p-,

MARINE MAMMALS dff;'

BIOLOGY AND CONSERVATION

Edited by

Peter G. H. Evans Sea Watch Foundation Oxford, England

and

Juan Antonio Raga University of Valencia Valencia, Spain

Kluwer Academic / Plenum Publishers New York, Boston, Dordrecht, London, Moscow

Contents

A) INTRODUCTION: LIFE HISTORY & ECOLOGY

1. Life history strategies of marine mammals

Peter G. H. Evans and fan Stirling

2. How persistent are marine mammal habitats in an ocean of

variability?

Arne Bj~rge

3. Ecological aspects of reproduction of marine mammals

Christina Lockyer

B) SENSORY SYSTEMS AND BEHAVIOUR

4. Sound and cetaceans

lonathan Gordon and Peter Tyack

5. Behavioural ecology of cetaceans

lames R. Boran, Peter G. H. Evans, and Martin 1. Rosen

6. New perspectives on the behavioural ecology of pinnipeds

Humberto Luis Cappozzo

C) SURVEY AND STUDY TECHNIQUES

7. Assessment of marine mammal population size and status

Philip S. Hammond

8. Acoustic techniques for studying cetaceans

lonathan Gordon and Peter Tyack

IX

1

7

63

93

133

139

197

243

265

269

293

x Marine Mammals: Biology and Conservation

9. Applications of molecular data in cetacean taxonomy and

population genetics with special emphasis on defining species

boundaries in cetaceans.

Michel C. Milinkovitch, Rick LeDuc, Ralph Tiedemann,

and Andrew Dizon

D) HEALTH, PARASITES AND PATHOGENS

10. Marine mammal health: Holding the balance in an ever­

changing sea

Joseph R. yeraci and Valerie Lounsbury

11. Living together: The parasites of marine mammals

F. J avier Aznar, Juan A. Balbuena, M ercedes F emandez,

and J. Antonio Raga

12. Marine mammal mass mortalities

Mariano Domingo, Seamus Kennedy, and

Marie-Fram;oise Van Bressem

E) CONSERVATION & MANAGEMENT

13. Interactions between aquatic mammals and humans in the

325

361

365

385

425

457

context of ecosystem management 463

Enrique A. Crespo and Mart{n Hall

14. Environmentalists, fishennen, cetaceans and fish: Is there a

balance and can science help to find it? 491

Mart{n Hall and Gregory P. Donovan

15. Organohalogenated contaminants in marine maInIilals

Ailsa J. Hall

16. Cetaceans and humans: influences of noise

Bemd Wursig and Peter G. H. Evans

523

565

1 ,I I I i

--------------~_J

Contents xi

17. Global climate change and marine mammals 589 Bernd Wursig, Randall R. Reeves and J G. Ortega-Ortiz

SYSTEMATIC LIST OF MARINE MAMMALS 609

INDEX 615

Index

J<EY: f - figure, ff - figures

AcanthOCephalan parasites 394 ACCOBAMS ii, 460 Acoustic alanns see Pingers, Seal scarers Acoustic pollution see Sound pollution Acoustic surveys 305-317ff Acoustic techniques 293-324ff Adaptations 1-5 Age of sexual maturity 18-21 Anatomy 1-5 Aquaculture effects 476 Arctocephalinae see Seals, fur Arctocephalus a. australis see Seal, Falkland

fur Arctocephalus a. gracilis see Seal, S: American fur

Arctocephalus Jorsteri see Seal, New Zealand fur

Arctocephalus galapagoensis see Seal, Galapagos fur

Arctocephalus gazel/a see Seal, Antarctic fur Arctocephalus p. doriferus see Seal, Australian fur

Arctocephalus p. pusillus see Seal, S. African fur

Arctocephalus philippi see Seal, Juan Femandez fur

Arctocephalus townsendi see Seal, Guadalupe fur

Arctocephalus tropicalis see Seal, Subantarctic fur

Arthropod parasites 368-370f, 386f, 394 Attiodactyls 326-328 ASCOBANS v, 460, 515 ATOC (Acoustic Thermometry of Ocean Climate) 68.567,599

Bacteria 372,376,387.390-391,427,433, 436,438

Baiji see Dolphin, baiji Balaena mysticetu see Whale, bowhead Balaenidae (right whales)

classification 610 mating system 31

Balaenoptera acutorostrata see Whale, minke Balaenoptera bonaerensi see Whale, Antarctic minke

Balaenoptera borealis see Whale, sei Balaenoptera edeni see Whale, Bryde's Balaenoptera musculus see Whale, blue Balaenoptera physalus see Whale, fin Balaenopteridae (rorquals)

classification 610 Baleen whales see Mysticetes

615

Barnacles 372, 386f, 392 Bear, polar l04f

birth season 38, 61, 108 birth weight 107 calving interval 61, 104 classification 613 climate change effects 595,596f contaminant effects 121 delayed implantation 61,104 exploitation effects 46 fostering behaviour 37 L.\ gestation 9,61 lactation 15,61 life span 32, 61, 104 maternal care 7-8 mating system 32 migration 43 nutrition 118 population size 46 reproduction 9,32,61, 94, 103 reproductive senescence 106 sexual maturity 21, 61, 104

Beluga see Whale, beluga Berardius amuxii see Whale, Arnoux's

beaked Berardius bairdi see Whale, Baird's beaked Biomarkers 551-553 Biotoxins 426-428,595 Boto see Dolphin, Amazon river Brevetoxins 426-429f, 442 Brucellosis 120 Bycatch see Fisheries conflicts

CaIlorhinus ursinus see Seal, northern fur Caperea marginata see Whale, pygmy right Cephalopods

caloric values 11, 201 in diet of Risso' s dolphin 70-71

Cephalorhynchus commersonii see Dolphin, Commerson's Cephalorhynchus eutropia see Dolphin, black Cephalorhynchus heavisidii see Dolphin,

Heaviside's Cephalorhynchus hectori see Dolphin,

Hector's Cestodes 394 Cetaceans

adaptations 1-2 arthropod families 394 bacterium families 390 behavioural ecology 197-242 birth seasons 38-40f, 396 brain size 135-136 calving interval 93 collisions 439-460; 476, 595

ITITIT!TITITITIII TTTnn1TIlfllllDiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiilli"'iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii~ __ ---'"

616

communication 173-198 diet 16,28-29,43 evolution 326-329f feeding behaviour 202-219 foetal growth 10-12, 106-107 gestation 1O-12f growth rates 16 helminth families 394 hunting 133, 162-164 lactation 13-14f life span 33-34ff, 35 magnetism 35 maternal care 7-8 mating systems 28-31, 220-231 migration 4143f mortality rates 33-95 olfaction 34 parasites 392-395 protozoan families 390 reproduction 8, 113-114 sexual maturity 21 sex ratio 23 sound 139-196 tactile sense 134 taste 134 taxonomy 325-359ff virus families 390 vocalisations 155-161

Climate change 362, 374-375,460,589-60. Cognition 135-136 Collisions 459-460,476, 593 Corpus albicans 18 Corpus luteum 18 Cystophora cristata see Seal, hooded Cytochrome P450 526-527,549

Darns, effects of 480, 595 DDT 526-527,549 Delayed implantation 9-12,60-61, 100-101,

106-107 Delphinapterus leucas (white whale, beluga) see Whale, beluga

Delphinidae, classification 343f, 344, 611 life span 33 mating systems 33 sexual dimorphism 24-25

Delphinus capensis see Dolphin, long-beaked common, and Dolphin, common

Delphinus del phis (common or short-beaked dolphin) see Dolphin, short-beaked common and Dolphin, common

Delphinus tropicalis see Dolphin, Arabian common

Diatoms 341 Die-offs, mass see Mortalities, mass Diet, energy values 13-14, 16-18 Digeneans 394 Diving 2

11 IT TT TT

Index

DNA techniques 266, 285, 325-359 Dolphin, Amazon river 219f, 479f, 60lf

birth season 63, 99 classification 612 climate change 6OO-612f gestation period 63 habitat pressures 217-219f lactation period 99 threats 479f vocalisations 156f

Dolphin, Arabian common 347f classification 346-348f,6l1

Dolphin, Atlantic hump-backed classification 612

Dolphin, Atlantic spotted 182f classification 612 mating system 31

Dolphin, Atlantic white-sided behaviour 577 birth season 62 classification 612 contaminant effects 546 gestation period 62 lactation period 62 life span 62 sexual maturity 62 vocalisations 156f

Dolphin, baiji 60lf birth season 62 classification 612 climate change effects 595,601 f feeding behaviour 28 gestation period 62 habitat preferences 217-218 vocalisations 156f

Dolphin, Black classification 611

Dolphin, bottlenose 183f,230f, 283f, 349f acoustic studies 183f, 299 audiogram 163f behaviour 230f birth season 40, 61 brain size 135-136 calving interval 63 classification 612 climate change effects 543,597,602 dolphin watching effects 574 echolocation 167-168 El Nino effects 435 fisheries interactions 478 gestation period 63 hybrid with Risso's 180,330 lactation period 63 life span 63, 99 mating system 31,229-231 morbilIiviruses 432433, 442-445f mortality 43 mortality rate 35 photo-ID 282-284ff

j

Index

sex ratio 229 sexual maturity 23 social structure 229-231 sound disturbance 573,582-583 sound spectrogram 143f vocalisations 156f, 158-159f, 181-184f

Dolphin, clymene behaviour 577 classification 612 vocalisations 156f

Dolphin, Commerson's 476f birth season 62 bycatch 476f, 484 classification 611 life span 62 sexual maturity 62

Dolphin, common birth season 62 calving interval 62 contaminant effects 546 contaminant uptake 539 dolphin watching effects 574 El Niiio effects 435, 503 fisheries interactions 478, 506 gestation period 62 hybrid with dusky dolphin 330 lactation period 62 life span 62 morbilli viruses 433 sexual maturity 62 vocalisations 156f

Dolphin, dusky 476f birth season 62 bycatch 476f, 484 calving interval 62 classification 612 dolphin watching effects 574-576 El Niiio effects 435 feeding behaviour 213-214 gestation period 62 hybrid with common 330 lactation period 62 ife span 62 nutrition 117 predator avoidance 202 sexual maturity 62 vocalisations 156f

Dolphin, Fraser's birth season 62 classification 611 sexual maturity 62 vocalisations 156f

Dolphin, Heaviside's classification 611

Dolphin, Hector's 603f behaviour 578 body size 200 classification 611 climate change effects 603f

dolphin watchng effects 603f genetics 336 vocalisations 160

Dolphin, hourglass classification 612 sound disturbance 571

Dolphin, Indian hump-backed classification 612

Dolphin, Indo-Pacific bottlenose 349f classification 348-350ff,612

Dolphin, Indo-Pacific hump-backed classification 612 disturbance 573, 582

617

Dolphin, lrrawaddy (;\ birth season 62 classification 612 climate change effects 595 habitat preferences 217

Dolphin, long-beaked common 347f classification 343-344f, 346-348ff, 611 mass mortality 435-436 see also Dolphin, common

Dolphil1, northern right whale classification 612

Dolphin, Pacific white-sided birth season 62 classification 612 gestation period 62 life span 62 sexual maturity 62

Dolphin, pan tropical spotted behaviour 577 birth season 39-40, 62 calving interval 62 classification 612 fisheries interactions 506 gestation period 62 lactation period 62 life span 62 mating system 31 parasites 413 sexual maturity 62 vocalisations 156f

Dolphin. Peale's classification 612

Dolphin, Risso's 7lf birth season 62 classification 611 climate change effects 549 contaminant effects 546 habitat preferences 70-71 hybrid with bottlenose dolphin 180,330 life span 62 sexual maturity 62 vocalisations 156f

Dolphin, rough-toothed dolphin bycatch 479 classification 612 life span 63

618

sexual maturity 63 vocalisations 156f

Dolphin, short-beaked common 347f classification 343-344f, 346-348ff, 611 see also Dolphin, common

Dolphin, South asian river birth season 62 classification 6 I 2 climate change effects 595-596f habitat degradation 459 habitat preferences 217 sexual maturity 62 vocalisations 156f

Dolphin, southern right whale classification 612

Dolphin, spinner 215f behaviour 577,580 birth season 63 calving interval 63 classification 612 climate change effects 602 dolphin watching effects 575-576 feeding behaviour 214-216f fisheries interactions 506 gestation period 63 lactation period 63 life span 63 sexual maturity 44, 63 sound disturbance 572 vocalisations 156f

Dolphin, spotted, see Dolphin, Atlantic spotted, Dolphin, pantropical spotted

Dolphin, striped 432f,551f acoustic studies 312-313 behaviour 577 birth rate 62 classification 612 contaminant effects 120,546, 550-551f gestation period 62 lactation period 44, 62 life span 62 mating system 31 morbiIliviruses 432f, 44O-443f, 445,

550-551f parasitism 402 pregnancy rate 44 sexual maturity 62 toxoplasmosis 391 vocalisations 156f

Dolphin, white-beaked birth season 62 brain size 136 classification 612 gestation period 62

Dolphins, .river climate change effects 595 feeding behaviour 217-219 habitat use 217-219 sexual dimorphism 24

Dugong dugon see Dugong Dugong

birth season 6 I calving interval 36, 6 I, 94, 103 classification 2, 613 conservation 46 gestation period 6 I lactation period 6 I life span 32,61,103 mating system 31,102 nutrition 118; sexual dimorphism 23 sexual maturity 61 social structure 102

Dugongidae classification 613

Echolocation 166-173 Ecosystem management 463-490 Ecotourism 482-484ff Ectoparasites 372

Index

El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO) 66, 427,433-435,502-503,598-599,604

Enhydra lutris see Otter, sea Enzymes

biotransformation 531-534f cytochrome 540-544

Epizootics 363 Erignathus b. barbatus (Atlantic bearded seal)

classification 610 Erignathus b. nauticus (Pacific bearded seal)

classification 610 Erignathus barbatus see Seal, bearded Eschrichtidae

classification 610 Eschrichtius robustus see Whale, gray Eubalaena australis see Whale, southern right Eubalaena glacialis see Whale, North Atlantic right

Eubalaenajaponica see Whale, North Pacific right .

Eumetopiasjubatus (Steller sea lion, Northern sea lion) see Sea lion, northern

European Cetacean Society iii,361 Evolution I, 3, 326-329f Exploitation

early history of 465-467 effects on biological production 458 effects on life history parameters 43-46

Fatty acid analysis 267 Feeding 2, 200-202; see also foraging habitats

Feresa attenuata see Whale, pygmy killer Fish, caloric values 11, 16 Fisheries conflicts 458, 469-475f, 476-480ff, 491-521ff

Food webs 43-45 Foraging habitats 64

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Index

Fostering behaviour 37 franciscana 470f

birth season 62 calving interval 62 classification 612 fisheries interactions 470f gestation period 62 lactation period 62 life span 62 parasites 403,413 sexual maturity 62

Fungi 413 Fur seal, see Seal, fur

Genetics 266-267; 285, 325-359ff Gestation 9-12 Globicephala macrorhynchus see Whale, short-finned pilot "

Globicephala melaena see Globicephala melas Globicephala melas see Whale, long-finned pilot

Grampus griseus see Dolphin, Risso's

Habitat effects 476-481 Habitat preferences 64-86 Halichoerus grypus (Grey or Atlantic seal) see Seal, grey

Health 365-383ff Hearing 133-134 Heartworm 368-372f HELCOM 460 Helminths 388-389f, 392-395, 398-399, 406-409,411-412

Herpes, genital 120 Home range 82-84 Hookworm 372, 398 Hydrodamalis gigas see Sea cow, Steller's Hydrophones 294-323 Hydrurga leptonyx see Seal, leopard Hyperoodon ampullatus see Whale, northern bottlenose

Hyperoodon planifrons see Whale, southern bottlenose

Indopacetus pacijicus see Whale, Longman's beaked

Inia geoffrensis (boto, boutu or Amazon river dolphin) see Dolphin, Amazon river

Iniidae classification 612 life span 33

International Whaling Commission 457-458, 469,481,492,515

Kogia breviceps see Whale, pygmy sperm Kogia. simus see Whale, dwarf sperm Kogiidae

classification 611 life span 33

mating system 31 vocalisations 158

Krill 43-44

619

Lactation period, estimation of 15 Lagenodelphis hosei see Dolphin, Fraser's Lagenorhynchus acutus see Dolphin, Atlantic white-sided

Lagenorhynchus albirostris see Dolphin, white-beaked

Lagenorhynchus australis see Dolphin, Peale's

Lagenorhynchus cruciger see Dolphin, hourglass {;

Lagenorhynchus obliquidens see Dolphin, Pacific white-sided

Lagenorhynchus obscurus see Dolphin, dusky Leptonychotes weddellii see Seal, Weddell Lice 368-370ff,386f Life history parameters, summary of 60-62 Life history strategies 7-62 Life spans 32-35 Line transect techniques 276-278, 285-287 Lipotes vexillifer see Dolphin, baiji Lipotidae 612 Lissodelphis borealis see Dolphin, northern right whale

Lissodelphis peronii see Dolphin, southern right whale

Lobodon carcinophagus see Seal, crabeater Lungworrns 410 Lutrafelina see Otter, marine

Manatee birth season 61 calving interval 36, 61 conservation threats 593 gestation period 61 lactation period 61 life span 32, 61 sexual maturity 61, 103

Manatee, Amazonian birth season I 13 classification 613 conservation 46

Manatee, Antillean classification 613

Manatee, Florida 102f, 429f, 593f biotoxins 428 birth season I 13 boat colJisions 459-460,479 calving interval 36, 94, 103 classification 613 climate change effects 5%-597 conservation 46, 593f

Manatee. West African birth season 113 classification 613

Manatee. West Indian

620

classification 613 life span 32 toxoplasmosis 391

Mark-recapture techniques 265, 275-276, 282-285

MARPOL v Mating systems 25-32 Maximum sustainable yield (MSY) 498 Medina panel 510 Megaptera novaeangliae see Whale, humpback

Mesoplodon bahamondi see Whale, Bahamonde's beaked

Mesoplodon bidens see Whale, Sowerby's beaked

Mesoplodon bowdoini see Whale, Andrews' beaked

Mesoplodon earlhubbsi see Whale, Hubbs' beaked c'

Mesoplodon densirostris (BlainvilIe's or dense-beaked whale) see Whale, BlainvilIe's beaked

Mesoplodon europaeus see Whale, Gervais' beaked '

Mesoplodon ginkgodens see Whale, Ginkgo­toothed beaked

Mesoplodon grayi see Whale, Gray's beaked Mesoplodon heetori see Whale, Hector's

beaked Mesoplodon layardii see Whale, strap-toothed Mesoplodon mirus see Whale, True's beaked Mesoplodon paeificus (Indopaeetus pacifieus)

see Whale, Longman's beaked Mesoplodon peruvian us (Peruvian or Pygmy

beaked whale) see Whale, pygmy beaked Mesoplodon stejnegeri see Whale,

Stejneger's beaked Migration 4O-43ff, 63 Mirounga angustirostris see Seal, northern

elephant Mirounga. leonina see Seal, southern elephant Mites 386f Monachinae (southern phocids)

classification 609 Monaehus monaehus see Seal, Mediterranean

monk Monachus sehauinslandi see Seal, Hawaiian

monk Monaehus tropiealis see Seal, West Indian monk Monodon monoeeros see Narwhal Monodontidae

classification 343f, 611 life span 33

MorbilIiviruses 363,374,377,385-386,388-390,396-397, 429-433ff, 436, 438-449ff

Morbillivirus, dolphin 388, 430-433, 440-443f, 445-446

Morbillivirus, porpoise 388, 430-433

Mortalities, mass 363, 425-456 Mortality rates 32-35 Mysticetes (baleen whales)

anatomy 2 birth season 38-39f classification 610-611 contaminant load 527 echolocation 170-171 energetics 108-109 evolution 1-2 feeding 201,203-209ff gestation 10-12f growth rates 16-17f lactation 12-14f life span 33-35f mating system 28-3Jf,221-223 migration 41-42f mortality rates 33-35

Index

reproduction, environmental effects on 114-116f '

reproductive cycles 95-97f sensory systems 133-137 sex ratio' 23-24 sexual dimorphism 23 sexual maturity 21 sound disturbance 569-571 taxonomy 1-2 vocalisations 155-158ff

Myoglobin 366

Narwhal birth season 62 classification 611 climate change effects 591 contaminant uptake 537,539 echolocation 170 gestation period 62 lactation period 62 life span 62 sexual maturity 62 sound disturbance 569-572 vocalisations 166

Nematodes 372-373f, 387, 389f, 394, 398 Neobalaenidae

classification 611 Neophoca cinerea see Sea lion, Australian Neophocaena phocaenoides see Porpoise,

finless Neurotoxins 426-428

Odobenidae (walruses) classification 609 helminths 407

Odobenus r. divergens (Pacific walrus) classification 609

Odobenus r. laptevi (Laptev walrus) classification 609

Odobenus r. rosmarus (Atlantic walrus) classification 609

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Index

Odobenus rosmarus see Walrus Odontocetes (toothed whales, dolphins and porpoises)

anatomy 2

!17

audiograms 163-164f birth season 38-40f classification 611-612 climate change effects 599 contaminant load 527 echolocation 167-170 energetics 109-111 evolution 1-2 feeding 201-202,209-219ff gestation 1O-12f growth rates 16 lactation 13-14f life span 33-35f mating system 30-31, 223-231ff migration 41,43 ... mortality rates 33-35 reproduction, environmental effects on

reproducti ve cycles 98-99 sensory systems 133-137 sex ratio 23-24 sexual dimorphism 24-25 sexual maturity 19,21 sound disturbance 571-573 taxonomy 1-2 vocalisations 155-159ff

Oil pollution effects 375 Omnatophoca rossii see Seal, Ross Orcaella brevirostris see Dolphin, lrra waddy Orcinus orea see Whale, killer Organochlorines 526-529f Osmoregulation 367 OSPAR Convention 460 Oraria byronia see Sea lion, southern Otariidae (eared seals)

classification 3,609 growth rates 17-18 helminths 406-409 lactation 17-18 lice 403 mating system 247-252 sexual dimorphism 22, 249

Otariinae (sea lions) classification 609

Otter, marine classification 610

Otter, sea l04f adaptations 3-4 arthropod families 394 birth rates 36 birth season 38, 61, 103 birth weight 107, 113 body size 464 calving interval 94 classification 610

contaminant uptake 539 delayed implantation 61, 103 exploitation effects 45 foraging 370-371 gestation 9 growth rate 113 hearing 134 helminth families 394 lactation 15,61,103 lice 405 life span 32,61, 103 maternal care 7-8 mating system 32 oil pollution effects 120-121 pa:rasites 392-395 population changes 377 reproduction 8, 61, 103 sexual maturity 61,103

Parasites 362-363, 385-423ff

621

Parturition, seasonality of 37-40, 95-104; see also Reproduction

PBBs (Polybrominated biphenyls) 528 PCBs (Polychlorinated biphenyls) 527-528f, 535-540ff, 549

Peponocephala electra see Whale, melon-headed

Phocafasciata see Seal, ribbon Phoca groenlandica see Seal, harp Phoca h. botniea (Baltic seal)

classification 610 Phoea h. hispida (Arctic ringed seal)

classification 610 Phoea h. ladogensis (Ladoga ringed seal)

classification 610 Phoea h. oehotensis (Okhotsk Sea ringed

seal) classification 610

Phoca h. saimensis (Saiman seal) classification 610

Phoea hispida see Seal, ringed Phoea largha (spotted or Largha seal) see

Seal, Largha Phoca v. eoneolor (western Atlantic harbour

seal) classification 610

Phoca v. riehardsi (eastern Pacific harbour seal)

classification 610 Phoca v. stejnegeri (western ~acific harbour seal)

classification 610 Phoca v. vitulina (eastern Atlantic harbour seal)

classification 610 Phoea vitulina see Seal, harbour Phoea. v. mellonae (Ungava seal)

classification 610 PhocarclOs hookeri (Hooker's or New

622

Zealand sea lion) see Sea lion, New Zealand Phocidae (earless or true seals)

helminths 406-409; ice 405 sexual dimorphism 22

Phocinae (northern phocids) classification 610

Phocine distemper virus (PDV) 120, 388, 396,399,401,430-432,550

Phocoena dioptrica see Porpoise, spectacled Phocoena phocoena see Porpoise, harbour Phocoena sinus see Vaquita Phocoena spinipinnis see Porpoise,

Burmeister's Phocoenidae (porpoises)

classification 343f, 612 gestation period 99 life span 33 mating system 31 vocalisations 158, 160

Phocoenoides dalli see Porpoise, Dall's Photo-identification 275-276, 282-285 Physeter catodon see Whale, sperm Physeter macrocephalus see Whale, sperm Physeteridae

classification 611 life span 33 vocalisations 158

Pingers 69, 511-512f Pinnipedia (seals, sea lions and walruses)

adaptations 3-4 arthropod families 394 bacterial infection 376-377 bacterium families 390 brain size 136 birth rates 35-37 birth season 37-38f birth weight 107 caloric values 11 climate change effects 66 foetal growth 12, 16, 107 fostering behaviour 37 gestation 9-10 growth rates 16-21 helminths 394 lactation 12-13 life span 32-34f maternal care 7-8 mating system 25-28, 243-244, 246-247 parasites 392-395,405-409ff protozoan families 390 reproduction 8, 37-38f, 93-94 sexual maturity 19-21 virus families 390

Plankton 11,29,201 Platanista g. gangetica (Ganges susu or river

dolphin) classificati on 612

Platanista g. minor (Indus susu or river dolphin)

Index

classification 612 Platanista gangetica see Dolphin S th . river dolphin ' ou AsIan

Platanistidae classification 612 life span 33 vocalisation 158

Pollution see Chemical pollution Sound pollution '

Pontoporia blainvillei (franciscana or La Plata dolphin) see Franciscana

Pontoporiidae classification 612 mating system 31 mortality rate 33

Porpoise, Burmeister's classification 612 El Niiio effects 435

Porpoise, Dall's birth season 62 calving interval 63 classification 612 climate change effects 595 gestation period 62 lactation period 62 sexual maturity 62 vocalisations 158

Porpoise, finless birth season 62 classification 612 climate change effects 595 gestation period 62 habitat preferences 217

Porpoise, harbour 305f, 497f, 51lf acoustic studies 305,313-314ff audiogram 163f birth season 62 brucellosis 120 calving interval 36, 63, 93 censuses 285-287ff classificatipn 612 contaminant effects 536, 546, 549 contaminant uptake 119, 526, 536, 539 energy costs 109-111 f feeding behaviour 216-217 fisheries bycatch 497f, 511-512ff, 515 genital herpes 120 growth rate 117 lactation period 62 life span 63, 99 morbiIIiviruses 432 mortality 62,117 parasites 413 pingers, effects of 69 population size 256 sexual dimorphism 24 vessel disturbance effects 574-575 vocalisations 155, 158-159f

Porpoise, spectacled

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birth season 62 classification 612 gestation 62 lactation 62

potential Biological Removal (PBR) 458, 498-499,503,514-515

Protozoa 387-388,390-391 Pseudorca crassidens see Whale, false killer pusa cas pica see Seal, Caspian pusa sibirica see Seal, Baikal

Reproduction 7-32ff, 35-40ff, 93-13lff Revised Management Procedure (RMP) 457, 481,499,502-504,513-515

Saxitoxins 426-428 Sea cow, Steller's

classification 6 I 3 extinction 457

Sea lion, Australian birth season 38, 60 calving interval 60 classification 609 delayed implantation 60 gestation period 60 lactation period 60 sexual maturity 60

Sea lion, California bacterial infection 433 birth season 60 calving interval 60 classification 609 climate change effects 595 contaminant effects 548-549 delayed implantation 60 gestation period 60 lactation 23,60 life span 60 maternal care 23 mortality 436 sexual maturity 60 toxoplasmosis 391

Sea lion, Galapagos birth season 69, 10 1 calving interval 60 classification 609 delayed implantation 60 gestation period 60 lactation period 60 sexual maturity 60

Sea lion, Japanese classification 609

Sea lion, New Zealand birth season 60 calving interval 60 classification 610 delayed implantation 60 gestation period 60 lactation period 60

mass mortality 437-438 Sea lion, northern

birth season 60 calving interval 60 classification 6 10 delayed implantation 60 gestation period 60 lactation period 60 population changes 377,470 sexual dimorphism 250 sexual maturity 60

Sea lion, South American, see Sea lion, southern

623

Sea lion, southern 248f, 483f, 594f c,') birth season 60 bycatch 484 calving interval 60 classification 609 climate change effects 594f delayed implantation 60 ecotourism 482-483f El Nino effects 434 gestation period 60 lactation period 60 life span 60 mating system 247-250f sexual dimorphism 249-250 sexual maturity 60

Sea lion, Steller, see Sea lion, northern Sea otter see Otter, sea Seal, Antarctic fur

birth rate 105 birth season 60 calving interval 60 classification 609 delayed implantation 60 gestation period 60 lactation period 60 life span 60 reproductive senescence 106 sexual maturit~ 60, 105 sound disturbance 571

Seal, Australian fur classification 609

Seal, Baikal birth season 60 calving interval 60 classification 610 lactation period 60, 255 morbilli virus 431, 440 sexual maturity 60 0

Seal, bearded IODf birth season 60 calving interval 60 classification 6 10 delayed implantation 60 gestation period 60 lactation period 258 life span. 60

"', ..... , ...... -.~-----------------

624

sexual maturity 60 Seal, Caspian

birth season 60 calving interval 60 classification 610 delayed implantation 60 gestation period 60 lactation period 60 mass mortality 436-437 sexual maturity 60

Seal, crabeater 26f birth season 60 calving interval 60 classification 609 delayed implantation 60 gestation period 60 lactation period 60 mass mortality 435 mating system 25, 28 nutrition 117 sexual dimorphism 25 sexual maturity 60, 117

Seal, Falkland fur birth season 60 calving interval 60 classification 609 delayed implantation 60 gestation period 60 lactation period 60 sexual maturity 60

Seal, fur 598f calving interval 36 classification 609 mating system 27 sexual dimorphism 249

Seal, Galapagos fur birth season 60 calving interval 60 classification 609 climate change effects 592, 598f delayed implantation 60 El Nino effects 434 gestation period 60 lactation period 60 sexual maturity 60

Seal, grey 256ff birth season 38,60, 255, 258 birth weight 112 calving interval 60 census techniques 278-280ff classification 611 contaminant effects 120,543,545, contaminant uptake 526,536-537,539 delayed implantation 60 energy costs 111-112f gestation period 60 lactation period 60, 255 life span 60 mating system 27

morbilli viruses 439-440f parasitism 399 sex ratio 23 sexual dimorphism 22, 250 sexual maturity 19, 60 social organisation 25

Seal, Guadalupe fur birth season 60 calving interval 60 classification 609 delayed implantation 60 gestation period 60 lactation period 60

Seal, harbour 281f,548f birth season 38, 60, 280 calving interval 60 censuses 280-282f classification 610

Index

contaminant effects 120,536, 547-550f contaminant uptake 526,536-537,539 delayed implantation 60 enzyme changes 540-54 foraging 81-82f gestation period 60 habitat use 79-82, 89 health 67,367-368 influenza virus 429-430 lactation period 60, 255, 258 life span 60 mating system 27 morbilli viruses 396, 439-440f, 445 phocine distemper virus 548f population changes 377 sexual maturity 60 toxoplasmosis 391

Seal, harp 35f birth season 60 birth weight 112 calving interval 60 classification 610 delayed implantation 60 enzyme activity 540-541,543 exploitation effects 44-45 gestation period 60 growth rates 16, 100, 162 lactation period 16,60,258 life span 60 mating system 27 migration 40 morbilli viruses 397,445 population changes 377 sexual dimorphism 22-23 sexual maturity 44-45, 60

Seal, Hawaiian monk biotoxins 426-428 birth season 60,100,257 calving interval 60 classification 609 climate change effects 597

11 1 11 TT T TITTITnrr~mm .......................... """"""""""""""""""""

Index

fostering behaviour 37, 257 lactation period 60, 255, 257 life span 60 sexual maturity 60

Seal, hooded 72f birth season 60 calving interval 60 classification 610 climate change effects 597 enzyme activity 540-541,543 fostering behaviour 37,257 growth rates 16 habitat use 72-73f lactation 16, 60, 112, 255 life span 50 parental care 464 sexual dimorphism 25,27 sexual maturity 60

Seal, Juan Fernandez fur birth season 60 classification 609

Seal, Largha birth season 60 calving interval 60 classification 610 delayed implantation 60 gestation period 60 lactation period 60, 100 life span 60 sexual maturity 60

Seal, Leopard birth season 60 calving interval 60 classification 609 delayed implantation 60 gestation period 60 lactation period 60, 100 sexual maturity 60

Seal, Mediterranean monk 257f,437f birth season 60, 100,258 classification 609 climate change effects 597 fostering behaviour 259 lactation period 60,246-247,255,257-

259f mass mortality 397,399, 436-437f morbilli viruses 397,399,594-595 population size 255

Seal, New Zealand fur birth season 60 calving interval 60 classification 609 delayed implantation 60 gestation period 60 lactation period 60 sexual maturity 60

Seal, northern elephant acoustic studies 318-319 birth season 38, 60

birth weight 112 calving interval 60 classification 609 delayed implantation 60 diving 366 fostering behaviour 37 gestation period 60 growth rate 16 lactation 16- I7, 60 migration 40 parental care 464

625

population recovery 460-461 sexual dimorphism 22, 27, 250 sexual maturity 19, 60 :~ vocalisations 318

Seal, northern fur birth rate 35-36 birth season 60 calving interval 60 classification 611 delayed implantation 60 exploitation effects 44-45 gestation period 60 lactation period 60, 112 life span 60 mating system 27 parasites 395 reproductive senescence 106 sexual maturity 44-45

Seal, ribbon birth season 60 calving interval 60 classification 610 delayed implantation 60 gestation period 60 lactation period 60, 258 life span 60 sexual maturity 60

Seal, ringed 538f birth season 60 calving interVal 60 classification 610 climate change effects 594 contaminant effects 120, 545, 548-549 contaminant uptake 537-539f delayed implantation 60 gestation period 60 health 67 lactation period 60, 258 life span 60 mating system 28 sexual maturity 60

Seal, Ross birth season 60 calving interval 60 classification 609 delayed implantation 60 gestation period 60 lactation period 60

•

626

life span 60 sexual maturity 60

Seal scarer 69 Seal, South African fur

birth season 60 calving interval 60 classification 609 delayed implantation 60 gestation period 60 lactation period 60 life span 60 sexual maturity 60

Seal, South American fur 251f birth season 251 classification 609 El Niiio effects 434 mating system 250-252f sexual dimorphism 256 Cl

Seal, southern elephant 254f birth season 60, 253 calving interval 60 classification 609 delayed implantation 60 ecotourism 482 exploitation effects 45 gestation period 60 habitat preferences 254 lactation period 60, 253 life span 60 mating system 250, 253-254f migration 254-255 sexual dimorphism 27, 250, 253-254f sexual maturity 45, 60

Seal. spotted, see Seal, Largha Seal, Subantarctic fur

birth season 60 calving interval 60 classification 609 delayed implantation 60 gestation period 60 lactation period 60 life span 60 sexual maturity 60

Seal, Weddell birth season 38, 60 birth weight 112 calving interval 60 classification 609 delayed implantation 60 gestation period 60 lactation period 60, 100 mating system 19,28 sex ratio 23 sexual dimorphism 19,28 sexual maturity 60

Seal, West Indian monk classification 609 extinction 457

Sealworm 387, 399-400f

II1 rill J 1 J 111 r T 11 TTTTTT'~' '~'""''''i iI~''''. _____ _

Senescence, reproductive 36 Sensory systems 133-136 Sex ratios 22-25 Sexual dimorphism 18,22-25

in baleen whales 18 in odontocetes 18 in pair-forming species 19 in polygynous species 18-1 9 in promiscuous species 19 in seals 18

Ship strikes 459-460 Signature whistles 181-183,302 Sirenia (dugongs and manatees)

adaptations 2-3, 366 arthropod families 394 bacterium families 390 birth seasons 37-38 calving interval 36

Index

climate change effects 593-594f, 598 conservation 46 feeding 102-103 gestation 9, 103 hearing 133 helminth families 394 lactation 14-1 5 life span 32,103 maternal care 7-8 mating system 31, 102 nutrition 118 olfaction 134 parasites 392-395 protozoan families 390 reproduction 8, 46, 94, 102 sexual dimorphism 23 sexual maturity 21,46,103 tactile sense 134 taste 134 virus families 390 vision 134

Society of Marine Mammalogy vi SOLAMAC vi SOSUS (Sound Surveillance Systems) 311-

312f,318 Sotaliajluviatilis see Tucuxi Sound,

and cetaceans 133-134, 139-196, 565-587ff

and pinnipeds 133 and sea otters 134 and sirenians 133

Sound disturbance 68-69,459,480-481, 565-587ff Sousa chinensis see Dolphin, Indo-Pacific

hump-backed Sousa plumbea see Dolphin, Indian hump-backed Sousa teuszii see Dolphin, Atlantic hump-backed Sperm competition 221-223 Squid, see Cephalopods Stable isotopes 267

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St. SI

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Index

Stenella attenuata see Dolphin, pantropical spotted

Stenella clymene (clymene or short-snouted spinner dolphin) see Dolphin, clymene

Stenella coeruleoalba see Dolphin, striped Stene/la frontalis see Dolphin, Atlantic spotted Stenella longirostris (spinner or long-snouted spinner dolphin) see Dolphin, spinner

Steno bredanensis see Dolphin, rough-toothed dolphin

strandings 361 Survey techniques 265-266, 269-282

Tasmacetus shepherdi (Tasman or Shepherd's beaked whale)

classification 611 Taxonomy, of cetaceans 325-359 Telemetry 266-267 Toxicology 267 Toxoplasmosis 391 Trematodes 372, 389f Trichechidae (manatees)

classification 2,613 Trichechus inunguis see Manatee, Amazonian Trichechus'm. latirostris (Florida manatee)

classification 613 Trichechus m. manatus (Antillean manatee)

classification 613 Trichechus manatus see Manatee, West Indian

Trichechus senegalensis see Manatee, West African

Tucuxi birth season 62 classification 612 climate change effects 600 gestation period 62 lactation period 62 vocalisations 156f

Tuna-dolphin problem 478-479,491,505-510ff

Tursiops aduncus see Dolphin, Indo-Pacific bottlenose

Tursiops truncatus see Dolphin, bottlenose

Ursidae adaptations 3-4 classification 610

Ursus maritimus see Bear, polar

Vaquita classification 612 climate change effects 594 fisheries bycatch 458, 495

Viruses 372,374,387-388,390,396-397, 427-433,435,438-449; see also Morbilliviruses, Dolphin morbilIivirus, Porpoise morbilli virus, Phocine distemper virus

Walrus 77-78ff, 538f, 603f birth rates 36, 10 1 birth season 60 calving interval 60, 10 1 classification 4, 609 climate change effects 595,603f conservation 77 -78ff contaminant uptake 537-539f diet 76 gestation period 60,94, 101 habitat use 76-78f lactation period 60, 102 lice 405 life span 60, 10 1 mating system 30 migration 40 sexual maturity 19,21,60,101 social structure 102

Whale, Andrew's beaked classification 611

Whale, Atlantic gray 467 Whale, Bahamonde's beaked

classification 611 Whale, Baird's beaked

birth season 61 classification 611 gestation period 61 'life span 61 sexual maturity 61 vocalisations 156f

Whale, beluga 542f, 55 Of, 592f acoustic studies 302 audiogram 163f birth season 62 calving interval 62, 99 classification 611 climate change effects 591-592f contaminant effects 545, 549-550f contaminant load 68, 119-120 contaminant uptake 537,539 echolocation 168 enzyme activity 541-543f gestation period 61, 99 health 67-68 lactation period 61, 99 life span 61 migration 43 sexual maturity 61 sound disturbance 569-571 vocalisations 156f

Whale, BlainviIIe's beaked 334f classification 611

Whale, blue 199f acoustic studies 311 birth season 61 body size 200, 464 calving interval 61 classification 610 diet 205

627

l~{;~ ,~;f(.:7

628

exploitation effects 43-45, 116 gestation period 61 hunting 457,468f hybrid with fin whale 180 lactation period 61 life span 33,61 migration 41,311 mortality rate 33 pregnancy rate 43-44 sex ratio 23-24 sexual maturity 61 sound disturbance 571 vocalisations 155-156f, 160, 170-171, 175,311,566,569

Whale, bowhead 590f acoustic studies 299 behaviour 578 birth season 61 calving interval 95-96) classification 610 climate change effects 590-59lf, 597 feeding 201 gestation period 61 habitat 221 hunting 467 lactation period 61 life span 61,97 mating system 30,221-222 sexual maturity 61 sound disturbance 570 vocalisations 156-157f,160

Whale, Bryde's birth season 61 calving interval 61 classification 330, 344, 352, 610 gestation period 61 habitat preferences 203-205 lactation period 61 mortality 436 resource partitioning 203-205f sexual maturity 61 vocalisations 156f

Whale, Cuvier's beaked classification 611 life span 61

Whale, dwarf sperm calving interval 61 classification 611 life span 61 sexual maturi ty 61

Whale, false killer birth season 62 calving interval 62 classification 612 contaminant effects 545 diet 201 fisheries interactions 478 gestation period 62 lactation period 62

I I 11 III IT 1

life span 62 mating system 31 vocalisations 156f

Whale, fin 96f acoustic studies 311 birth season 61, 95-97f calving interval 95 classification 610 diet 96,203 energetics 108-I09f, 11 4-11Of exploitation effects 43-44, 116 feeding 96 foetal mortality 119 gestation period 61, 95 habitat preferences 203-205 hybrid with blue whale 180,330 lactation period 61, 95 life span 33,61,97 migration 41,95-97f mortality 435-436 see also foetal mortality morbilli virus 445 mortality rate 33-34 nutrition 117 parasitism 398 resource partitioning 203-205f sexual maturity 21,44,61 sound disturbance 571

Index

vocalisations ISO, 156f, 160, 170-171, 175,566,569

Whale, Gervais' beaked classification 611

Whale, Ginkgo-toothed beaked classification 611

Whale, gray 29f, 393f acoustic studies 302 birth season 61 calving interval 61,95 classification 610 climate change effects 595 diet 207-208 feeding behaviour 201,207-208 gestation period 61 habitat 65, 221 lactation period 61 life span 61 mating system 30,221-222 migration 41-42f mortality rate 35 sexual maturity 61 sound disturbance 570-571, 575 vocalisations 156 whale watching effects 574-575

Whale, Gray's beaked classification 611

Whale, Hector's beaked classification 611

Whale, Hubbs' beaked classification 611

j i I

I I I I I ~ I I I 1

Index

vocalisations 156f Whale, humpback 157f, 206f, 285f, 580f

acoustic studies 310-311 biotoxins 428 birth season 61 calving interval 61, 95 classification 610 diet 205-207 displays 178-180 ear damage 580f exploitation effects 43 feeding behaviour 205-207f gestation period 61 habitat 221 lactation period 61 life span 33,61 mating system 30, 222-223 migration 41-42f photo-ID 284-285f,326 " sexual maturity 61 sex ratio 23-24 sound disturbance 68, 580-581 f vocalisations 156-157f, 178-180, 184 whale watching effects 574

Whale, killer 211-212ff,542f audiogram 163f birth rate 36 birth season 62 calving interval 36, 44, 62 classification 337, 346, 351, 612 diet 201,210-213 enzyme activity 542-543f feeding behaviour 209-213ff fisheries interactions 478 genetics 337,346 gestation period 62, 99 habitat use 200 lactation period 62 life span 62 mating system 30, 224-226 mortality rate 34-35 sexual maturity 62 social structure 224-226f vocalisations 156f, 173, 180-181

Whale, long-finned pilot birth season 62 calving interval 36, 62, 93, 105 classification 611 climate change effects 69-70 contaminant effects 546 distribution 200 energy costs 1 09-11 Of fisheries interactions 478 genetics 227 gestation period 62, 99 lactation period 62, 98 life span 62, 99 mating system 31, 226 parasites 413

[ "TT TT 11 11

sexual maturity 62 sound disturbance 579 vocalisations 130, 156f, 181,566

Whale, Longman's beaked classification 352, 611

Whale, melon-headed birth season 62 classification 612

629

gestation period 62 life span 62 sexual maturity 62 vocalisations 156f

l'f;~ ,~;{:/;

Whale, minke 74f,209f acoustic studies 311 birth season 61 calving interval 36,61,95 classification 333, 345, 610 diet 203-205 exploitation effects 43-44, 116 feeding behaviour 74-76,208-209f gestation period 61 habitat use 74-76ff lactation period 61 life span 33,61,97 migration 41 mortality 435-436 mortality rate 33 sexual maturity 21, 44, 61 sex ratio 23 vocalisations I 56f, 175

Whale, North Atlantic right see Whale, northern

Whale, North Pacific right see Whale, northern

Whale, northern right behaviour 578 birth season 61, 96 calving interval 61, 95-96 classification 610 feeding 201 fisheries bycatch 479 gestation period 61 hunting 457,467 lactation period 61 life span 61 mating system 221-222 sexual maturity 61 ship strikes 459-460 vocalisations 156-157f whale watching effects 574

Whale, northern bottlenose birth season 61 calving interval 61 classification 611 gestation period 61 lactation period 61 life span 61 sexual maturity 61

Whale, pygmy beaked

630

classification 611 Whale, pygmy killer

classification 611 diet 201

Whale, pygmy right birth season 61 classification 611 gestation period 61 lactation period 61 mating system 30 vocalisations 156f

. Whale, pygmy sperm 376f birth season 61 calving interval 61 classification 611 entanglement 376f gestation period 61 lactation period 61 sexual maturity 61

Whale, sei birth season 61' calving interval 61, 95 classification 344, 610 exploitation effects 43-44, 116 gestation period 61 lactation period 61 life span 33,61,97 migration 41 mortality rate 33, 35 sex ratios 23, 44 sexual maturity 44,61 vocalisations 156f, 160

Whale, short-finned pilot 227f birth rate 36 birth season 62 calving interval 36, 62, 93 classification 611 distribution 200 El Nino effects 599 enzyme activity 541 fisheries interactions 478 gestation period 62 lactation period 62, 98 life span 62, 99 mating system 31 mortality rate 34-35, 226-227 nutrition 11 7 reproductive senescence 36, 105, 227 ship strikes 459-460 sexual maturity 62 social structure 227-228f sound disturbance 571 vocalisations 156f, 180-181,566

Whale, southern bottlenose, see also Whale, northern bottlenose

classification 611 Whale, southern right 17f, 483f

acoustic studies 299, 301-302 behaviour 578

11 III 11 11

birth season 61 calving interval 61 classification 610 feeding 201 gestation period 61 mating system 30,221-222 vocalisations 156-157f, 160, 175 whale watching 482-483f whale watching effects 574

Whale, Sowerby's beaked classification 610 vocalisations 156f

Whale, sperm 165f, 174f

Index

acoustic studies 303-304,310, 3!5-317 birth rate 36 birth season 61 brain size 135 calving interval 36,44,61,93 classification 611 diving 366 echolocation 168-177ff,317 El Nino effects 599 energy costs 109 genetics 213 gestation period 61, 98 growth rate 19 lactation period 61, 98 life span 61,99 mating system 19,30-31,223-224 mortality rate 34-35 sexual dimorphism 19 sexual maturity 19,61 ship strikes 459-460 social structure 464 sound disturbance 68, 571-572 vocalisations 150, 156f, 158, 160, 162,

165-166f, 176-177f, 317 whale watching effects 574

Whale, Stejneger's beaked classification 611

Whale, strap-toothed classification 611

Whale, True's beaked classification 611

Whale, white, see Whale, beluga Whale watching 459-460, 482-483f, 573-576 Whaling 457-458, 465-469ff

Zalophus c. califomianus see Sea lion, California

Zalophus c.japonicus see Sea lion, Japanese Zalophus c. wollebaeki see Sea lion,

Galapagos Ziphiidae

classification 611 life span 33 mating system 31

Ziphius cavirostris see Whale, euvier's beaked

i