”The media should be independent of the political parties. That gives the profession respectability. Neutrality it is assumed attracts more customers

The Impact of Broadcasting Radio and television changed the media’s role in politics by nationalizing and personalizing the news. Radio networks were created in the 1920s and radio carried political speeches, campaign advertising, and coverage of political events such as national party conventions. On the radio people (personality, leaders, and politicians) speak directly to the people. FDR used radio with great effectiveness. He spoke to the listeners on a personal level almost one on one in format in the fireside chats.

Television added a new and visual dimension news as increased from 15 minutes slots to 90 minutes with the possibility of 24 hour news alerts and so on with modern day cable television. During the impeachment trial of Clinton and the 2000 Campaign fiasco cable news was watched at home and around the world.

Investigatory Journalism Journalists not only report the news but investigate it. The Pentagon Papers on how the US became involved in the Vietnam War, Journalist Robert Woodward and Carl Bernstein of the Washington Post exposed Watergate, Nina Totenburg’s of National Public Radio whose reporting on sexual harassment charges against Clarence Thomas helped force the Senate Judiciary Committee to extend the hearings on his confirmation to the US Supreme Court; Michael Isikoff of Newsweek who broke the story of Bill Clinton’s alleged perjury involving sexual relations with Monica Lewinsky

Media ConglomeratesNewspapers and television are big business and media companies have merged with others and created conglomerates. The Gannett Corporation, for example, owns 87 daily newspapers and 21 television stations and cable television systems. The Chicago Tribune substantially expanded its reach of newspaper and television stations when it paid $6 billion for Times/Mirror, publisher of Los Angeles Times, and 10 other newspapers, 22 TV stations, 4 radio stations, and a growing online business. The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) permits one owner to control up to 30 AM and 30 FM radio stations.

Large corporations and foreign interests are gobbling up communication assets. Disney merger with ABC/Capital Cities ESPN. Westinghouse Company bought the CBS network, CBS merged with Viacom. Time Warner purchased Turner Broadcasting System which was later purchased by America OnLine for $165 billion. Australian Rubert Murdoch founder of the Fox network who owns 22 television stations in the United States, the Family Channel, and 20th Century Fox. Murdoch also owns HarperCollins and TV Guide magazine which has the largest magazine circulation in America. Regulation of the Media-fairness doctrine Doctrine interpreted by the Federal Communications Commission that imposed on radio and television licensees an obligation to ensure that different viewpoints were presented about controversial issues or persons; repealed in 1987Will broadcasters provide fair and balanced news coverage in the absence of regulation?

The New Mediator in American PoliticsThe media is considered a political mediators that help organize the world of politics for the average citizens. But it also speaks for the people, report what the people want and think, and then they tell the people what politicians and policy makers are doing about it. The amount of television devoted to politics is declining.

-The Media and Public Opinion FDR, Kennedy, Reagan, and others have shaped public opinion

-Factors that limit media influence on public opinion

--Political socialization political socialization the process by which we develop our political attitudes,values, and beliefs--Selectivityselective exposure the process by which individuals screen out those message that do not conform to their own biases. People subscribe to magazines and newspapers that support their views. selective perception the process by which individuals perceive what they want to in media messages and disregard the rest. For example, assess the reactions of both Democrats and Republicans to report of President Clinton’s sexual relationship with Monica Lewinsky. Differed in opinions regarding if Clinton should remain in office or not while a significant number agreed that he committed perjury under oath before the grand jury. When Atty General Janet Reno direct federal marshals and immigration authorities to use force to take Elian Gonzalez from his Miami relatives and turn them over to his father, Republicans talked about storm trooper tactics while Democrats talked about reuniting a child with his father

--Needs people seek information for knowledge and education but we also rely on the media for entertainment. Music, movies, sitcoms, but interest rates, gasoline prices,

foreign policy, and various public policy related issues. Many politically-related issues and concerns are perceived as boring or insignificant/irrelevant.

--Recall and comprehension People don’t always retain the stories and/or understand the importance of it political dialogue in particular. People pick and choose the issues they consider significant/relevant. Political interest is the best predictor of retention of news stories. People tend to fit today’s news stories into their general assumptions or beliefs about government, politicians, and the media itself. People embrace and support what they believe actively searching for affirmation, encouragement, confirmation, and validation for their own political outlook.

--Audience FragmentationThe influence of one particular media source is weakened by the growth of cable television and the internet.

Are the Media Biased?There are numerous complaints about the media. Too liberal, too conservatives, distorts the truth, takes creative license and liberties, and lacks objectivity/too opinionatedNewspapers, magazines, and television stations are business corporations concerned about profits. So they work to boost circulation and ratings, as well as please advertisers, sponsors, and stockholders. Some media companies attempt to insulate journalists with business and advertising operations. This allows journalist to be professionals, objective, informative, and enables them not to report the wishes of others with economic and political agendas. Public Opinion

--Agenda setting By calling attention to certain issues, the media help to determine what topics will become the subject of public debate and legislation. The media is a powerful and indispensable tool. People with access to the media have long used it to set the nation’s agenda and tone.

--Issue Framing Politicians like other people try to frame issues to win arguments and they try to influence the “spin” the media will give to their actions or issues. Isolationism/Intervention, Pro-Choice/Pro-Life, Balanced Budget, human rights, tax cuts, so on.

The Media and Elections

News coverage is the greatest regarding elections and campaigns during presidential contests. How the Media Affect Election? Candidates see the media as the means to communicate their message and win votes.--Choice of candidates—1930s media didn’t show FDR in his wheel chair or using braces. The public’s perception of leadership traits can be conveyed by the media. Because criticized for lack of foreign policy experience, Gore for his arrogance and

aggressive nature in debate. The media can make or break you in the manner you present yourself and/or are perceived by the people. --Campaign Events Television can be a critical tool for campaign events. In 1952, the average television set was tuned to an average of over three hours a night for 8 nights of convention coverage. The major networks provided only one or two hours prime-time coverage each evening.

--Technology has made politics more accessible to more people. Television, cable networks, internet.

Image Making Slogans are easily remembered and useful in conveying images. Radio, television, and the Web have expanded the ability to project images. The media can also emphasize mistakes, shortcomings, goofs, and gossip/tensions among political leaders and candidates.

Media Consultants television has given rise to new players in campaign politics who provide advice and services to candidates. Consultants report the result of focus groups (small groups of people who are asked questions about candidates and issues in a discussion setting. Public opinion polls which help to determine what the candidate says and does. Both enable experts to determine in advance which men and women have the right images or images that can be restyled for the widest popularity as they package candidates. See p.237 Profile of a Media Consultant

The Media and Voter Choice

--The Horse Race who’s ahead, who’s behind, who is going to win, who is going to lose. The media’s focus on the “game” of campaigns displaces/overshadows coverages of issues.

--Negative Advertising Candidates trade charges and counterchanges and avoid issues at times.

--Information about Issues issues-centered focus through what has been called civic journalism. Some newspapers have been identifying with the concerns of the community leaders and talking to ordinary voters, and writing campaign stories from their point of view. Some editors believe only newsworthy issues/events (murder and violence) should overshadow political discourse.

--Making a Decision Newspapers and tv have a tremendous influence in determining the outcome of primaries than of general election.

--Election Night Reporting in election results reporting, voters begin to believe that their vote matters

The Media and GoveranceIn most cases, the media presents an issue or topic rarely seeing it through formulation and implementation and move on to other issues. Only in the case of a policy scandal such as the lax security of nuclear secrets or heated debates or presidential scandals.

Political Institutions and the News MediaPresidents have become the stars of the media, particularly television, and have made the media their forum for setting the public agenda and achieving their legislative aims. See Presidential News Conferences with White House Correspondents p239

Congress is more likely to get negative coverage than either side. It’s so fragmented it is difficult to get a quick response and lacks an ultimate spokesperson.

Ch. 10 The Media

Enduring Questions:

1. Why do politicians worry so much about the media?2. Why do the media focus on scandal?3. Can we trust the media?4. Should people care more about getting political information?5. Why do people rely more on television than newspapers?

Public officials have a love-hate relationship with newspapers, television, and the othe media of mass communication. They depend on the media to advance their careers and policies but fear the media’s power to criticize, expose, and destroy.

The press in this country is among the freest in the world. Some democratic countries such as France and Great Britain place more restrictions on the communications media.Here television and radio are privately owned business in which individual seek to make a profit.

The Party PressIn the early years of the Republic, political factions and parties created, sponsored, and controlled newspapers to further their interests. During Washington’s Adminstration, Federalists under Hamilton created the Gazette of the United States. The Republicans, Jefferson’s camp, created the National Gazette. As president Jefferson had a hand in

establishing the National Intelligencer. Andrew Jackson, created the Washington Globe and it’s estimated that over fifty journalists were on the government payroll during this era. Citizen’s could choose among different party papers but only rarely could they find a paper that present both sides of an issue.

The Popular PressThe invention of the telegraph and rotary press made newspapers more accessible (produced faster and cheaply) and information was conveyed more rapidly.1848 the Associated Press was created--allowed telegraphic dissemination of information to newspaper editors on a systematic basis. The Government Printing Office was created in 1860 and put an end to most of the printing contracts washington newspapers had enjoyed.

Partisanship arose from the convictions of publishers and editors rather than the party sponsors. Convictions were closely connected to political beliefs and economic interests. Sensationalism was the way to attract a large readership: violence, romance, and patriotism, coupled with exposes of government, politics, business, and society. This editorial style and policy had great appeal for the average citizen especially immigrants (led by Joseph Pulitizer and William Randolph Hearst).

Spanish American War, for example, was insigated by Hearst’s newspaper stories about real and imagined Spanish brutalities whipped up public opinion in favor of intervention. When the battleship USS Maine blew up in Havana harbor, Pres. McKinley felt helpless to resist popular pressure, and war was declared in 1898.

Magazines of OpinionYeellow journalism characterized by a taste for political reform and a belief in the doctines of the progressive movement. Magazines were shifting from articles of manners and literature to issues of public policy. Nation, Atlantic Monthly, and Harper’s were among the first established circa. 1850s and 1860s. Later McClure’s, Scribner’s and Cosmopolitan. They all attempted to sway/shaped/influence public opinion in matters of regulating business (trustbusting), purifying municipal politics, and reforming the civil service system. So-called Investigative reporting

Muckraker-- a journalist who searches through the activities of public officals and organizations, especially business firms, seeking to expose conduct contrary to the public interest. Muck means manure and by extension it can refer to anything that is filthy or disgusting.

Electronic JournalismRadio emerged in the 1920s, television in the 1940s. Now public officials could speak directly to the public without their remarks filtered through editors and reporters. This gave public officials an advantage, if they were skilled enough to use it. Disadvantage of course, people could chose not to listen or watch. The media has often used politics and politicians as a way of entertaining and informing their audiences (through a process of selection, editing, and emphasis.)

Degree of CompetitionMajor cities have two central city newspapers, most cities have only one. Newspaper circulation has fallen since 1967. People now get most news from the television. Young people especially have turned away from political news. Radio and Television are intensely competitive and becoming more so. Nearly every home has both a radio and television, there are only 5 major networks but over 1000 stations. 11,000 cable TV systems, 10,000 radio stations--some broadcasts only news others developed a specialized following among blacks, Hispanics, or other minorities. Magazines exist for every conceivable interest --largely entertainment and leisure activities. News sources are vast in America--more than even dedicated readers can keep up with.

American newspapers are primarily oriented to its local market and local audience. More local news than national news, which is so very different than in other countries.

The National MediaWire services--the Associated Press and United Press International supply most of the national news local papers publish. Certain magazines--Time, Newsweek, U.S. News and World Report have national readership. Network evening news produced by ABC, NBC, CBS, carried to affiliates. CNN the Cable News Network broadcasts national news around the clock. There are only three national newspapes: Wall Street Journal, Christian Science Monitor, and USA Today, but New York Times and Washington Post have acquired national readership and influence.The national press is important for two reasons:1. Government officials in Washington pay great attention to what these media say about them and their programs2. Reporters and editors for the natioal press tend to differ from those who work for the local press. They are usually better paid than most other journalists, graduates from prestigous colleges and universities, and generally have liberal views. They write background, investigative or interpretive stories about issues and policies. The national press plays the role of gatekeeper, scorekeeper, and watchdog for the federal government.

GatekeeperIn this capacity the media can influence what subjects become national political issues and for how long. Automobile safety, water pollution, and the quality of prescription drugs have all gain attention because of the national press

ScorekeeperNational media keeps track of ahd heop make political reputations, note who is being mentioned as a presidential candidate, help decide who is winning and losing in Wash politics. Jimmy Carter virtually unknown former governor of GA cultivated members of the media and became widely known as a result. He was the subject of stories in the NY Times, Wash Post, to a greater extent than any other Democratic pres. candidate although the others were better known--Humphrey, Wallace, Henry Jackson.). The Iowa caucus, the first in the nation, is given great media attention although the state produces only a

tiny fraction of the delegates to either party’s nominating convention. Coverage received by a candidate won does well in Iowa constitutes a tremendous amount of free publicity that can help him or her in the New Hampshire primary election. Which boost the candidate up more and more for subsequent primaries. Media handles this as a horserace.

Watchdog Once the scorekeepers decide that you are the person to watch, they adopt their watchdog role. Political front-runners are now closely examined. In 1984, Gary Hart became a major political figure following New Hampshire primary. Then the media began to examine his background and discovered he changed his name, altered his birth date. Rumors surfaced about his infidelity in 1987, it was discovered that he spent time with Donna Rice. He dropped out of the race. The media have an instinctive and profitable desire to investigate personalities and expose scandals

Rules Governing the MediaBig City newspapers the least competitive media outlets are almost entirely free form government regulation, the most competitive ones--radio and television stations must have a government license to operate and must adhere to a variety of government regulations. Newspapers and Magazines need no license to publish.

the First Amendment to the Constitution has been interpretated has meaing that no government, federal or state, can place “prior restraint” (that is, censorship) on the press. When the federal government sought to prevent the New York Times from publishing the Pentagon Papers, a set of secret government documents stolen by an antiwar activist, the Court held that the paper was free to publish them.

Once something is published, a newspaper or magazine may be sued or prosecuted if the material is libelous or obscene or if it incites someone to commit an illegal act. It is more difficult than in any other nation to find the press guilty of such conduct.

There are also laws intended to protect the privacy of citizens, but they do not really inhibit newspapers. Your name and picture can be published without your consent.

Confidentiality of SourcesReporters want their sources to remain confidential but in many cases they were required to turn over the sources, esp. in criminal trials.

Regulating BroadcastingFederal Communication Commission issues licenses to radio and television stations every 7 and 5 years respectively. The FCC uses its power to influence what the station puts on the air. For example, it could induce stations to reduce the amount of violence shown, increase the proportion of public service programs, alter the the way minorities/ethnic groups are portrayed.

Equal time rule: if a station sells time to one candidate for office it be willing to sell equal time to opposing candidates

Right of reply rule: if a person is attacked on a broadcast that person has the right to reply over that same station.

Political editorializing rule: if a broadcaster endorses a candidate, the opposing candidate has a right to reply

Campaigning Equal time rule applies and the rates must be equal as well for candidates

A market is an area easily reached by a television signal. Approximately 200 such markets exist in the nation.

The EFFECTS of the Media on PoliticsWhat appears on air probably does have an effect on how citizens think and what they think about --what is important. It is difficult to measure the effect of the media on election outcomes.

Television and radio suffer from processes called selective attention ( the citizen sees and hears only what he or she wants” and mental tune out (the citizen simply ignores or gets irritated by messages that are not in accord with existing beliefs). In short, radio and television may tend to reinforce existing beliefs but it is not clear that they change them.

Government and the NewsProminence of the PresidentTheodore Roosevelt was the first president to raise the systematic cultivation of the press to an art form. He gave inside stories to select reporters and withheld information from others. He included a special press room for reporters at the White House, many reporters adored him. His nephrew, Franklin Roosevelt, institutionalized the system by making his press secretary (a creation of Hoover) a major instrument for cultivating and managing the press.

Coverage of CongressCongress resents the attention given to the pres. but it is impossible to give equal attention to the 435 members of Congress.

CSPAN has provided gavel to gavel coverage of speeches on the House floor since 1979. Until 1978, it prohibited television on the floor except for ceremonial occasions. The Senate in 1986 did the same.

News Stories:

1. Routine Stories: Public events regularly covered by reporters--e.g. pres. trips, bills passing in Congress

2. Feature stories: Public events but those that reporters consider particularly newsworthy. e.g obscure agency issues a controversial ruling, interest groups works for the passage of a bill

3. Insider stories : When an insider tells a reporter information. The reporter then becomes an investigative reporter seeking the facts.

Adversarial press one that is suspicious of officialdom and eager to break an embarrassing story the will win for its author honor, prestige, and wealth.