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Proceedings of the Resilient Cities 2013 congress
Session: C1
Community-based adaptation solutions: Tapping the city’s most valuable
resource
Presentation: Measuring Vulnerability: Lesson from vulnerable
groups along the example of Kampongs in North Jakarta
Simarmata, H.A.1;. Sianturi, H.C.J.A.
2, Yudono, K.
2
Abstracts:
Shifts and increased intensity of rainfall and the expanding of inundated area are seen as the impacts of
climate change that led to the vulnerability. The flooding in Jakarta due to heavy rainfall and tidal activity
in the coastal area has become annual problem to the coastal community who lives there all this time. It
has been happened since 15 years ago, but their places are still inhabited. Although, numerous
quantitative studies have been conducted to measure the vulnerability in recent years, however, the
qualitative ones are still rare. How the communities perceive their exposure to the hazard, their sensitivity
compare to other places, and their adaptive capacities are the main questions to be examined in this
paper. Based on the empirical study in the Kampong Kamal Muara from June to November 2012, this
paper aims to understand local perspective on vulnerability and how the conceptions are institutionalized
in the community. It demonstrates first, the different view of vulnerability can be found in how they assess
their exposure, sensitivity, and adaptive capacity; second, the significant role of social leader in
influencing the perception of vulnerability, and the contribution of knowledge and experiences of
vulnerable groups are the key elements in assessing the level of vulnerability. These preliminary findings
suggest that the vulnerability assessment at the community level should be constructed based on the
perception and meaning that has been institutionalized in the community.
Keywords: vulnerability, institutions, community.
1 Junior Researcher at Zentrum fur Entwickslungforshung (ZEF), Senior Planners at Indonesian
Association of Urban and Regional Planners (IAP)
2 Junior Planners at Indonesian Association of Urban Regional Planners (IAP)
Proceedings of the Resilient Cities 2013 Congress
1. Introduction
Several studies argued that the adaptation programs and activities planned by the government were
not in accordance with the needs of the community because of the lack of community involvement in it,
especially on how they measure their vulnerability by their own value. This paper used the qualitative
approaches to measure the level of vulnerability of local communities. It is expected that the decision
reducing the impact of climate change would be implemented in accordance with the resources
available and the needs of the local community. This paper firstly discusses the flood as the most
climate-exposure of north Jakarta, the rationale of qualitative approach and the methods in
introduction section. Following that is the case study of Kampong as a representative of urban
community in Jakarta in adapting to flood. It would also discuss the local knowledge that produced by
experiencing the floods. This paper finished by concluding the findings and the further research needs.
1.1. The Flood as the most climate-threats of North Jakarta
Sea-level projections in the IPCC Third Assessment Report (2001) estimates that global sea level rise
for 2009 – 2100 can reach 18 – 59 cm (see figure 1). Meanwhile, Center for Development of Coastal
and Marine Areas, PPKL-ITB projected that the sea level on the waterfront of Jakarta will increase to
0.57 centimeters/year (Hadi, Latief, and Riawan, 2012). Within this scenario, some areas of Jakarta,
North Jakarta in particular, will certainly be submerged by 2050. The sea-level rise was identified as
the major threats of climate change that should be awared and managed by stakeholder of Jakarta city
(START-IAP, 2011; Firman et al., 2011).
Figure 1. Global Sea-level Rise Projections
Proceedings of the Resilient Cities 2013 Congress
However, the phenomenon of land subsidence and high intensity of land use have significantly
contributed to flood damage. Although it was not part of the impact of climate change (WB-ADB-JICA,
2010), but both phenomenon has attracted various parties to pay more attention on the exacerbated
impacts which would be happened. Based on flood risk mappings of Jakarta, which conducted by
BNPB (2012), BPBD DKI Jakarta (2012), Bakosurtanal (2011), and ITB (Hadi, Latief, and Riawan,
2012), the exposure of north Jakarta to climate change impacts are high because of the combination
of sea level rise and land subsidence. The common flooding events mostly occurred in the kampong
where located adjacent to the coast and along the rivers (Interview Secretary of Penjaringan Sub-
district, November 2012).
Figure 2. Land Inundation of Jakarta
Proceedings of the Resilient Cities 2013 Congress
Figure 3. Jakarta Risk Map Scenario Bandung Institute of Technology (ITB)
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Figure 4. Flood Risk Map 2011 of Jakarta BNPB
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Figure 5. Jakarta Flood Scenario Map BPBD DKI Jakarta
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Figure 6. North Jakarta Flood Incidents Map Bakosurtanal
Proceedings of the Resilient Cities 2013 Congress
1.2. Rationale of Qualitative Approach
The qualitative Vulnerability Assessment (VA) is needed because first, each individual in the kampong
social have a bond that can be a contributing factor in creating a disaster-resistant neighborhood
(EA&DEFRA, 2009), Second, the kampong has its own system in dealing with the problems that exist
in neighborhood, including disaster issues, And third, the kampong became part of the system of
coordination between citizens and local government, both in terms of provision of information, to the
distribution of aid in time of disaster. Qualitative approach will allow these three things can be well
elaborated. Moreover, the interaction in the long term between researchers and communities can
develop a sense of trust that increases the value of the data on the results of this study. This approach
is expected to show different way of VA in defining whether a community is vulnerable and what
actions can be done to fix this condition. The role of local knowledge and social dimension has been
acknowledged are important in measuring vulnerability (Birkmann and Hartman, 2009) and numerous
qualitative methods are available to do so, the question now is what kind of tools that properly used to
measure it.
1.3. Methods of Measuring Vulnerability
This study applied the exposure, sensitivity and adaptive capacity as the defining variable of
vulnerability, which measured by the experiences of kampong people. The foci are how the stories,
histories, and customs of the local people used in measuring the value of their vulnerability.
Identification of exposure, sensitivity and adaptive capacity is conducted by root cause analysis,
community mapping, and problems discussion forum to engage with the people of Kampong in every
process and deliver what they know as much as possible. Root cause analysis helps them in
classifying the causes and effects of floods, where factor "causes" would be the value of exposure and
factors "impact" would be the value of their sensitivity. All findings by both methods can be confirmed
by conducting in-depth interview to all the sources accompanied by participant observation. The
validity of obtained data is defined if consistent to the results of interviews and discussion forums.
Proceedings of the Resilient Cities 2013 Congress
Figure 7. Root Cause Analysis and Community Mapping
Figure 8. Qualitative Approach
2. Kampongs and the role of social leaders in adapting to flood
Kampong Kamal Muara (KKM) is part of Penjaringan Sub-district. It was known as native village of
Betawi tribe that settled for more than 60 years in the coastal areas in North Jakarta. Kampong’s
Proceedings of the Resilient Cities 2013 Congress
community started their live as fishermen. Currently, fishermen becomes less attractive profession to
resident result of reduced fishing income and another attraction from industrial area which is located
not far from the village. The kampong currently has 1,480 households with a close kinship but some of
them also have a family relation with other kampong residents.
Figure 9. Map of Kampong Kamal Muara
Kampong is an informal and dense settlement that represents the urban-village community in many
Indonesian cities, including Jakarta. Kampong is administratively formed by the RW (RW stands for
Rukun Warga), which has several RTs (RT stands for Rukun Tetangga). RT covers roughly 50
households. The RW is established in order to have better access to the government programs where
the RW represents residents who lived in the neighborhood to create the better neighborhood. This
institution firstly appeared in 1944 in the Japanese colonial period with name of Tonarigumi (RT) and
Azzazyokai (RW), which functioned for the Japanese military government (Kartodirjo, 1977). This
culture adapted in social groups of settlements where RW and RT provide services to citizens in giving
a voice to the citizens.
Head of RW and RT elected by all the residents in KKM, which accommodated KKM's people
aspirations and gained their trust on both head of RW and RTs. The organization of KKM through RW
Proceedings of the Resilient Cities 2013 Congress
and RTs was legalized by the decree of the mayor. Furthermore, RW and RTs would represent the
people of KKM by involving them in the activities, programs, meetings, or other socialization programs
from government of Jakarta province. In addition to facilitate the aspiration of people of KKM to
government, the organization of LMK (Lembaga Masyarakat Kelurahan), a formal social Institution,
was established. LMK has a dual role as the village staffs that implement or socialize programs/
activities and as agent of local community in delivering their aspirations to the government.
Unfortunately, representatives of LMK in KKM were not well performed in optimizing their rights and
obligations as stated. Therefore, the existence of LMK flicks the social conflict within the KKM.
Figure 10. Kampong Institutions
However, social leaders in KKM are identified not only come from formal institutions, but also from
informal institutions which led by social leaders, such as Pengajian (Islamic recitation groups), PKK
(Driver of Empowerment and Family Welfare), and PAUD (early childhood education). In the context of
flood responses, these social leaders are capable in running and keeping the institution by utilizing
their own resources. Pengajian has collecting system on money every week which the is used to fix
the place they use. PKK directly involved in the procurement of dapur umum (emergency kitchen)
when flooding occurs. PAUD engaged in the provision of early childhood education in healthy living to
children in early age.
This informal institutions are tends more effective rather than musrenbang3 as formal media in
collecting actions of people of KKM in coping and adapting to flood. Based on our observations and
3 Musrenbang is one of events organized by the government annually; government’s way to open the door for
people’s aspiration, especially in the field of improvement of neighborhood and community development. Musrenbang is attended by RW and RT and facilitated by the LMK. Through this process, community can give their opinion about what activities need to be carried out in their neighborhood. (source: Bappenas, 2004)
Proceedings of the Resilient Cities 2013 Congress
several interviews, people of KKM often complain the results of musrenbang because it was not
consistent to what they already proposed. To these shortcomings, RW and RT have the initiative to
undertake self-help actions by promoting gotong royong4 traditions to do the social adaptation. For
example, KKM conducts regular events to clean settlements of garbage or repairing the damaged
neighborhood facilities with their own resources to prepare for frequent tidal flood events.
KKM's case demonstrated that social leaders were able to move community to utilize their resources
to adapt to the flood tide through informal institutions that already embedded in their local knowledge
This institution also provides the convenient room for people of KKM to submit their opinions and
complaints related to the adaptation to social leader. On the other hand, social leader’s initiative is also
able to encourage people to act together to carry out adaptation events. Indirectly, kampong’s
community has resolved as disaster-response community.
3. Defining local knowledge in measuring vulnerability
Local people have their own knowledge that derived by their own experiences. The lived experiences
have leaded them to the situation where and when they should act and react adapting the flood and
post-flood situation. The local knowledge in KKM has been produced by sharing experiences among
them and dominated by social leaders in defining one case and comparing to other cases. The
knowledge will continue to develop following the neighborhood changes and human activities. These
changes develop the knowledge of community in taking better action than before. Based on our group
discussion, we recognized that people of KKM has learned using the sandbags in building small dikes
in front of their houses. They experienced that the sandbags could not last long because it was easily
damaged. They always modified the sandbags from time to time to make it stronger by putting small
rocks and limestone inside. Therefore, the local knowledge flows by following the dynamic changes
that occur in the community and why local knowledge can become a critical value in VA.
3.1. Kampong’s exposure
The local knowledge of KKM recognized from their understanding on the exposure of their location.
They realized that basin-like topography becomes one of the reasons why their area was considered
to have a severe impact to high level of risk to floods. This basin provides space for the incoming
4 Gotong royong is the original habits of village people where everyone works together for mutual benefit
(Koentjaraningrat, 1983) because people basically requires good relationship between each other (Bintarto, 1980).
Proceedings of the Resilient Cities 2013 Congress
seawater into kampong area when the tidal flood occurred (Interview Pak Oyok, Leader of RT 05,
October 2012). Before 2002, KKM had no history of flooding. The flood events firstly occurred in KKM
in November 2002. As time passes, the flood water level is getting higher and the intensity of flooding
significantly increased. In the past, the flood occurred following the full moon phenomenon happens
once a month. Each year, floods are getting worse and increasing in intensity to 3-4 times a month
(Interview Pak Ustad Syahroni, October 2012). However, since the dikes was built by the end of 2012,
they perceived that the height of the flood waters began to decline, although the intensity of flooding
still remains.
Figure 11. History of Flood in Kampong Kamal Muara
Not only creates pools of water, the flood brings trash and sewage into the kampong area. As a result,
the entire kampong settlements covered by garbage, wastes, and puddles that disrupted comfort and
health of the community. The condition of kampong becomes so damaged because the floods cause
most areas of kampong submerged by water inundation, both the neighborhood and people's houses.
Therefore, for them, the flood had significantly exposed their health and amenity, but still not enforces
them to leave their living place.
Proceedings of the Resilient Cities 2013 Congress
Figure 12. Inundation in Kampong Kamal Muara
3.2. Kampong’s sensitivity
People of KKM understood that their condition also contributed to their vulnerability. The irregular
house buildings, the low quality of infrastructures, and the lack of resources of their community are the
main factors that make the impact of floods tend to be worsened. The different elevation of houses'
floor and lack of green or open space has made the flood stayed longer. The high intensity of floods is
continuously damaged their neighborhood, especially the low quality of roads which makes them hard
to not let themselves getting wet by using the roads. However, lack of resources causes them not able
to perform sustainable adaptation measures.
In the other side, the poor condition of most people of KKM has led them to the paradox that they have
no economic valuable things that need to be protected well so they don't need risk protection from
other parties, but it also made them could not comprehensively overcome the problems that caused by
frequent flood. Realizing this condition, the people of KKM pushed to act more responses to the
incoming flood. Community has to repeatedly perform adaptation activities to repair their damaged
homes. However, the increased intensity of floods makes community do not have enough time to
repair their condition to their previous condition and prepare themselves for the coming flood. This is
why community started to realize that the impact of flooding would be more severe if the community
does not have sufficient resources.
Proceedings of the Resilient Cities 2013 Congress
3.3. Adaptive capacity in Kampong
Most of the community generates more activities that are not sustainable. It causes them to conduct it
repeatedly. Therefore, their adaptive capacity still located in the short-term basis. The role of social
leader in addressing this behavior is highly seen by inviting people to do more collective adaptation
activities like gotong royong and other activities, particularly in improving the road infrastructure is
considered has the most important value. Using wooden boards, bamboo, shells or sack did road
improvement as one outcome of the social leader involvement. Although it won’t last long, collective
events are proven to benefit all the parties and require lower cost.
Figure 13. Gotong Royong as Tradition in Kampong
The repeatedly actions spend most of the community’s income, whilst floods disrupt economic
activities so that their income reduced. This condition will bring them to a position where they won’t
have any more resources and only could bring people to the deeper poverty (Annan, 2003). In
response, there are government agencies that assist local community in improving their
neighborhoods. Over the last two years, PNPM (National Program for Community Empowerment)
assistance to improve the some livelihood assets of Kampong Kamal Muara.
Based on the interpretation of their meaning, table 1 showed how people of KKM generated the
meaning of vulnerability, especially in dealing with the effects of flooding, how residents are not able to
cope with any flood impacts their ability. As a result there is damage only left alone by the citizens.
The existence of inundated area is considered the most damaging because it damaging houses and
roads that disrupt their activities.
Proceedings of the Resilient Cities 2013 Congress
Table 1. The Status of Vulnerability of KKM
Asset Exposure Sensitivity Impact Adaptive Capacity
Human Disease Children and senior
residents are more
vulnerable to fever, cold,
and other skin disease
Children and senior
residents cannot move
freely into inundated area
Wear boots or avoid
the flooded area
Social Institution Local institutions do not
have enough resource to
make a proper adaptation
action
The results are more short-
term solution that are not
sustainable
-
Financial Access Flood close the access to
the workplace
Residents have to walk
through the flood or decide
to stay at home
Walk through the
flooded area or just
skip for a day
Physical Flooded area Inundation damages
houses, roads, and other
physical assets
Many houses have bad
condition. Roads are
damaged.
Build small dikes or
raise the house’floor
Natural Environment No trees, mangroves,
swamp or other natural
assets that could protect
them from floods
Range of the flood area
becomes wider because no
more vegetation that could
hold it
-
Source: FGD, October 2012. Interpreted by authors (2013)
Proceedings of the Resilient Cities 2013 Congress
4. Conclusion and further steps
There are two most interesting revelation delivered by community in assessing their vulnerability.
Firstly, they considered that the flood tide is common pheromone, but they also realize that this
incident still gives a big loss for them. Secondly, they prefer to do only short term adaptation actions
because it is hard for them to see the adaptation in long-term context if their most important assets,
the roads, are still damaged and disturb their activities. In the context of disaster management, social
capital can become positive factor in creating disaster-resistant neighborhood. This paper
demonstrated that the existence of a social leader is able to gather people to the same perception and
move collectively to adapt to the flood.
The vulnerability assessment at the community level should be conducted based on the perception
and meaning that has been institutionalized in the community. Based on KKM’s case, government’s
adaptation programs do not fit the needs of the KKM due to the lack of transparency and community’s
involvement in it. The adaptation of people of KKM is based on the extension of self-reliance action
(SWADAYA) in the community and the extension to which outside parties can intervene to help them.
Also, the dynamic changing of local knowledge can modify more qualify VA model (King & MacGregor,
2000). This paper suggested that the realm of vulnerable people should be constructed at the first time
to make sure that vulnerability assessment has been conducted properly and concurrently to the need
of community.
Acknowledgement:
Authors would like to thank the PICAS (Planning of Integrated Coastal Adaptation Strategies for North
Jakarta) program, a cooperation between Indonesian Association of Planners and International
Secretariat of START funded by US-AID, for providing financial and technical assistances.
Proceedings of the Resilient Cities 2013 Congress
References:
Annan, Kofi. (2003) International Day for Disaster Reduction. Available from:
http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2003/sgsm8909.doc.htm. [Accessed: 30 May 2013]
Badan Koordinasi Survei dan Pemetaan Nasional (Bakosurtanal). (2011) Map of North Jakarta Flood
Incidents. Jakarta: Bakosurtanal.
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Mitigation Agency. Jakarta: BNPB
Badan Penanggulangan Bencana Daerah (BPBD) DKI Jakarta. (2012) Map Scenario Flood Disaster
Management Agency. Jakarta: BPBD.
Bappenas. (2004) Undang-undang Republik Indonesia Nomor 25 Tahun 2004 tentang Sistem
Perencanaan Pembangunan Nasional. Jakarta: Bappenas.
Bintarto, R. (1980) Gotong-Royong: Suatu Karakteristik Bangsa Indonesia. Surabaya : PT. Bina Ilmu.
Brinkman, JanJaap and Hartman, Marco. (2009) Jakarta Flood Hazard Mapping Framework. Jakarta:
The World Bank.
Environment Agency (EA) & Department for Environment Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA). (2009)
Understanding the Processes for Community Adaptation Planning and Engagement (CAPE) on
the Coast. London: DEFRA.
Firman, Tommy et al. (2010) Jakarta City Report: Information Relating to Climate Change in Jakarta
City. Available from: http://www.startcc.iwlearn.org doc oc eng .pdf . [Accessed: 2 August
2012]
Global Change System for Analysis, Research & Training (START) & Indonesia Association of Urban
and Regional Planners (IAP). (2011) Policy Dialogue for High Level Administrative Policy
Makers on Establishing Security Policy of North Coastal Jakarta Due to Climate Related
Disaster Risk. Jakarta: IAP.
Hadi, S., Latief, H., Riawan, E. (2012) Pemetaan Risiko Sebagai Dasar Penanganan Dampak
Perubahan Iklim di Kawasan Pesisir Studi Kasus DKI Jakarta. Bandung, Indonesia:ITB.
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). (2001) IPCC Third Assessment Report.
Kartodirjo, Sartono .(1977) Sejarah Nasional Indonesia Jilid IV. Jakarta: Balai Pustaka.
King, David and Macgregor, Colin. (2000) Understanding Social Indicators to Measure Community
Vulnerability to Natural Hazards. Australian Journal of Emergency Management. Available from:
http://www.em.gov.au/Documents/Using_social_indicators_to_measure_community_vulnerabilit
y.pdf. [Accessed: 9 December 2012]
Koentjaraningrat. (1983) Ciri-Ciri Kehidupan Masyarakat Pedesaan di Indonesia. dalam Sajogyo dan
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Washington: The World Bank
Proceedings of the Resilient Cities 2013 Congress
The Authors:
BEm MSc
Hendricus Andy
Simarmata
Urban Studies Postgraduate
Program
University of Indonesia
Gedung Pascasarjana UI,
4th Floor, Jalan Salemba
Raya No. 4 Jakarta Pusat
+62 21 3908264
ST
Herry Candi J. A. Sianturi
Planner/Reseacher Indonesia
Association of Urban and
Regional Planners (IAP)
ST
Karina Yudono
Student of Urban Ecological
Planning Master Program
NTNU
Bio:
Hendricus Andy Simarmata
He is lecturer and researcher at the University of Indonesia. He is also the certified urban and regional
planners who has lead several vulnerability studies and adaptation planning in Indonesia
Herry Candi J. A. Sianturi
He has been following his interest in climate change and community development on his first research
about climate change impact in coastal community in Muara Angke, Jakarta in 2012. Currently working in
IAP’s program related to climate change and capacity building.
Karina Yudono
She had been working for one year in Indonesia’s National evelopment Agency (Bappenas) as a
supporting staff. Currently, she is continuing her study in one of NTNU’s Master Program in Urban and
Ecological Planning