Meaning acquisitionMeaning acquisition

Anna Adaszynski, Hans-Joachim Faust, Anna Adaszynski, Hans-Joachim Faust,

Marius Finnern, Anastasia Nikolaeva, Marius Finnern, Anastasia Nikolaeva,

Nicole Reif, Sarah ThieleNicole Reif, Sarah Thiele

Universität Duisburg-EssenWintersemester 2006/07PS/HS Language, meaning and useDozent: Prof. R. Hickey

The Acquisition of GrammarThe Acquisition of Grammar

Grammatical structureGrammatical structure is specific to is specific to language as a system of representation language as a system of representation and communication. and communication.

The acquisition of grammar can not be The acquisition of grammar can not be studied fruitfully without taking into studied fruitfully without taking into account account cognitive developmentcognitive development. .

Cognitive DevelopmentCognitive Development

All human beings are supposed to make All human beings are supposed to make sense of the physical and social sense of the physical and social environmentenvironment they live in by they live in by universal universal processes of reasoningprocesses of reasoning in in universal universal structures of thought.structures of thought.

Though speed and outcome may vary Though speed and outcome may vary according to according to socio-cultural factorssocio-cultural factors, , processes and structures are processes and structures are fundamentally the same. fundamentally the same.

Humans make Humans make sense of the world of objects and sense of the world of objects and peoplepeople, i.e. their reasoning patterns in systems of a , i.e. their reasoning patterns in systems of a logic of actions and thinking, systems that can be logic of actions and thinking, systems that can be described as described as abstract structuresabstract structures. .

There are There are progressive changesprogressive changes in the relation in the relation between the knowing subject and the object of his between the knowing subject and the object of his knowledge though knowledge though the construction of structural the construction of structural fragmentsfragments, then , then differentiationsdifferentiations and and integrationintegration into into increasingly varied and more powerful systems by increasingly varied and more powerful systems by means of abstraction.means of abstraction.

Besides, the production and the comprehension of Besides, the production and the comprehension of utterances is interacting with many kinds of knowledge, utterances is interacting with many kinds of knowledge, as well as with as well as with beliefs and emotions.beliefs and emotions.

The Semantic Bootstrapping The Semantic Bootstrapping Hypothesis (1)Hypothesis (1)

Definition: Definition: Semantic bootstrappingSemantic bootstrapping in linguistics in linguistics refers to the hypothesis that children utilize refers to the hypothesis that children utilize conceptual conceptual knowledgeknowledge to create to create grammatical categoriesgrammatical categories when when acquiring their first language. acquiring their first language.

Thus, for example, categories like Thus, for example, categories like "type of "type of object/person"object/person" maps directly onto maps directly onto the linguistic the linguistic category "category "noun", category like "action" onto "verb", noun", category like "action" onto "verb", etc. This will get children started on their way to etc. This will get children started on their way to acquiring parts of speech, which later can be acquiring parts of speech, which later can be supplemented by other linguistic information. supplemented by other linguistic information.

What does Steven Pinker think of What does Steven Pinker think of “semantic bootstrapping”?“semantic bootstrapping”?

Grammitical entities do not have Grammitical entities do not have semantic semantic definitiondefinition in adult grammars, but maybe in in adult grammars, but maybe in parent-child discourseparent-child discourse. .

When speaking to infants, parents refer to When speaking to infants, parents refer to people and people and physical objectsphysical objects using using nounsnouns, , they refer to they refer to physical actionsphysical actions using using verbsverbs and and so on. This also could help children to percept so on. This also could help children to percept grammatical relationsgrammatical relations: Physical object and : Physical object and action instead of “nounhood” or “verbhood”.action instead of “nounhood” or “verbhood”.

PinkerPinker: The : The categorization of wordscategorization of words can be can be inferred from their inferred from their semantic propertiessemantic properties, and , and their their grammatical relationsgrammatical relations can be inferred from can be inferred from the the semantic relationsemantic relation in the event in the event witnessedwitnessed..

Grimshaw/Macnamara:Grimshaw/Macnamara: Once a basis of Once a basis of semantically induced rules is in place, the child semantically induced rules is in place, the child is able to learn the semantically neutral items is able to learn the semantically neutral items because of their appearance within the because of their appearance within the structure of the sentence.structure of the sentence.

Pinker and his Pinker and his Semantic Bootstrapping HypothesisSemantic Bootstrapping Hypothesis do not claim that children allow semantically based do not claim that children allow semantically based analyses to override distributional analysy. analyses to override distributional analysy.

In fact the SBH claims that children have to give priority In fact the SBH claims that children have to give priority to distributionally based analyses.to distributionally based analyses.

But how do they know which distributional contexts are But how do they know which distributional contexts are relevant?relevant?

Universal correlationUniversal correlation Steven Pinker argues that there exist Steven Pinker argues that there exist symbols with symbols with

universal propertiesuniversal properties and this hypothesis has to be and this hypothesis has to be tanslated ino the fact that certain phenomena tend to tanslated ino the fact that certain phenomena tend to be correlated with one another across languages.be correlated with one another across languages.

Example: the concept of “Subject”Example: the concept of “Subject”

a)a) the agentive argument of active action predicatesthe agentive argument of active action predicatesb)b) the nounphrase position that is usually the leftmost the nounphrase position that is usually the leftmost

nominal phrase daughter of Snominal phrase daughter of Sc)c) the argument of an embedded complement that is the argument of an embedded complement that is

controlled by the matrix predicatecontrolled by the matrix predicated)d) the function that objects assume during passivizationthe function that objects assume during passivizatione)e) ……

These rules are These rules are universal correlateduniversal correlated. The symbols . The symbols labeled “Subject” are in some sense of the same labeled “Subject” are in some sense of the same psychological kind.psychological kind.

The SBH amounts to the claim thatThe SBH amounts to the claim that

a)a) the child uses phenomenonthe child uses phenomenonb)b) to label certain entities as “Subjects” in the first to label certain entities as “Subjects” in the first

rules he or she coinsrules he or she coinsc)c) he or she expects these entities in those rules to he or she expects these entities in those rules to

enter phenomenaenter phenomenad)d) these entities are “Subjects” without further these entities are “Subjects” without further

learninglearninge)e) the child fixes the parameters of those phenomenathe child fixes the parameters of those phenomena

PinkerPinker: The child is spared from having to : The child is spared from having to record all perceptible properties and record all perceptible properties and correlations involving the input elements. Just correlations involving the input elements. Just exploitation of formal and substantive linguistic exploitation of formal and substantive linguistic univerals to focus on the learning process upon univerals to focus on the learning process upon those properties. (inductive)those properties. (inductive)

ChomskyChomsky: The child exploits the “rich : The child exploits the “rich deductive structure” inherent in the family deductive structure” inherent in the family resamblance correlation defining substantive resamblance correlation defining substantive universals, and at the very start he or she uses universals, and at the very start he or she uses the semantically transparant members of the the semantically transparant members of the family as the first “premises” of the duduction.family as the first “premises” of the duduction.

Other symbolsOther symbols It is necessary to show that It is necessary to show that

the symbol enters into a set of phenomenathe symbol enters into a set of phenomena the phenomena must include some notion the phenomena must include some notion

which is available o the childwhich is available o the child this notion has to be expressed in a questionthis notion has to be expressed in a question

If that is the case the SBH can be applied to If that is the case the SBH can be applied to the problem of how the problem of how rules incorporating that rules incorporating that symbolsymbol are first acquired: the child can use are first acquired: the child can use the phenomenon that includes the the phenomenon that includes the perceptually available notion as the perceptually available notion as the inductive inductive basis for the symbol in question.basis for the symbol in question.

GrimshawGrimshaw: Linguists often use descreptive : Linguists often use descreptive ways of analysing he category membership of ways of analysing he category membership of a word, although they know that the formal way a word, although they know that the formal way is much better to do so. But in fact they use is much better to do so. But in fact they use semantic notions as their first hypothesis and semantic notions as their first hypothesis and linguists seldom have to recategorize sets of linguists seldom have to recategorize sets of words after examining oher phenomena.words after examining oher phenomena.

PinkerPinker: It is not unreasonable to assume that : It is not unreasonable to assume that also children can safely begin by categorizing also children can safely begin by categorizing words in this way.words in this way.

Implications for the Semantic Implications for the Semantic Bootstrapping Hypothesis (2)Bootstrapping Hypothesis (2)

The Semantic bootstrapping hypothesis contains that children The Semantic bootstrapping hypothesis contains that children utilize utilize conceptual knowledgeconceptual knowledge to create to create grammatical grammatical categoriescategories when acquiring their first language. when acquiring their first language.

Thus, for example, categories like "Thus, for example, categories like "type of object/persontype of object/person" " maps directly onto the linguistic category "maps directly onto the linguistic category "nounnoun", category like ", category like ""actionaction" onto "" onto "verbverb", etc.", etc.

This will get children started on their way to acquiring parts of This will get children started on their way to acquiring parts of speech, which later can be supplemented by other linguistic speech, which later can be supplemented by other linguistic information. information.

The hypothesis received some support from the experiments The hypothesis received some support from the experiments that showed that three- to five-year-olds do, in fact, generally that showed that three- to five-year-olds do, in fact, generally use nouns for things and verbs for actions more often than use nouns for things and verbs for actions more often than adults do. adults do.

Syntactic bootstrappingSyntactic bootstrapping and and learning from distributional learning from distributional patterns of the languagepatterns of the language have also been proposed as a way have also been proposed as a way for children to acquire for children to acquire word-classesword-classes..

syntax is correlated with semantics but is not reducible syntax is correlated with semantics but is not reducible to semanticsto semantics

QuestionQuestion: How do children use perceptual input : How do children use perceptual input (sounds and situations) to hypothesize grammatical (sounds and situations) to hypothesize grammatical structures at the outset of the language acquisition structures at the outset of the language acquisition process?process?

SuggestionSuggestion: : Children innately expect syntax and semantics as Children innately expect syntax and semantics as

correlated.correlated. they can derive the semantic representation by they can derive the semantic representation by

nongrammatical means and can thereby do a nongrammatical means and can thereby do a preliminary syntactic analysis of the first parental preliminary syntactic analysis of the first parental utterances they process.utterances they process.

with some grammatical rules, children are now able to with some grammatical rules, children are now able to handle sentences violating these correlations between handle sentences violating these correlations between syntax and semantics (passives, deverbal nouns), syntax and semantics (passives, deverbal nouns), because of their experiences in analysing. because of their experiences in analysing.

In situations where structures violate general rules In situations where structures violate general rules the child needs more information either from the the child needs more information either from the situational context or from the semantic knowledge.situational context or from the semantic knowledge.

they become relaxed in the input speech they process. they become relaxed in the input speech they process. they can do this by classifying these words in terms of they can do this by classifying these words in terms of

their distribution within the grammatical structure. their distribution within the grammatical structure. they can now analyse these structures. they can now analyse these structures.

Semantic Bootstrapping Hypothesis can be Semantic Bootstrapping Hypothesis can be helpful in explaining how language acquisition helpful in explaining how language acquisition gets started. gets started.

Problems:Problems: AssumptionAssumption: Children can accurately encode the : Children can accurately encode the

meaning of a sentence an adult says.meaning of a sentence an adult says. If the correlations between syntax and semantics If the correlations between syntax and semantics

are not universal: How do children learn languages are not universal: How do children learn languages that violate these correlations?that violate these correlations?

If the correlations are only probabilistic, we need to If the correlations are only probabilistic, we need to assume either, that parents filter the noncorrelated assume either, that parents filter the noncorrelated structures (passives, deverbal nouns), or that structures (passives, deverbal nouns), or that children can filter them using some independent children can filter them using some independent criterions. criterions.

Semantic bootstrapping Semantic bootstrapping hypothesishypothesis

This figure shows This figure shows how the flow and how the flow and understanding of understanding of information in the information in the language language acquisition process acquisition process is understood to is understood to take place.take place.

Whereas the first picture Whereas the first picture needs language input to needs language input to be modified to the child’s be modified to the child’s understanding of the understanding of the situation, the 2nd figure situation, the 2nd figure holds an explanation for holds an explanation for children understanding children understanding sentences which are not sentences which are not filtered for their filtered for their understanding (i. e. understanding (i. e. leaving passives out). It leaving passives out). It makes use of the makes use of the assumption that children assumption that children are capable of using are capable of using categories and labelling categories and labelling for constructing meaning for constructing meaning and that they thus can and that they thus can rely on acquired rely on acquired structures to encode and structures to encode and analyze utterances.analyze utterances.

Learning by InstinctLearning by Instinct

Lots of people think of instinct and learning as two separate things and even alternatives.

Different studies have shown that this is not right There cannot be made a sharp distinction between instinct and learning (in human AND in animal behaviour!)

Process of learning is often controlled Process of learning is often controlled by instinct by instinct

““pre-programmed” geneticallypre-programmed” genetically

Learning by instinctLearning by instinct appears at all appears at all levels of mental complexity.levels of mental complexity.

Ethnology and Behaviourist Ethnology and Behaviourist PsychologyPsychologyEthnologyEthnology:: E. Is the study of instinctE. Is the study of instinct Most animal behaviour is controlled by four Most animal behaviour is controlled by four

basic factors:basic factors: Sign stimuliSign stimuli (instinctively recognized things)(instinctively recognized things)

Motor programsMotor programs (innate responses to these things)(innate responses to these things)

DriveDrive (controlling motivational impulses)(controlling motivational impulses)

ImprintingImprinting (a restricted and seemingly aberrant form (a restricted and seemingly aberrant form of learning)of learning)

Example: Example: Geese build their nests on the ground. When one Geese build their nests on the ground. When one

goose knocks an egg out of her nest, a stereotype goose knocks an egg out of her nest, a stereotype and innate behaviour appears. The animal fixes its and innate behaviour appears. The animal fixes its eyes on the lost egg, stands up and rolls it back eyes on the lost egg, stands up and rolls it back where it belongs.where it belongs.

Sign stimuli:Sign stimuli: Convex features that trigger the Convex features that trigger the behaviour behaviour

Motor programMotor program: The egg rolling response: The egg rolling response DriveDrive: The drive to protect its eggs appears two : The drive to protect its eggs appears two

weeks before the goose lays eggs and persists two weeks before the goose lays eggs and persists two weeks after the eggs hatch.weeks after the eggs hatch.

ImprintingImprinting: Goslings follow every object that makes : Goslings follow every object that makes a “kum-kum” calla “kum-kum” call

Classical ConditioningClassical Conditioning: : Ivan Pavlov Ivan Pavlov Experiments with a dogExperiments with a dog Dog learned, that he got food, when a bell Dog learned, that he got food, when a bell

rangrang

Operant ConditioningOperant Conditioning:: Animals learn as a result of trial-and-error Animals learn as a result of trial-and-error

experimentation experimentation they behave in a special they behave in a special way because they want to obtain a reward or way because they want to obtain a reward or avoid punishment.avoid punishment.

Both positions (Both positions (Ethnology and Behaviourist Ethnology and Behaviourist PsychologyPsychology ) cannot stand alone ) cannot stand alone

instinct and learning are strongly connectedinstinct and learning are strongly connected

Animals can make certain associations easier or Animals can make certain associations easier or more difficult in different situations.more difficult in different situations.

They are innately influenced to learn some They are innately influenced to learn some things better than others.things better than others.

Example:Example: Rats easily learn to identify food that makes Rats easily learn to identify food that makes

them ill because of a smell, but not because of them ill because of a smell, but not because of visually or auditory cues.visually or auditory cues.

An example of instinctive An example of instinctive learning: Beeslearning: Bees

Bees are collecting nectar and pollen. Their instinct lets them recognise flowerlike objects, but they have to learn which of these objects

can give them food At first the bees learn the smell of flower, then

the colour and after that the shapes and colour patterns.

The bees prefer some smells, colours, shapes and colour patterns.

The bees have a The bees have a hierarchical structurehierarchical structure in their mind. in their mind.

The smellThe smell is most important! is most important!

Refers to the natural conditions: The Refers to the natural conditions: The smell of a flower is nearly constant, the smell of a flower is nearly constant, the colour or shape can change in different colour or shape can change in different light conditions.light conditions.

Another important organizational element Another important organizational element is is the time of daythe time of day each flower provides each flower provides nectar.nectar.

ConclusionConclusion

These facts show that honey bees learn These facts show that honey bees learn different things about flowers and store different things about flowers and store them in a hierarchical order. them in a hierarchical order.

The things that they learn and the time they The things that they learn and the time they need for it are innate characteristics.need for it are innate characteristics.

Learning about EnemiesLearning about Enemies

Animals need to learn how to recognize and respond to various kinds of predators and enemies

Nesting birds for example must learn to distinguish harmless birds from birds which hunt for eggs and chicks

When nesting birds detect nest predators, they attack en masse.

→ this phenomenon is known as “mobbing” Birds need to learn whom to mob and whom to ignore This process of learning is innately guided

(1)Between the cages there is a rotable, four-chambered box. Each bird can see only one chamber of the box,but it can also see into the other bird´s cage.

(2)Each bird is shown a harmless species without showing any interest.

(3)A is shown a predator and B is shown a harmless one: A tries to chase it away and gives the characteristic “mobbing call”.

(4)B watches A and then joins in the mobbing behavior.It has learned to mob a harmless species.

(5)When both birds are shown the harmless bird B teaches A to mob it as well.

→ This aversion was passed on from generation to generation

Song Learning in BirdsSong Learning in Birds

All birds have a repertoire of one or two dozen calls that are innately produced and recognized

Several kinds of birds also have more complex vocal patterns that must to some extent be learned from adults of the same species

Process of Song LearningProcess of Song Learning

A bird kept in auditory isolation begins to experiment with song notes by the time it is about a month old

→ This period of experimentation is known as subsong

→The chick is born with a basic innate song, which it learns to elaborate when it raised in the wild

The time in which the drive to learn is high is called the sensitive period ( before it is about 7 weeks old)

Speech Learning in HumansSpeech Learning in Humans

Human infants innately recognize most consonant sounds that are characteristic of human speech, including consonants not present in the language they normally hear

The innate ability to identify sign stimuli present in consonants confers several advantages:

1. It allows the infant to ignore a world full of irrelevant auditory stimuli in order to focus on speech sounds.

2. It allows the infant to decode the many layers of meaning in the complex and variable sound of speech

3. It provides an internal standard for the child to use in judging and shaping speech sounds

Language and ExperienceLanguage and Experience

To know a language is to know the relations To know a language is to know the relations between sounds and their meaningsbetween sounds and their meanings

These relations are acquired from specific These relations are acquired from specific experience and some interpretive context, experience and some interpretive context, paired with speech eventspaired with speech events

ProblemProblem: : The acquisition of language is The acquisition of language is based on only partial and sometimes based on only partial and sometimes impoverished relevant experience! impoverished relevant experience!

Problems from learning from Problems from learning from observation:observation: Too many encodingsToo many encodings:: When the mother When the mother pointspoints to a cat saying “cat”, the child might to a cat saying “cat”, the child might

relate the word “cat” with the meaning relate the word “cat” with the meaning animal, fur, cuteanimal, fur, cute or or tailtail..

False experiencesFalse experiences:: When a child is inspecting his mother stroking the cat and When a child is inspecting his mother stroking the cat and

talking of the grandmother’s visit at the same time, this might talking of the grandmother’s visit at the same time, this might create a false pairing.create a false pairing.

Abstract meaningsAbstract meanings:: Many words have Many words have no direct connection with sensory-no direct connection with sensory-

perceptual experienceperceptual experience ( (funfun, , good)good) or encode unobservable or encode unobservable relations (relations (similar, brothersimilar, brother), properties (), properties (very, thevery, the) or grammatical ) or grammatical functions functions (of, to(of, to).).

Different experience, different Different experience, different meanings?meanings?

Experiments withExperiments with blind childrenblind children hint at hint at a different interpretation of the words a different interpretation of the words looklook and and touchtouch

LookLook is more like “ is more like “apprehendapprehend” or ” or ““exploreexplore” to the blind child (manipulate, ” to the blind child (manipulate, feel all over)feel all over)

TouchTouch is rather interpreted as “ is rather interpreted as “contactcontact” ” (bang, tap)(bang, tap)

Responses of sighted, but Responses of sighted, but blindfolded childrenblindfolded children

TouchTouch is interpreted as simple is interpreted as simple manual manual contactcontact

LookLook seems to be interpreted as seems to be interpreted as commands to do something visualcommands to do something visual (they (they oriented their heads in the direction oriented their heads in the direction indicated by the command)indicated by the command)

BibliographyBibliography

First Language AcquisitionFirst Language AcquisitionThe Essential ReadingsThe Essential Readings

Edited by Barbara C. Lust and Claire Edited by Barbara C. Lust and Claire FoleyFoley2004 2004