Marksističke teorije međunarodnih odnosa i reflektivističko-alternativni pristupi izučavanju međunarodnih odnosa

Marksističke teorije Marksističke teorije međunarodnih odnosa i međunarodnih odnosa i

reflektivističko-alternativni reflektivističko-alternativni pristupi izučavanju pristupi izučavanju

međunarodnih odnosameđunarodnih odnosa

Marxist theories of Marxist theories of International Relations International Relations

DokDok godgod jeje svetsvet uu bitibiti svetsvet nejednakihnejednakih, , ii dokdok godgod susu socijalnesocijalne razlikerazlike izmeizmeđđuu ljudiljudi ogromneogromne,, marksistimarksističčkeke

teorijeteorije imaimaććee velikuveliku uloguulogu uu razumevanjurazumevanju svetasveta uu kojemkojem ž živimoivimo..

KadaKada sese pogledajupogledaju indikatoriindikatori uslovauslova uu kojimakojima ljudiljudi žživeive svesve jeje jasnojasno nana prviprvi pogled.pogled.

Ostrvca bogatih i okeani siromašnih (Injasio Ramone)Ostrvca bogatih i okeani siromašnih (Injasio Ramone)

JednaJedna petinapetina svetskogsvetskog stanovnistanovnišštata ž živiivi uu ekstremnomekstremnom siromasiromašštvutvu ProseProseččnini prihodiprihodi uu bogatihbogatih 20 20 zemaljazemalja susu 37 37 putaputa veveććii negonego uu

dvadesetdvadeset najsiromanajsiromaššnijihnijih ii tajtaj odnosodnos sese skoroskoro dupliraoduplirao uu poslednjihposlednjih dvadesetdvadeset godinagodina

SubvencijeSubvencije zaza poljoprivrednepoljoprivredne proizvodeproizvode uu razvijenimrazvijenim zemljamazemljama susu 6 6 putaputa veveććii odod pomopomoććii zaza razvojrazvoj kojakoja sese ukazujeukazuje zemljamazemljama uu razvojurazvoju ii nerazvijenimnerazvijenim zemljamazemljama

CarineCarine ( (nene raraččunajuunajuććii tzvtzv. . necarinskenecarinske barijerebarijere) ) zaza roburobu iziz nerazvijenihnerazvijenih zemaljazemalja susu 4 4 putaputa veveććee negonego nana roburobu iziz zemaljazemalja OECDOECD--aa

ViViššee odod 30 000 30 000 decedece umreumre svakogsvakog danadana odod zarazazaraza kojekoje sese veomaveoma lako mogulako mogu sprespreččitiiti

JednaJedna milijardamilijarda ljudiljudi nemanema pristuppristup zdravojzdravoj vodivodi zaza pipiććee Ukupno bogatstvo 358 svetskih milijardera prevazilazi zarade 45 Ukupno bogatstvo 358 svetskih milijardera prevazilazi zarade 45

procenata svetskog stanovniprocenata svetskog stanovništvaštva U Africi samo jedna treU Africi samo jedna trećina dece uspe da završi osnovnu školućina dece uspe da završi osnovnu školu Afričke zemlje plaćaju svakog dana 40 miliona dolara samo na ime Afričke zemlje plaćaju svakog dana 40 miliona dolara samo na ime

kamata i otplatu dugovakamata i otplatu dugova

Introduction: the continuing Introduction: the continuing relevance of Marxismrelevance of Marxism

Marx’s work retains its relevance despite the Marx’s work retains its relevance despite the collapse of Communist party rule in the former collapse of Communist party rule in the former Soviet Union.Soviet Union.

Of particular importance is Marx’s analysis of Of particular importance is Marx’s analysis of capitalism, which has yet to be bettered.capitalism, which has yet to be bettered.

Marxist analyses of international relations aim to Marxist analyses of international relations aim to reveal the hidden workings of global capitalism. reveal the hidden workings of global capitalism. These hidden workings provide the context in These hidden workings provide the context in which international events occur.which international events occur.

The essential elements of Marxist The essential elements of Marxist theories of world politicstheories of world politics

Marx himself provided little in terms of a Marx himself provided little in terms of a theoretical analysis of International Relations.theoretical analysis of International Relations.

His ideas have been interpreted and His ideas have been interpreted and appropriated in a number of different and appropriated in a number of different and contradictory ways resulting in a number of contradictory ways resulting in a number of competing schools of Marxism.competing schools of Marxism.

Underlying these different schools are several Underlying these different schools are several common elements that can be traced back to common elements that can be traced back to Marx's writings.Marx's writings.

KapitalizamKapitalizam Sredstva za proSredstva za proizvodnjuizvodnju Proizvodni odnosiProizvodni odnosi

FirstFirst, all the marxist theorists share with , all the marxist theorists share with Marx the view that the social world should Marx the view that the social world should be analysed as a be analysed as a totalitytotality..

For them the academic division of the For them the academic division of the social world into different areas of enquiry social world into different areas of enquiry – history, philosophy, economics, political – history, philosophy, economics, political science, sociology, international relations science, sociology, international relations etc. – is both arbitrary and unhelpful.etc. – is both arbitrary and unhelpful.

Rather, none can be understood without Rather, none can be understood without knowledge of the others: knowledge of the others: the social the social world had to be studied as a wholeworld had to be studied as a whole

Another keAnother keyy element element of Marxist thought, of Marxist thought, which serves further to underline this concern which serves further to underline this concern with interconnection and context, is the with interconnection and context, is the materialist conception of historymaterialist conception of history. .

The central contention here is that process of The central contention here is that process of historical change are ultimately a reflection of historical change are ultimately a reflection of the economic development of societythe economic development of society

Means of productionMeans of production + + relations of relations of productionproduction = = economic base of societyeconomic base of society

ClassClass pla plays a key role in Marxist ys a key role in Marxist analysis. In contrast to liberals who analysis. In contrast to liberals who believe that there is an essential believe that there is an essential harmony of interest between various harmony of interest between various social groups, Marxist hold that social groups, Marxist hold that society is systematically prone to society is systematically prone to class conflict.class conflict.

Marxism, one or Marxism, one or many? many?

World-system theoryWorld-system theory

World-system theory can be seen as a direct World-system theory can be seen as a direct development of Lenin’s work on imperialism and development of Lenin’s work on imperialism and the Latin American dependency school.the Latin American dependency school.

Immanuel Wallerstein and his work on the Immanuel Wallerstein and his work on the modern world-system is a key contribution to this modern world-system is a key contribution to this school.school.

Wallerstein’s work has been developed by a Wallerstein’s work has been developed by a number of other writers who have built on his number of other writers who have built on his initial foundational work.initial foundational work.

Za ValerZa Valeršštajna ključna forma tajna ključna forma organizovanja društva kroz istoriju su organizovanja društva kroz istoriju su svetski sistemisvetski sistemi . .

Postoje dva tipa svetskog sistema Postoje dva tipa svetskog sistema kroz istoriju: 1) kroz istoriju: 1) svetske imperijesvetske imperije 2) 2) svetske ekonomijesvetske ekonomije. .

Glavna razlika između njih se zasniva na tome Glavna razlika između njih se zasniva na tome kako se donose odluke o raspodeli resursa kako se donose odluke o raspodeli resursa (bogatstava). (bogatstava).

U svetskim imperijama, centralizovani politički U svetskim imperijama, centralizovani politički sistem koristi svoju moć da preraspodeli resurse sistem koristi svoju moć da preraspodeli resurse od perifernih obalsti ka oblasti središnjeg jezgra.od perifernih obalsti ka oblasti središnjeg jezgra.

U svetskim ekonomijama nema takvog U svetskim ekonomijama nema takvog centralnog političkog sistema već pre postoji centralnog političkog sistema već pre postoji više međuasobno kompetitivnih centara moći. više međuasobno kompetitivnih centara moći. Resursi se ne distribuiraju političkimm odlukama Resursi se ne distribuiraju političkimm odlukama nego preko nego preko tržištatržišta koje postaje posrednik. koje postaje posrednik.

IAKO JE MEHANIZAM ZA IAKO JE MEHANIZAM ZA RASPODELU RESURSA RASPODELU RESURSA

RAZLIČIT, EFEKAT JE ISTI: RAZLIČIT, EFEKAT JE ISTI: RESURSI IDU OD RESURSI IDU OD

PERIFERIJE KA CENTRUPERIFERIJE KA CENTRU

MODERNI SVETSKI SISTEM JE PRIMER MODERNI SVETSKI SISTEM JE PRIMER SVETSKE EKONOMIJESVETSKE EKONOMIJE

Taj sistem se pojavio u Evropi početkom Taj sistem se pojavio u Evropi početkom 16.veka, onda se proširio na ceo svet.16.veka, onda se proširio na ceo svet.

vodeća snaga ovog sistema je kapitalizamvodeća snaga ovog sistema je kapitalizam sve se društvene insve se društvene insstituctituciije vremenom je vremenom

menjaju i prilagođavaju promenjenim menjaju i prilagođavaju promenjenim okolnostimaokolnostima

VremenomVremenom, doći će do kraja ovog sistema, doći će do kraja ovog sistema

tri ekonomske zone sveta: jezgro tri ekonomske zone sveta: jezgro (centar), poluperiferija, periferija;(centar), poluperiferija, periferija;

poluperiferije imaju neke od poluperiferije imaju neke od karakteristika i jedne i druge oblastikarakteristika i jedne i druge oblasti

eksploatatorski odnos koji danas eksploatatorski odnos koji danas postoji u svetu i koji izvlači bogatstva postoji u svetu i koji izvlači bogatstva iz periferije i prenosi ga u centariz periferije i prenosi ga u centar

Ovo su bili elementi Ovo su bili elementi prostorneprostorne dimenzije sistemadimenzije sistema

Postoje i vremenska dimenzija sistema. Postoje i vremenska dimenzija sistema. Njeni elementi su: Njeni elementi su: ciklični ritmoviciklični ritmovi (boom and bust u svetskoj ekonomiji); (boom and bust u svetskoj ekonomiji); sekularni trendovisekularni trendovi (dugoročni rast ili (dugoročni rast ili smanjenje svetske ekonomije); smanjenje svetske ekonomije); protivrečnostiprotivrečnosti (smanjiti plate, a (smanjiti plate, a maksimizirati profite vlasnika); maksimizirati profite vlasnika); krizekrize (kad se ova tri elementa pojave na taj (kad se ova tri elementa pojave na taj način da sistem više ne može način da sistem više ne može funkcionisati)funkcionisati)

ValerValeršštajnove prognoze o tajnove prognoze o padu američke moćipadu američke moći

GramscianismGramscianism

Drawing upon the work of Antonio Gramsci for Drawing upon the work of Antonio Gramsci for inspiration, writers within an ‘Italian’ school of inspiration, writers within an ‘Italian’ school of international relations have made a considerable international relations have made a considerable contribution to thinking about world politics.contribution to thinking about world politics.

GramscianismGramscianism

Gramsci shifted the focus of Marxist analysis Gramsci shifted the focus of Marxist analysis more towards superstructural phenomena. In more towards superstructural phenomena. In particular he explored the processes by which particular he explored the processes by which consent for a particular social and political consent for a particular social and political system was produced and reproduced through system was produced and reproduced through the operation of the operation of hegemonyhegemony. Hegemony allows . Hegemony allows the ideas and ideologies of the ruling stratum to the ideas and ideologies of the ruling stratum to become widely dispersed, and widely accepted, become widely dispersed, and widely accepted, throughout society.throughout society.

The key The key question which animated question which animated Gramsci’s theoretical work was why Gramsci’s theoretical work was why had it proven to be so difficult to had it proven to be so difficult to promote revolution in Western Europe.promote revolution in Western Europe.

The history of the early twentieth The history of the early twentieth century seemed to suggest, therefore, century seemed to suggest, therefore, that there was a flaw in classic Marxist that there was a flaw in classic Marxist analysis.analysis.

But where had they gone wrong? But where had they gone wrong?

Gramsci’s answer to this question revolves around his use Gramsci’s answer to this question revolves around his use of the concept of of the concept of hegemonyhegemony..

Gramsci’s use of hegemony is also related to his Gramsci’s use of hegemony is also related to his understanding of power, but it reflects a conceptualization understanding of power, but it reflects a conceptualization of power that is broader and richer than that usually of power that is broader and richer than that usually encountered in the work of contemporary realist.encountered in the work of contemporary realist.

Gramsci adopts Machiavelli’s view of power as a centaur, Gramsci adopts Machiavelli’s view of power as a centaur, half beast, half man: a mixture of coercion and consent.half beast, half man: a mixture of coercion and consent.

However, the capitalist system was maintained not merely However, the capitalist system was maintained not merely by coercion, but also through consent.by coercion, but also through consent.

Consent, on Gramsci’s reading is created and recreated by Consent, on Gramsci’s reading is created and recreated by the hegemony of the ruling stratum in society. It is this the hegemony of the ruling stratum in society. It is this hegemony that allows the moral, political, and cultural hegemony that allows the moral, political, and cultural values of the dominant group to become widely dispersed values of the dominant group to become widely dispersed throughout society and to be accepted bt subordinate throughout society and to be accepted bt subordinate groups as their own.groups as their own.

Indeed, according to Gramsci’s analysis, dominant Indeed, according to Gramsci’s analysis, dominant ideologies become sedimented in society to the extent that ideologies become sedimented in society to the extent that they take on the status of unquestioned “common sense”. they take on the status of unquestioned “common sense”.

All this takes place through the institutions of All this takes place through the institutions of civil societycivil society.. Civil society is the network of institutions and practices in Civil society is the network of institutions and practices in

society that enjoy some autonomy from the state, and society that enjoy some autonomy from the state, and through which groups and individuals organize, represent, through which groups and individuals organize, represent, and express themselves to each other and to the state. and express themselves to each other and to the state. These include, for example, the media, the education These include, for example, the media, the education system,. Churches, voluntary organizations, etc. system,. Churches, voluntary organizations, etc.

Historic bloc – mutually reinforcing and reciprocal Historic bloc – mutually reinforcing and reciprocal relationship between the socio-economic relations (base) relationship between the socio-economic relations (base) and political and cultural practices (super-structure) that and political and cultural practices (super-structure) that together underpin a given order.together underpin a given order.

It is the interaction that mattersIt is the interaction that matters A counter-hegemonic struggle in civil societyA counter-hegemonic struggle in civil society

Thinkers such as Robert W. Cox have attempted Thinkers such as Robert W. Cox have attempted to ‘internationalize’ Gramsci’s thought by to ‘internationalize’ Gramsci’s thought by transposing several of his key concepts, most transposing several of his key concepts, most notably hegemony, to the global context.notably hegemony, to the global context.

Robert Cox- svetski poredakRobert Cox- svetski poredak čuvena rečenica iz jednog njegovog čuvena rečenica iz jednog njegovog

članka iz 1982. godine: ”članka iz 1982. godine: ”Teorija je Teorija je uvek za nekoga i u nečije svrheuvek za nekoga i u nečije svrhe. . Ne postoji teorija koja se može Ne postoji teorija koja se može razdvojiti od tačke gledišta u razdvojiti od tačke gledišta u vremenu i prostoruvremenu i prostoru””

Dakle, znanje, teorije i bezbednost Dakle, znanje, teorije i bezbednost uvek služe nekome i nečijim ciljevima.uvek služe nekome i nečijim ciljevima.

Prema Koksu velike sile koje su se smenjivale, da Prema Koksu velike sile koje su se smenjivale, da tako kažemo na čelu sveta, oblikovale su svetski tako kažemo na čelu sveta, oblikovale su svetski poredak tako da služi njihovim interesima. Tu se poredak tako da služi njihovim interesima. Tu se ne radi samo o sredstvima prinude putem kojih su ne radi samo o sredstvima prinude putem kojih su to uradili već i o pokušaju da se stvori podrška to uradili već i o pokušaju da se stvori podrška među onima kojima takav jedan poredak ne među onima kojima takav jedan poredak ne donosi prednosti.donosi prednosti.

Recimo, za dva skorašnja takva hegemona Recimo, za dva skorašnja takva hegemona (Britanija i SAD) takva vodeća ideja bila je (Britanija i SAD) takva vodeća ideja bila je slobodna trgovina.slobodna trgovina.

Priča se da to donosi dobro svima a ipak Priča se da to donosi dobro svima a ipak neki dobijaju mnogo više u celoj toj situaciji.neki dobijaju mnogo više u celoj toj situaciji.

Critical theoryCritical theory

Critical theory has its roots in the work of the Critical theory has its roots in the work of the Frankfurt School, a group of thinkers including Frankfurt School, a group of thinkers including Max Horkheimer, Theodor Adorno, Herbert Max Horkheimer, Theodor Adorno, Herbert Marcuse, and Jürgen Habermas.Marcuse, and Jürgen Habermas.

Among the key concerns of critical theorists is Among the key concerns of critical theorists is emancipation, and, in particular, the human emancipation, and, in particular, the human capacities and capabilities appealed to in calls capacities and capabilities appealed to in calls for emancipatory action.for emancipatory action.

Sam naziv Sam naziv kritičke teorijekritičke teorije treba razumeti treba razumeti u kontekstu onoga što je Robert Koks u kontekstu onoga što je Robert Koks označio kao označio kao teorije koje rešavaju teorije koje rešavaju problemeprobleme ( (problemsolving theoriesproblemsolving theories) i ) i kritičke teorijekritičke teorije. .

““Problemsolving theoriesProblemsolving theories” uzimaju ” uzimaju postojeće političke i društvene odnose i postojeće političke i društvene odnose i institucije kao takve i zadatak teorija jeste institucije kao takve i zadatak teorija jeste da probleme koji izrastaju iz takvih odnosa da probleme koji izrastaju iz takvih odnosa reše i poboljšaju. reše i poboljšaju.

Kritičke teorije, nasuprot tome Kritičke teorije, nasuprot tome pokušavaju da razumeju kako su se pokušavaju da razumeju kako su se takvi odnosi i institucije uopšte takvi odnosi i institucije uopšte pojavili i šta i kako treba da bude pojavili i šta i kako treba da bude urađeno da bi se oni promenili. urađeno da bi se oni promenili.

LJUDSKA EMANCIPACIJA-LJUDSKA EMANCIPACIJA-DEFINICIJA:DEFINICIJA:

"OSLOBOĐENJE LJUDI, KAKO "OSLOBOĐENJE LJUDI, KAKO POJEDINACA TAKO I GRUPA, OD POJEDINACA TAKO I GRUPA, OD SOCIJALNIH, FIZIČKIH, SOCIJALNIH, FIZIČKIH, EKONOMSKIH POLITIČKIH I EKONOMSKIH POLITIČKIH I DRUGIH PREPREKA KOJE IH DRUGIH PREPREKA KOJE IH SPREČAVAJU DA SPROVEDU SPREČAVAJU DA SPROVEDU (OSTVARE) ONO ŠTO SU ONI (OSTVARE) ONO ŠTO SU ONI SLOBODNOM VOLJOM IZABRALI SLOBODNOM VOLJOM IZABRALI DA URADE. DA URADE.


Several different understandings of Several different understandings of emancipation have emerged from the critical emancipation have emerged from the critical theory tradition. The first generation of the theory tradition. The first generation of the Frankfurt School equated emancipation with a Frankfurt School equated emancipation with a reconciliation with nature. Habermas has argued reconciliation with nature. Habermas has argued that emancipatory potential lies in the realm of that emancipatory potential lies in the realm of communication and that radical democracy is communication and that radical democracy is the way in which that potential can be unlocked.the way in which that potential can be unlocked.


Andrew Linklater has developed critical theory Andrew Linklater has developed critical theory themes to argue in favour of the expansion of themes to argue in favour of the expansion of the moral boundaries of the political community, the moral boundaries of the political community, and has pointed to the European Union as an and has pointed to the European Union as an example of a post-Westphalian institution of example of a post-Westphalian institution of governance.governance.

New MarxismNew Marxism

New Marxism is characterized by a direct New Marxism is characterized by a direct (re)appropriation of the concepts and categories (re)appropriation of the concepts and categories developed by Marx.developed by Marx.

Bill WarrenBill Warren deploys Marx’s analysis of capitalism deploys Marx’s analysis of capitalism and colonialism to criticize some of the central and colonialism to criticize some of the central ideas of dependency and world-system theorists.ideas of dependency and world-system theorists.

Justin RosenbergJustin Rosenberg, who was used key elements of , who was used key elements of Marx’s writings to critique both realist approach to Marx’s writings to critique both realist approach to International Relations and globalization theoryInternational Relations and globalization theory

Bill Warren – imperialism and Bill Warren – imperialism and the rise of third world the rise of third world

capitalismcapitalism For Lenin, imperialism represented the phase where For Lenin, imperialism represented the phase where

capitalism definitively ceased to play any progressive capitalism definitively ceased to play any progressive function – imperialism was both “the highest stage of function – imperialism was both “the highest stage of capitalism” and its final stage. This view become the capitalism” and its final stage. This view become the standard Marxist and neo-Marxist position through much of standard Marxist and neo-Marxist position through much of the twentieth century.the twentieth century.

The British Marxist, Bill warren rejected this view.The British Marxist, Bill warren rejected this view. In his book In his book Imperialism: Pioneer of CapitalismImperialism: Pioneer of Capitalism (1980) he (1980) he

argued that Lenin had been both empirically and argued that Lenin had been both empirically and theoretically mistaken. theoretically mistaken.

He repeated Marx’s argument that capitalism is a necessary He repeated Marx’s argument that capitalism is a necessary stage in human developmentstage in human development

Capitalism according to Warren, was fulfilling his historic role Capitalism according to Warren, was fulfilling his historic role in the periphery by rapidly developing the means of in the periphery by rapidly developing the means of production, and, crucially for a future transition to socialism, production, and, crucially for a future transition to socialism, facilitating the mergence of an urban working class. facilitating the mergence of an urban working class. Imperialism should therefore be seen as “the pioneer of Imperialism should therefore be seen as “the pioneer of capitalism” rather than its “highest stage”capitalism” rather than its “highest stage”

Development of capitalism in a range of Third World Development of capitalism in a range of Third World countries had brought marked improvement in material countries had brought marked improvement in material sense. This improvement took three main forms – better sense. This improvement took three main forms – better health care, better education, and greater access to health care, better education, and greater access to consumer goods. Each of these was crucial in laying the consumer goods. Each of these was crucial in laying the foundations for the long-term development of productive foundations for the long-term development of productive forces. forces.

Furthermore, Warren argues that in the post-colonial era Furthermore, Warren argues that in the post-colonial era there has been an enormous increase in the wealth and there has been an enormous increase in the wealth and productive capacity of Third World Countries.productive capacity of Third World Countries.

This process has, of course, been uneven, and there have This process has, of course, been uneven, and there have been winners and losers, but such irregularities are been winners and losers, but such irregularities are inherent in capitalist development.inherent in capitalist development.

Overall, Warren suggests that the picture of North-South Overall, Warren suggests that the picture of North-South relations depicted by the dependency theorists and world-relations depicted by the dependency theorists and world-systems theorists is an incomplete one. systems theorists is an incomplete one.

Warren’s argument is clearly a contentious Warren’s argument is clearly a contentious one.one.

Nonetheless, in one important sense he Nonetheless, in one important sense he could be viewed as being essentially could be viewed as being essentially correct. Imperialism was not the “highest correct. Imperialism was not the “highest stage” of capitalism as Lenin had claimed, stage” of capitalism as Lenin had claimed, it was rather “the pioneer” by which the it was rather “the pioneer” by which the capitalist mode of production expanded capitalist mode of production expanded from its European heartland throughout from its European heartland throughout the globe. the globe.

Justin Rosenberg – capitalism Justin Rosenberg – capitalism and global social relations and global social relations

Warren focuses primarily on the economic possibilities that Warren focuses primarily on the economic possibilities that the expansion of capitalism provides for Third World the expansion of capitalism provides for Third World Countries. By contrast, the focus of Rosenberg’s analysis is Countries. By contrast, the focus of Rosenberg’s analysis is the character of the international system and its the character of the international system and its relationship to the changing character of social relations. relationship to the changing character of social relations.

His critique of Realist International Relations Theory, His critique of Realist International Relations Theory, especially to realism’s claim to provide an ahistorical, especially to realism’s claim to provide an ahistorical, essentially timeless account of international relations.essentially timeless account of international relations.

He analyses the differences in the character of international He analyses the differences in the character of international relations between the Greek and Italian city-states. A relations between the Greek and Italian city-states. A touchstone of Realist theory is the similarity between these touchstone of Realist theory is the similarity between these two historical cases.two historical cases.

Rosenberg however, describes the alleged resemblances Rosenberg however, describes the alleged resemblances between these two eras as a “gigantic optical illusion”.between these two eras as a “gigantic optical illusion”.

Instead his analysis suggests that the character of the Instead his analysis suggests that the character of the international system in each of these periods was international system in each of these periods was completely different. completely different.

As an alternative, Rosenberg argues As an alternative, Rosenberg argues for the development of a theory of for the development of a theory of international relations that is sensitive international relations that is sensitive to the changing character of world to the changing character of world politics. politics. This theory must also recognize that This theory must also recognize that international relations are part of a international relations are part of a broader pattern of social relations. broader pattern of social relations. The character of the relations of The character of the relations of production permeate the whole of production permeate the whole of society – right up to, and including, society – right up to, and including, relations between the states. relations between the states.

The form of the state will be different The form of the state will be different under different modes of production, and under different modes of production, and as a result the characteristics of inter-state as a result the characteristics of inter-state relations will also vary.relations will also vary.

Hence if we want to understand the way Hence if we want to understand the way that the international system operate in that the international system operate in any particular era, our starting point has any particular era, our starting point has to be an examination of the mode of to be an examination of the mode of production, and in particular the relations production, and in particular the relations of production. of production.

New MarxismNew Marxism

Rosenberg uses Marx’s ideas to criticize realist theories Rosenberg uses Marx’s ideas to criticize realist theories of international relations, and globalization theory. He of international relations, and globalization theory. He seeks to develop an alternative approach which seeks to develop an alternative approach which understands historical change in world politics as a understands historical change in world politics as a reflection of transformations in the prevailing relations of reflection of transformations in the prevailing relations of production.production.

Two of the core concepts in Realist theory, sovereignty Two of the core concepts in Realist theory, sovereignty and anarchy can fruitfully be reevaluated in the light’s of and anarchy can fruitfully be reevaluated in the light’s of Marxist method. Both of them reflect particular features Marxist method. Both of them reflect particular features of the capitalist era. of the capitalist era.

Book – The Empire of Civil Society: A Critique of the Book – The Empire of Civil Society: A Critique of the Realist Theory of International Relations, 1994Realist Theory of International Relations, 1994

Marxist theories of International Marxist theories of International Relations and globalizationRelations and globalization

Marxists are rather sceptical about the emphasis Marxists are rather sceptical about the emphasis currently being placed on the notion of currently being placed on the notion of globalization.globalization.

Rather than being a recent phenomenon they Rather than being a recent phenomenon they see the recent manifestations of globalization as see the recent manifestations of globalization as being part of long-term trends in the development being part of long-term trends in the development of capitalism.of capitalism.

Furthermore the notion of globalization is Furthermore the notion of globalization is increasingly being used as an ideological tool to increasingly being used as an ideological tool to justify reductions in workers rights and welfare justify reductions in workers rights and welfare provision.provision.

AlternativnoAlternativno -- kritikritički pristupi čki pristupi izučavanju međunarodnih izučavanju međunarodnih

odnosaodnosa

IntroductionIntroduction

Realism, liberalism, and Marxism together Realism, liberalism, and Marxism together comprised the comprised the inter-paradigm debateinter-paradigm debate of the of the 1980s, with realism dominant amongst the three 1980s, with realism dominant amongst the three theories. theories.

Despite promising intellectual openness, Despite promising intellectual openness, however, the inter-paradigm debate ended up however, the inter-paradigm debate ended up naturalizing the dominance of realism by naturalizing the dominance of realism by pretending that there was real contestation.pretending that there was real contestation.

IntroductionIntroduction In recent years, the dominance of realism has In recent years, the dominance of realism has

been undermined by three developments: first, been undermined by three developments: first, neo-liberal institutionalismneo-liberal institutionalism has become has become increasingly important; second, increasingly important; second, globalizationglobalization has brought a host of other features of world has brought a host of other features of world politics to centre-stage; third, politics to centre-stage; third, positivismpositivism, the , the underlying methodological assumption of underlying methodological assumption of realism, has been significantly undermined by realism, has been significantly undermined by developments in the social sciences and in developments in the social sciences and in philosophy.philosophy.

Explanatory/constitutive theories and Explanatory/constitutive theories and foundational/anti-foundational theoriesfoundational/anti-foundational theories

Theories can be distinguished according to Theories can be distinguished according to whether they are whether they are explanatoryexplanatory or or constitutiveconstitutive and whether they are and whether they are foundationalfoundational or or anti-anti-foundational.foundational. As a rough guide, explanatory As a rough guide, explanatory theories tend to be foundational and constitutive theories tend to be foundational and constitutive theories tend to be anti-foundational.theories tend to be anti-foundational.


The three main theories comprising the The three main theories comprising the inter-inter-paradigm debateparadigm debate were based on a set of were based on a set of positivist assumptions, namely that a denial of positivist assumptions, namely that a denial of the idea that social science theories can use the the idea that social science theories can use the same methodologies as theories of the natural same methodologies as theories of the natural sciences, that facts and values can be sciences, that facts and values can be distinguished, that neutral facts can act as distinguished, that neutral facts can act as arbiters between rival truth claims, and that the arbiters between rival truth claims, and that the social world has regularities which theories can social world has regularities which theories can ‘discover’.‘discover’.


Since the late 1980s there has been a rejection ofSince the late 1980s there has been a rejection of positivismpositivism, with the main new approaches tending , with the main new approaches tending more towardsmore towards constitutive and anti-foundational constitutive and anti-foundational assumptions.assumptions.

The current theoretical situation is one in which The current theoretical situation is one in which there are three main positions: first, there are three main positions: first, rationalistrationalist theories that are essentially the latest versions of theories that are essentially the latest versions of the the realistrealist and and liberalliberal theories; second, theories; second, alternativealternative theories that are theories that are post-positivistpost-positivist; and thirdly ; and thirdly social social constructivistconstructivist theories that try to bridge the gap. theories that try to bridge the gap.


Alternative approaches at once differ Alternative approaches at once differ considerably from one another, and at the same considerably from one another, and at the same time overlap in some important ways. One thing time overlap in some important ways. One thing that they do share is a rejection of the core that they do share is a rejection of the core assumptions of assumptions of rationalistrationalist theories. theories.

Historical sociologyHistorical sociology Normative theoryNormative theory Feminist theoryFeminist theory Post-modernismPost-modernism PostPost- - colonialismcolonialism

Historical sociologyHistorical sociology

Historical sociologyHistorical sociology has a long history, having has a long history, having been a subject of study for several centuries. Its been a subject of study for several centuries. Its central focus is with central focus is with how societies develop the how societies develop the forms that they doforms that they do..

Contemporary historical sociology is concerned Contemporary historical sociology is concerned above all with how the state has developed above all with how the state has developed since the Middle Ages. It is basically a study of since the Middle Ages. It is basically a study of the the interactions between states, classes, interactions between states, classes, capitalism, and war.capitalism, and war.

Historical sociologyHistorical sociology In his 1990 bookIn his 1990 book, , Coercion, Capital and European States, AD 900-Coercion, Capital and European States, AD 900-

1990, 1990, Tilly poses the following question: “What accounts for the Tilly poses the following question: “What accounts for the great variation over time and space in the kinds of states that have great variation over time and space in the kinds of states that have prevailed in Europe since AD 900, and why did European States prevailed in Europe since AD 900, and why did European States eventually converge on different form of national state?”eventually converge on different form of national state?”

Namely, he looks at how the three main kinds of state forms that Namely, he looks at how the three main kinds of state forms that existed at the end of the Middle Ages eventually converged on one existed at the end of the Middle Ages eventually converged on one form, namely the form, namely the national statenational state. He argues that the decisive reason . He argues that the decisive reason was the ability of the national state to was the ability of the national state to fight warsfight wars..

Distinguished betweenDistinguished between capital-intensive capital-intensive and c and coercion-intensiveoercion-intensive regimes (or economic power-based and military power based regimes (or economic power-based and military power based system), Tilly notes that three types of states resulted from the system), Tilly notes that three types of states resulted from the combinations of these forms of power, tribute making empires, combinations of these forms of power, tribute making empires, systems of fragmented sovereignty (city-states), and national states. systems of fragmented sovereignty (city-states), and national states.

These states were the result of the different class structure that These states were the result of the different class structure that resulted from the concentrations of capital and coercion. resulted from the concentrations of capital and coercion.

With the rise of the scale of war, the result With the rise of the scale of war, the result was that national states started to acquire was that national states started to acquire a decisive advantage over the other kinds a decisive advantage over the other kinds of state organizations.of state organizations.

This was because national states could This was because national states could afford large armies and could respond to afford large armies and could respond to the demands of the classes representing the demands of the classes representing both agricultural and commercial both agricultural and commercial interests.interests.

States, in other words become States, in other words become transformed by war transformed by war

Tilly notes that the three types of states Tilly notes that the three types of states noted above, all converged on one version of noted above, all converged on one version of the state, so now that is seen as the norm.the state, so now that is seen as the norm.

Yet, in contrast to neo-realism , he notes that Yet, in contrast to neo-realism , he notes that the state has not been of one form the state has not been of one form throughout its history.throughout its history.

The national state acquires more and more The national state acquires more and more power over its population by its involvement power over its population by its involvement in war, and therefore could dominate other in war, and therefore could dominate other state forms because they were more efficient state forms because they were more efficient than either tribute-gathering empires or city-than either tribute-gathering empires or city-states in this process. states in this process.

Michael MannMichael Mann has developed a powerful model of the has developed a powerful model of the sources of state power, known as the sources of state power, known as the IEMP ModelIEMP Model.. (Ideological, Economic, Military, and Political (Ideological, Economic, Military, and Political Forms of Power)Forms of Power)

Book – Book – The Sources of Social PowerThe Sources of Social Power, 4 Volume, , 4 Volume, 1986-20031986-2003

This is an enormously ambitious project, aimed This is an enormously ambitious project, aimed at showing just how states have taken the forms at showing just how states have taken the forms that they have. that they have.

In other words, Mann studies the ways in which In other words, Mann studies the ways in which the various forms of power have combined in the various forms of power have combined in specific historical circumstancesspecific historical circumstances

His work is similar to Tilly, but the major His work is similar to Tilly, but the major innovation of Mann’s work is that he has innovation of Mann’s work is that he has developed a sophisticated account of forms of developed a sophisticated account of forms of power that combine to form certain types of power that combine to form certain types of states. states.

Mann differentiates between three aspects of Mann differentiates between three aspects of power: 1. Between distributive and collective power: 1. Between distributive and collective power 2. Extensive and Intensive power 3. power 2. Extensive and Intensive power 3. Power may be authoritative and diffused Power may be authoritative and diffused

Mann argued that that the most effective Mann argued that that the most effective exercise of power combines all three exercise of power combines all three elements. elements.

Her argues that there are four sources of social Her argues that there are four sources of social power, which together may determine the overall power, which together may determine the overall structure of societies. The four are: 1. structure of societies. The four are: 1. Ideological Ideological powerpower derives from the human need to find ultimate derives from the human need to find ultimate meaning in life, to share norms and values and to meaning in life, to share norms and values and to participate in aesthetic and ritual practices 2. participate in aesthetic and ritual practices 2. Economic powerEconomic power derives from the need to extract, derives from the need to extract, transform, distribute and consume the resources of transform, distribute and consume the resources of nature 3. nature 3. Military powerMilitary power is the social organization is the social organization of physical force. It derives from the necessity of of physical force. It derives from the necessity of organized defense and the utility of aggression. 4. organized defense and the utility of aggression. 4. Political powerPolitical power derives from the usefulness of derives from the usefulness of territorial and centralized regulation. Political power territorial and centralized regulation. Political power means state power. means state power.

The struggle to control ideological, The struggle to control ideological, economic, military, and political economic, military, and political power organizations provides the power organizations provides the central drama of social development. central drama of social development. Societies are structured primarily by Societies are structured primarily by entwined ideological, economic, entwined ideological, economic, military, and political power. military, and political power.

Like realism, historical sociology is interested in Like realism, historical sociology is interested in war. war. But it undercuts But it undercuts neo-realismneo-realism because it because it shows that the state is not one functionally shows that the state is not one functionally similar organization, but instead has altered over similar organization, but instead has altered over time. time.

The concerns of historical sociology are The concerns of historical sociology are compatible with a number of the other compatible with a number of the other approaches surveyed in this chapter including approaches surveyed in this chapter including feminismfeminism and and postmodernismpostmodernism..

Normative theoryNormative theory

Normative theory was out of fashion for decades because Normative theory was out of fashion for decades because of the dominance of positivism, which portrayed it as of the dominance of positivism, which portrayed it as ‘value-laden’ and ‘unscientific’.‘value-laden’ and ‘unscientific’.

In the last fifteen years or so there has been a resurgence In the last fifteen years or so there has been a resurgence of interest in normative theory. It is now more widely of interest in normative theory. It is now more widely accepted that all theories have normative assumptions accepted that all theories have normative assumptions either explicitly or implicitly.either explicitly or implicitly.

““By normative international relations theory is meant that By normative international relations theory is meant that

body of work which addresses the moral dimension ofbody of work which addresses the moral dimension of international relations and the wider questions of meaning international relations and the wider questions of meaning and interpretation generated by the discipline.” (Chris and interpretation generated by the discipline.” (Chris

Brown)Brown)


The key distinction in normative theory is The key distinction in normative theory is between cosmopolitanism and between cosmopolitanism and communitarianism. The former sees the bearers communitarianism. The former sees the bearers of rights and obligations as individuals; the latter of rights and obligations as individuals; the latter sees them as being the community (usually the sees them as being the community (usually the state).state).

Main areas of debate in contemporary normative Main areas of debate in contemporary normative theory include the autonomy of the state, the theory include the autonomy of the state, the ethics of the use of force, and international ethics of the use of force, and international justice.justice.


The moral value assigned to state The moral value assigned to state autonomy autonomy

The ethics of interstate violence – known The ethics of interstate violence – known as as Just War Theory Just War Theory

The issues of international JusticeThe issues of international Justice

The moral value assigned to state The moral value assigned to state autonomyautonomy

međunarodna politika počiva na društvu država sa određenim međunarodna politika počiva na društvu država sa određenim pravilima, premda ta pravila nisu uvek sasvim poštovana.pravilima, premda ta pravila nisu uvek sasvim poštovana.

Najvažnije pravilo je državni suverenitet, koji zabranjuje Najvažnije pravilo je državni suverenitet, koji zabranjuje državama intervenisanje izvan vlastitih državnih granica u državama intervenisanje izvan vlastitih državnih granica u prostor tuđe jurisdikcijeprostor tuđe jurisdikcije..

Politikolog Majkl Volcer, na primer, smatra da nacionalne Politikolog Majkl Volcer, na primer, smatra da nacionalne granice imaju moralni značaj, zato što države predstavljaju granice imaju moralni značaj, zato što države predstavljaju ukupna prava pojedinaca koji su se udružili radi zajedničkog ukupna prava pojedinaca koji su se udružili radi zajedničkog života. života.

Drugi jednostavnije kažu da je poštovanje suvereniteta najbolji Drugi jednostavnije kažu da je poštovanje suvereniteta najbolji način očuvanja poretka. „Dobre ograde stvaraju dobre susede“, način očuvanja poretka. „Dobre ograde stvaraju dobre susede“, po rečima pesnika Roberta Frosta.po rečima pesnika Roberta Frosta.

U praktičnom životu, ova pravila ponašanja država se često krše.U praktičnom životu, ova pravila ponašanja država se često krše. U nekoliko poslednjih decenija, Vijetnam je napao Kambodžu, U nekoliko poslednjih decenija, Vijetnam je napao Kambodžu,

Kina napala Vijetnam, Tanzanija izvršila napad na Ugandu, Izrael Kina napala Vijetnam, Tanzanija izvršila napad na Ugandu, Izrael napao Liban, Sovjetski Savez je izvršio invaziju Avganistana, napao Liban, Sovjetski Savez je izvršio invaziju Avganistana, Sjedinjene Američke Države su intervenisale u Grenadi i u Sjedinjene Američke Države su intervenisale u Grenadi i u Panami, Irak je napao Iran i Kuvajt, Sjedinjene Države i Velika Panami, Irak je napao Iran i Kuvajt, Sjedinjene Države i Velika Britanija su napale na Irak, a NATO je bombardovao Srbiju zbog Britanija su napale na Irak, a NATO je bombardovao Srbiju zbog načina na koji se odnosila prema pokrajini Kosovo i Metohija- da načina na koji se odnosila prema pokrajini Kosovo i Metohija- da navedemo samo neke primerenavedemo samo neke primere

The ethics of interstate violence – The ethics of interstate violence – known as known as Just War TheoryJust War Theory

U U knjizi knjizi Just and Unjust Wars (Pravedni i nepravedni Just and Unjust Wars (Pravedni i nepravedni ratovi)ratovi), , Majkl VolcerMajkl Volcer, , politikolog koji nastupa sa pozicije politikolog koji nastupa sa pozicije državnih moralistadržavnih moralista, , iznosi četiri iznosi četiri slučaja slučaja u kojima bi se u kojima bi se mogli moralno opravdati rat ili vojna intervencija, a da to mogli moralno opravdati rat ili vojna intervencija, a da to ne bude otvorena agresijane bude otvorena agresija.. Prvi izuzetakPrvi izuzetak od strogog od strogog pravila je preduhitrujupravila je preduhitrujućća a ((preemptivnapreemptivna) ) intervencijaintervencija, , za za koju se kao primer uzima izraelski napadkoju se kao primer uzima izraelski napad 1967. 1967. godinegodine.. Drugo odstupanjeDrugo odstupanje od strogog pravila javlja se kada je od strogog pravila javlja se kada je intervencija neohodna kako bi se uravnotežila prethodna intervencija neohodna kako bi se uravnotežila prethodna intervencijaintervencija. . Ovo pravilo potiče iz vremena Džona Ovo pravilo potiče iz vremena Džona Stjuarta Mila i liberalnog mišljenja devetneastog veka, i Stjuarta Mila i liberalnog mišljenja devetneastog veka, i govori o tome kako ljudi imaju pravo da odlučuju o govori o tome kako ljudi imaju pravo da odlučuju o sopstvenoj sudbini. sopstvenoj sudbini. Treće odstupanjeTreće odstupanje od pravila protiv od pravila protiv intervencije je kada je neophodno spasavanje ljudi intervencije je kada je neophodno spasavanje ljudi kojima preti masakrkojima preti masakr. . Četvrto odstupanjeČetvrto odstupanje od od neintervenisanja je pravo na pomoć secesionističkim neintervenisanja je pravo na pomoć secesionističkim pokretima pokretima onda onda kada kada su reprezentativni.su reprezentativni.

The issues of international JusticeThe issues of international Justice

Specific regard to the obligations that the Specific regard to the obligations that the richer states of the world have to poorer richer states of the world have to poorer countriescountries

The question whether international The question whether international institutions have moral responsibilities.institutions have moral responsibilities.

temeljna vrednost je pravdatemeljna vrednost je pravda, , a kljua ključčna na memeđđunarodna institucija je druunarodna institucija je drušštvo tvo pojedinacapojedinaca. . Prema tome, intervencija Prema tome, intervencija može da bude opravdana ako unapređuje može da bude opravdana ako unapređuje pravdu za pojedince i ljudska prava. pravdu za pojedince i ljudska prava. Dozvoljeno je intervenisati na strani dobra. Dozvoljeno je intervenisati na strani dobra.


In the last two decades, normative issues have In the last two decades, normative issues have become more relevant to debates about foreign become more relevant to debates about foreign policy, for example in discussions of how to policy, for example in discussions of how to respond to calls for humanitarian intervention respond to calls for humanitarian intervention and whether war should be framed in terms of a and whether war should be framed in terms of a battle between good and evil.battle between good and evil.

Feminist theoryFeminist theory Присталице феминистичке школе Присталице феминистичке школе

сматрају да је проблем односа међу сматрају да је проблем односа међу половима био изостављен из литературе половима био изостављен из литературе о међународној безбедности, упркос о међународној безбедности, упркос чињеници да рат утиче на женечињеници да рат утиче на жене

Феминистичка школа такође истиче да Феминистичка школа такође истиче да повратак питања односа међу половима повратак питања односа међу половима може да доведе до реконцептуализације може да доведе до реконцептуализације студија међународне безбедностистудија међународне безбедности

Five main types of feminist theory: 1) Five main types of feminist theory: 1) liberalliberal 2) 2) socialist/Marxistsocialist/Marxist 3) 3) standpointstandpoint 4) 4) post-modernpost-modern 5) 5) post-colonial post-colonial

Liberal feminismLiberal feminism

LiberalLiberal feminism looks at the roles women play in feminism looks at the roles women play in world politics and asks why they are marginalized. It world politics and asks why they are marginalized. It wants the same opportunities afforded to women as wants the same opportunities afforded to women as are afforded to men.are afforded to men.

All rights should be granted to woman equallly with All rights should be granted to woman equallly with man. This is why liberalman. This is why liberal

Cynthia EnloeCynthia Enloe

Marxist/socialistMarxist/socialist (materialist) (materialist) feministsfeminists

Marxist/socialistMarxist/socialist (materialist) feminists (materialist) feminists focus on the focus on the international capitalist international capitalist system.system. Marxist feminists see the Marxist feminists see the oppression of women as a by‑product of oppression of women as a by‑product of capitalism, whereas socialist feminists see capitalism, whereas socialist feminists see both capitalism andboth capitalism and patriarchy patriarchy as the as the structures to be overcome if women are to structures to be overcome if women are to have any hope of equality.have any hope of equality.

Rosemary Hennessy, Chrys Ingraham, Rosemary Hennessy, Chrys Ingraham, book – Materialist feminism: A Reader in book – Materialist feminism: A Reader in Class, Difference and Women’s Lives, 1997Class, Difference and Women’s Lives, 1997

StandpointStandpoint feministsfeminists

StandpointStandpoint feminists, such as feminists, such as J. Ann TicknerJ. Ann Tickner want to correct the male dominance of our want to correct the male dominance of our knowledge of the world. Tickner does this be re-knowledge of the world. Tickner does this be re-describing the six ‘objective’ principles of describing the six ‘objective’ principles of international politics developed by international politics developed by Hans Hans MorgenthauMorgenthau according to a female version of according to a female version of the world.the world.

Standpoint feminists argue that seeing the world Standpoint feminists argue that seeing the world from the standpoint of women radically alters our from the standpoint of women radically alters our understanding of that world. understanding of that world.

Post-modernist feminist Post-modernist feminist Post-modernistPost-modernist feminists are concerned with gender as feminists are concerned with gender as

opposed to the position of women as such. They look opposed to the position of women as such. They look into the ways in whichinto the ways in which masculinity masculinity and and femininityfemininity get get constructed, and are especially interested in how world constructed, and are especially interested in how world politics constructs certain types of ‘men’ and ‘women’.politics constructs certain types of ‘men’ and ‘women’.

““It is an increasingly difficult position to defend that sex is It is an increasingly difficult position to defend that sex is prior to gender. (the term gender usually refers to social prior to gender. (the term gender usually refers to social construction of differences between men and women) construction of differences between men and women) The more one searches for the brute reality of sex, the The more one searches for the brute reality of sex, the more one finds that is gendered – that is, that the more one finds that is gendered – that is, that the understanding of a sex as a fact is itself a “cultural understanding of a sex as a fact is itself a “cultural conceit”conceit”

Helen M. Kinsella Helen M. Kinsella

Postcolonial feministsPostcolonial feminists

Postcolonial Postcolonial feminists, such as Gayatri Spivak, feminists, such as Gayatri Spivak, work at the intersection of gender, race and work at the intersection of gender, race and class on a global scale. They suggest that liberal class on a global scale. They suggest that liberal feminists and others have ignored the interests feminists and others have ignored the interests and opinions of women in the global South often and opinions of women in the global South often preferring to speak on their behalf. This is a form preferring to speak on their behalf. This is a form of cultural imperialism with important material of cultural imperialism with important material effects.effects.

Post-modernismPost-modernism

LyotardLyotard defines defines post-modernism post-modernism as as incredulity towards metanarrativesincredulity towards metanarratives, meaning , meaning that it denies the possibility of foundations for that it denies the possibility of foundations for establishing the truth of statements existing establishing the truth of statements existing outside of outside of discoursediscourse..

FoucaultFoucault focuses on the focuses on the power-knowledge power-knowledge relationshiprelationship and sees the two as mutually and sees the two as mutually constituted. It implies that there can be no truth constituted. It implies that there can be no truth outside of outside of regimes of truthregimes of truth. How can history . How can history have a truth if truth has a history?have a truth if truth has a history?


FoucaultFoucault proposes a proposes a genealogicalgenealogical approach to approach to look at history, and this approach uncovers how look at history, and this approach uncovers how certain regimes of truth have dominated others.certain regimes of truth have dominated others.

DerridaDerrida argues that the world is like a text in that it argues that the world is like a text in that it cannot simply be grasped, but has to be interpreted. cannot simply be grasped, but has to be interpreted. He looks at how texts are constructed, and He looks at how texts are constructed, and proposes two main tools to enable us to see how proposes two main tools to enable us to see how arbitrary are the seemingly ‘natural’ oppositions of arbitrary are the seemingly ‘natural’ oppositions of language. These are language. These are deconstructiondeconstruction and and double double readingreading..


Post-modernPost-modern approaches have been accused approaches have been accused of being ‘too theoretical’ and not concerned with of being ‘too theoretical’ and not concerned with the ‘real world’. They reply, however, that in the the ‘real world’. They reply, however, that in the social world there is no such thing as the ‘real’ social world there is no such thing as the ‘real’ world in the sense of a reality that is not world in the sense of a reality that is not interpreted by us and have done a great deal of interpreted by us and have done a great deal of work on important empirical questions such as work on important empirical questions such as war and famine.war and famine.

PostcolonialismPostcolonialism

Given the state-centrism and positivism of IR, Given the state-centrism and positivism of IR, postcolonial approaches have been largely postcolonial approaches have been largely ignored until recently as old disciplinary ignored until recently as old disciplinary boundaries are breaking down.boundaries are breaking down.

Postcolonialism essentially focuses on the Postcolonialism essentially focuses on the persistence of colonial forms of power in persistence of colonial forms of power in contemporary world politics, especially how the contemporary world politics, especially how the social construction of racial, gendered, and class social construction of racial, gendered, and class differences uphold relations of power and differences uphold relations of power and subordination.subordination.

PostcolonialismPostcolonialism Most postcolonial research rejects positivism Most postcolonial research rejects positivism

given its claims to produce knowledge devoid given its claims to produce knowledge devoid of race, gender, and class power hierarchies. of race, gender, and class power hierarchies.

Racism, in particular, continues to operate in Racism, in particular, continues to operate in both obvious and sometimes subtle ways in both obvious and sometimes subtle ways in contemporary world politics but this is not contemporary world politics but this is not captured in traditional approaches to captured in traditional approaches to international theory.international theory.

Postcolonial research seeks to offer positive Postcolonial research seeks to offer positive resources for resistance to imperial and other resources for resistance to imperial and other forms of power and not just critique.forms of power and not just critique.

Edward SaidEdward Said

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