Maternal Employment, Maternal Employment, Social Capital, and Self-Social Capital, and Self-

Care in Low-Income Care in Low-Income FamiliesFamilies

Michelle K. BlocklinMichelle K. BlocklinKaylin M. GreeneKaylin M. GreeneKathryn HynesKathryn Hynes

Department of Human Development & Family Department of Human Development & Family StudiesStudies

The Pennsylvania State University The Pennsylvania State University

2010 NCFR Annual Meeting2010 NCFR Annual MeetingMinneapolis, MNMinneapolis, MN

BackgroundBackground

Increases in maternal labor force Increases in maternal labor force participationparticipation (Raley, Mattingly, & Bianchi, 2006) (Raley, Mattingly, & Bianchi, 2006)

Work requirements and time limits of 1996 Work requirements and time limits of 1996 Welfare ReformsWelfare Reforms– Negative impacts of welfare reforms on Negative impacts of welfare reforms on

adolescentsadolescents (e.g., Brooks et al., 2001) (e.g., Brooks et al., 2001)

Links between maternal employment and Links between maternal employment and self-careself-care (e.g., Casper & Smith, 2004; Lopoo, 2005) (e.g., Casper & Smith, 2004; Lopoo, 2005)

Problematic associations with youth self-care Problematic associations with youth self-care (Aizer, 2004; Mott, Crowe, Richardson, & Flay, 1999; (Aizer, 2004; Mott, Crowe, Richardson, & Flay, 1999; Shumow, Smith, & Smith, 2009)Shumow, Smith, & Smith, 2009)

What’s missing?What’s missing?

Work-family research on low-Work-family research on low-income familiesincome families

Protective factors for self-careProtective factors for self-care

The Role of Social The Role of Social CapitalCapital Coleman (1988): “a variety of different Coleman (1988): “a variety of different

entities having two characteristics in entities having two characteristics in common: They all consist of some common: They all consist of some aspect of social structures, and they aspect of social structures, and they facilitate certain actions of individuals facilitate certain actions of individuals who are within the structure” (p. S98)who are within the structure” (p. S98)

Impact of maternal employment on Impact of maternal employment on social capitalsocial capital

Social capital and self-careSocial capital and self-care

Study AimsStudy Aims

1.1. Examine the link between maternal Examine the link between maternal employment and self-care in low-employment and self-care in low-income families.income families.

2.2. Examine the association between Examine the association between maternal employment and social maternal employment and social capital. capital.

3.3. Explore links between social capital Explore links between social capital and self-care.and self-care.

Data - Welfare, Children, Data - Welfare, Children, & Families: A Three-City & Families: A Three-City StudyStudy Longitudinal study of well-being of low-income Longitudinal study of well-being of low-income

families and communities post-welfare reform families and communities post-welfare reform in Boston, Chicago, and San Antonio in Boston, Chicago, and San Antonio

Data collection included child cognitive Data collection included child cognitive assessments, 30-min adolescent interviews, 2-assessments, 30-min adolescent interviews, 2-hr caregiver interviewshr caregiver interviews

Our study uses a subsample from Wave 1 (Our study uses a subsample from Wave 1 (NN = 1,037) and Wave 2 (= 1,037) and Wave 2 (NN = 932), which = 932), which includes adolescents and their biological includes adolescents and their biological mothersmothers

Mean (SD)/%Mean (SD)/%

YouthYouth

AgeAge 11.97 (1.45)11.97 (1.45)

% Female% Female 51.21%51.21%

% Non-white% Non-white 91.51%91.51%

MothersMothers

AgeAge 36.85 (6.17)36.85 (6.17)

% Non-white% Non-white 88.91%88.91%

% Married/cohab% Married/cohab 18.80%18.80%

% H.S. or less% H.S. or less 55.80%55.80%

Monthly income (median)Monthly income (median) $910$910

% Receiving Welfare% Receiving Welfare 22.17%22.17%

Participant Characteristics Participant Characteristics (Wave 1)(Wave 1)

Key MeasuresKey MeasuresConstructConstruct ItemItem

Self-CareSelf-Care ““Sometimes it is difficult to make arrangements Sometimes it is difficult to make arrangements to look after children all the time. During the to look after children all the time. During the past 30 days, did [CHILD] stay alone or with past 30 days, did [CHILD] stay alone or with other children who are under age 14 on a other children who are under age 14 on a regular basis?” regular basis?”

Maternal Work Maternal Work HoursHours

Number of hours respondent usually worked in Number of hours respondent usually worked in all jobs in the week preceding the interview all jobs in the week preceding the interview

Social Capital Social Capital VariablesVariables

Father Father InvolvementInvolvement

““How often can you count on [BIOLOGICAL How often can you count on [BIOLOGICAL FATHER] if you need him to take care of FATHER] if you need him to take care of [CHILD]?” [CHILD]?”

NetworksNetworks e.g. “When you need someone to take care of e.g. “When you need someone to take care of your child(ren) when you aren’t around, are your child(ren) when you aren’t around, are there people you can count on?” there people you can count on?”

NeighborhooNeighborhood Qualityd Quality

““This neighborhood is a good place to raise This neighborhood is a good place to raise kids” kids”

Analytic StrategyAnalytic Strategy

Logistic regression for dichotomous Logistic regression for dichotomous outcome (self-care) outcome (self-care)

OLS regression for continuous OLS regression for continuous outcomes (social capital variables)outcomes (social capital variables)

Analyses tested first with wave 1 Analyses tested first with wave 1 data and replicated with wave 2 data and replicated with wave 2 datadata

Results Aim 1: Results Aim 1: Maternal Work Hours Maternal Work Hours and Self-Careand Self-Care

Predicted Probabilities of Self-Care by Maternal Employment Hours

0.09

0.12

0.16

0.110.13

0.17

00.020.040.060.080.1

0.120.140.160.18

0 hours 20 hours 40 hours

Maternal Work Hours

Pre

dict

ed P

roba

bilit

y

Wave 1

Wave 2

Results Aim 2: Maternal Results Aim 2: Maternal Work Hours and Social Work Hours and Social CapitalCapital Maternal work hours Maternal work hours not linkednot linked to to

father involvementfather involvement Maternal work hours Maternal work hours not linkednot linked to to

neighborhood qualityneighborhood quality Maternal work hours Maternal work hours not linkednot linked to to

social networks at wave 1social networks at wave 1– At wave 2, longer work hours At wave 2, longer work hours

associated with associated with strongerstronger social social networksnetworks

Results Aim 3: Direct Results Aim 3: Direct Effects of Social Effects of Social CapitalCapital

The more involved fathers were, The more involved fathers were, the less likely youth were to be in the less likely youth were to be in self-careself-care

No direct association between No direct association between social networks or neighborhood social networks or neighborhood quality and self-care quality and self-care

Results Aim 3: Results Aim 3: Interactive Effects of Interactive Effects of Social CapitalSocial Capital No significant interaction between No significant interaction between

maternal employment and father maternal employment and father involvement involvement

Stronger social networks and Stronger social networks and higher neighborhood quality higher neighborhood quality served as protective factorsserved as protective factors

Interactions significant at wave 1 Interactions significant at wave 1 onlyonly

Specification TestsSpecification Tests

Interaction findings not spurious Interaction findings not spurious due to small cell sizesdue to small cell sizes

Discrepancies not due to attritionDiscrepancies not due to attrition

Age restrictionAge restriction

Post-hoc AnalysesPost-hoc Analyses

Self-Care Wave 2

No Yes

Self-Care Wave 1

No698

(76.54%)

101(11.07%)

Yes78

(8.55%)35

(3.84%)

SummarySummary

Longer maternal work hours were associated Longer maternal work hours were associated with a higher likelihood of adolescent self-with a higher likelihood of adolescent self-care in low-income familiescare in low-income families

Maternal employment was Maternal employment was notnot linked to less linked to less social capitalsocial capital

Father involvement was directly linked to Father involvement was directly linked to lower likelihood of youth self-carelower likelihood of youth self-care

Social networks and neighborhood quality Social networks and neighborhood quality may serve as a protective factor for self-care may serve as a protective factor for self-care for working mothersfor working mothers

ImplicationsImplications

Better support and structure for out-of-Better support and structure for out-of-school time of older youth with low-school time of older youth with low-income working mothersincome working mothers

Encourage father involvementEncourage father involvement

Target youth with uninvolved fathers Target youth with uninvolved fathers with programs and policieswith programs and policies

More research on networks and More research on networks and neighborhood qualityneighborhood quality

AcknowledgementsAcknowledgements

This research is based on data from the Three-City This research is based on data from the Three-City Study, supported by the National Institute of Child Study, supported by the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development and the Office of the Health and Human Development and the Office of the Assistant Secretary for Planning and Evaluation, Assistant Secretary for Planning and Evaluation, Administration on Developmental Disabilities, Administration on Developmental Disabilities, Administration for Children and Families, Social Administration for Children and Families, Social Security Administrations, National Institute of Mental Security Administrations, National Institute of Mental Health, The Boston foundation, The Annie E. Casey Health, The Boston foundation, The Annie E. Casey Foundation, The Edna McConnell Clark Foundation, The Foundation, The Edna McConnell Clark Foundation, The Lloyd A. Fry Foundation, Hogg Foundation for Mental Lloyd A. Fry Foundation, Hogg Foundation for Mental Health, The Robert Wood Johnson Foundation, The Health, The Robert Wood Johnson Foundation, The Joyce Foundation, The Henry J. Kaiser Family Joyce Foundation, The Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation, W.K. Kellogg Foundation, Kronkosky Foundation, W.K. Kellogg Foundation, Kronkosky Charitable Foundation, The John D. and Catherine T. Charitable Foundation, The John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation, Charles Stewart Mott MacArthur Foundation, Charles Stewart Mott Foundation, The David and Lucile Packard Foundation, Foundation, The David and Lucile Packard Foundation, and Woods Fund of Chicago.and Woods Fund of Chicago.