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Map BasicsMaps are an important tool for studying the use of space on Earth. This handbook covers the basic map skills and information that geographers rely on as theyinvestigate the world—and the skills you will need as you study geography.
Mapmaking depends on surveying, or measuring andrecording the features of Earth’s surface. Until recently, this could
be undertaken only on land or sea. Today, aerialphotography and satellite imaging are the
most popular ways to gather data.
Location • An early example of a three-dimensional geographic grid. �
Human-Environment Interaction •Nigerian surveyors use a theodolite,which measures angles and distanceson Earth. �
4 UNIT 1
Location • Determining aship’s location at sea wasthe purpose of this 1750instrument, called a sextant. �
Location • Magnetic compasses, introduced by the Chinese in the 1100s, help people accurately determine directions. �
wcp-0101_p004-013_GeoHandbook 10/17/02 11:34 AM Page 4
90°W100°W110°W 80°W 70°W 50°W60°W 40°W
40°W 30°W50°W60°W70°W80°W
30°W 20°W
20°S
30°S
40°S
50°S
ATLANTICOCEAN
PACIFICOCEAN
Caribbean Sea
Par
agua
yR
iver
Amazon River
OrinocoRiver
La Paz
Caracas
Bogotá
Lima
Recife
Rio de Janeiro
Santiago
BuenosAires
AN
D
ES
MO
UN
TA
IN
SBRAZILIAN
HIGHLANDS
A M A Z O N
B A S I N
N
Commercial fishing
Farming
Hunting and gathering
Livestock ranching
Limited economic activity
Gold
Hydroelectric power
Natural gas
Petroleum
Silver
Timber
0
0 250 500 kilometers
250 500 miles
>> Reading a MapMost maps have these parts, which help you to read and understand theinformation presented.
South America’s Economic Activity
Geography Skills Handbook 5
TITLE The title indicates thesubject of the map and tells youwhat information it contains.
LABELS Labels are words orphrases that name features on the map.
SYMBOLS Symbols may stand forcapital cities, economic activities, or natural resources. Check the map legendfor more details.
COLORS Colors show a variety ofinformation on a map. The map legendtells what the colors mean.
LINES OF LONGITUDE These areimaginary lines that show distances eastor west of the prime meridian.
LINES OF LATITUDE These areimaginary lines that show distancesnorth or south of the equator.
COMPASS ROSE The compass roseshows you north (N), south (S), east (E),and west (W) on the map. Sometimesonly north is shown.
SCALE A scale compares a unitof length on the map and a unitof distance on Earth.
LEGEND A legend or key listsand explains the symbols and colors used on the map.
wcp-0101_p004-013_GeoHandbook 10/17/02 11:34 AM Page 5
6 UNIT 1
>> Longitude and Latitude LinesLongitude and latitude lines appear together on a map and allow you topinpoint the absolute locations of cities and other geographic features. You express these locations as coordinates of intersecting lines. These aremeasured in degrees.
Longitude lines are imaginary lines that run north and south; they are alsoknown as meridians. They show distances in degrees east or west of the primemeridian. The prime meridian is a longitude line that runs from the North Poleto the South Pole through Greenwich, England. It marks 0° longitude.
Latitude lines are imaginary lines that run east to west around the globe;they are also known as parallels. They show distances in degrees north orsouth of the equator. The equator is a latitude line that circles Earth halfwaybetween the north and south poles. It marks 0° latitude. The tropics of Cancerand Capricorn are parallels that form the boundaries of the tropical zone, aregion that stays warm all year.
>> HemisphereHemisphere is a term for half the globe.The globe can be divided into northern and southern hemispheres (separated by the equator) or into eastern and westernhemispheres. The United States is located in the northern and western hemispheres.
>> ScaleA geographer decides what scale to use by determining how much detail to show. If many details are needed, a large scale is used. If fewer details are needed, a small scale is used.
90˚E
120˚E150˚E180˚
NorthPole
Prim
e M
erid
ian
30˚W
West Longitude East Longitude
60˚W
90˚W
120˚W150˚W
60˚E
30˚E0˚
Latitude Lines (Parallels)North Pole
90˚N
90˚SSouth Pole
Longitude Lines (Meridians)
60˚N
30˚N
0˚Equator
30˚STropic of Capricorn
Tropic of Cancer
60˚S
Dover
Wilmington
Wheaton
Essex
Towson
GaithersburgColumbia
Frederick
HagerstownBelAir
Chestertown
Centerville
Denton
Easton
Centerbridge
St.Charles
Fredericksburg
PrinceFrederick
LaPlata
AnnapolisReston
Manassas
Woodbridge
Alexandria
ArlingtonWashington, D.C.
Baltimore
Delaware R.
SusquehannaR.
doah
R.
Liberty Res.
PrettyboyRes.Potom
acR
.
Ch
esap
eake
Ba
y
DELAWARE
MARYLAN
D
MD.VA.
PENNSYLVANIAMARYLAND
95
95
97
95
66
66
70
70
83
81
81
270
495
695
695
Scale: 1:4,500,0001 inch = 70 miles
WASHINGTON, D.C., METRO AREA
0
0 35 70 kilometers
35 70 miles
501
501
1
2929
5050
50
1
1
395
395
395
395
66
The WhiteHouse
U.S.Capitol
LincolnMemorial
WashingtonMonument
ThomasJeffersonMemorial Washington Channel
PotomacRiver
TidalBasin
The Ellipse
dyBirdJohnson
Park
West Potomac Park
F.D.R. Mem.Park
Garfield Park
UnionStationPlaza
The Mall
East PotomacPark
CHINATOWN
PENNQUARTER
CAPITOLHILL
SW/WATERFRONT
Scale: 1:88,7001 inch = 1.4 miles
WASHINGTON, D.C.
0
0 0.7 1.4 kilometers
0.7 1.4 miles
Map Basics, cont.
Southern Hemisphere
Northern Hemisphere
Equator
North Pole
South Pole
WesternHemisphere
EasternHemisphere
Larger scale used, with a lot of detail. �Small scale used, without a lot of detail. �
wcp-0101_p004-013_GeoHandbook 10/17/02 11:34 AM Page 6
>> ProjectionsA projection is a way of showing the curved surface of Earth on a flat map. Flat mapscannot show sizes, shapes, and directions with total accuracy. As a result, all projectionsdistort some aspect of Earth’s surface. Below are four projections.
Homolosine Projection • This projection shows land-masses shapes, and sizes accurately, but distancesare not correct. �
Robinson Projection • For textbook maps, the Robinson projection is commonly used. It shows the entire Earth, withcontinents and oceans having nearly their true sizes and shapes.However, the landmasses near the poles appear flattened. �
30°N
0°
0°90°W 90°E180°
180°
30°S
60°S
60°N
30°N
0°
0°
90°W 90°E
180°
60°N
Pacific Ocean
Atlantic
Ocean
Asi
aA
sia
AfricaAfrica
Am
ericaN
orthA
merica
North
EuropeEurope
Arctic Ocean
30°N
0°120°W
60°E
60°W
0° 120°E
180°
180°30°S
60°S
60°N30°N
0°
0°90°W 90°E180° 180°
30°S
60°S
60°N
Mercator Projection • The Mercator projection showsmost of the continents as they look on a globe.However, the projection stretches out the lands nearthe north and south poles. The Mercator projection isused for all kinds of navigation. �
Azimuthal Projection • An azimuthal projection showsEarth so that a straight line from the central point toany other point on the map corresponds to the short-est distance between the two points. Sizes and shapesof the continents are distorted. �
MAIN IDEAS1. (a) What is the longitude and latitude of your
city or town?
(b) What information is provided by the legendin the map on page 5?
(c) What is a projection? Compare and contrastthe depictons of Antarctica in the Mercatorand Robinson projections.
CRITICAL THINKING2. Making Inferences Why do you think latitude
and longitude are important to sailors?
Think Think AboutAbout• the landmarks you use to find your way
around
• the landmarks available to sailors on the ocean
wcp-0101_p004-013_GeoHandbook 10/17/02 11:34 AM Page 7
I N D I A
P A K I S T A N
BANGLADESH
BHUTANNEPAL
SRI LANKAMALDIVES
Mt. Everest29,035 ft.(8,850 m)
EA
ST
E
RN
G H A T S
WE
ST
ER
NG
HA
TS
D e c c a n
P l a t e a u
HI
MA
LA
Y AM
T S.
HINDU KUSH
Laccadive Is. AndamanIs.
NicobarIs.
Gangetic
Plain
Thar Desert
.RsudnI
Ganges R.
Narmada R.
BrahmaputraR.
Ganges Delta
Godavari R.
Krishna R.
Arabian
Sea
Bay of
Bengal
I N D I A N O C E A N
80°E 90°E
Tropic of Cancer
0
0 250 500 kilometers
25 500 miles
N
Elevation
Mountain peak
(4,000 m)(2,000 m)
(500 m)(200 m)
(0 m)Below sea level
13,100 ft.6,600 ft.1,600 ft.
650 ft.0 ft.
8 UNIT 1
South Asia: Physical
Different Types of Maps>> Physical MapsPhysical maps help you see the landforms and bodies of water in specific areas. Bystudying a physical map, you can learn the relative locations and characteristics ofplaces in a region.
On a physical map, color, shading, or contour lines are used to show elevations oraltitudes, also called relief.
Ask these questions about the physical features shown on a physical map:♦ Where on Earth’s surface is this area located?♦ What is its relative location?♦ What is the shape of the region?♦ In which directions do the rivers flow? How might the directions of flow affect
travel and transportation in the region?♦ Are there mountains or deserts? How might they affect the people living in the area?
wcp-0101_p004-013_GeoHandbook 10/17/02 11:34 AM Page 8
>> Political MapsPolitical maps show features that humans have created on Earth’s surface.Included on a political map may be cities, states, provinces, territories, andcountries.
Ask these questions about the political features shown on a political map:♦ Where on Earth’s surface is this area located?♦ What is its relative location? How might a country’s location affect its
economy and its relationships with other countries?♦ What is the shape and size of the country? How might its shape and size
affect the people living in the country?♦ Who are the region’s, country’s , state’s, or city’s neighbors?♦ How populated does the area seem to be? How might that affect activities
there?
I N D I A
P A K I S T A N
BANGLADESH
BHUTAN
NEPAL
SRI LANKA
MALDIVES
Islamabad
Lahore
KathmanduNew Delhi
Kolkata(Calcutta)
Bangalore
Mumbai(Bombay)
ThimphuKanpur
Karachi
Ahmadabad
Hyderabad
Chennai(Madras)
Dhaka
Male
Colombo
.RsudnI
Ganges R. BrahmaputraR.
Godavari R.
Bay of
Bengal
Arabian
Sea
I N D I A N O C E A N
Laccadive Is.(Ind.)
Andaman Is.(Ind.)
Nicobar Is.(Ind.)
SumatraI.
80°E 90°E
Tropic of Cancer
0
0 250 500 kilometers
25 500 miles
National capital
Other city
N
South Asia: Political
Geography Skills Handbook 9
wcp-0101_p004-013_GeoHandbook 10/17/02 11:34 AM Page 9
10 UNIT 1
>> Thematic MapsGeographers also rely on thematic maps, which focus on specific ideas. For example, in thistextbook you will see thematic maps that show climates, types of vegetation, naturalresources, population densities, and economic activities. Some thematic maps showhistorical trends; others may focus on movements of people or ideas. Thematic maps maybe presented in a variety of ways.
Qualitative Maps On a qualitative map,colors, symbols, dots, or lines are used to helpyou see patterns related to a specific idea. Themap shown here depicts the influence of theRoman Empire on Europe, North Africa, andSouthwest Asia.
Use the suggestions below to help youinterpret the map.♦ Check the title to identify the theme and
the data being presented.♦ Carefully study the legend to understand
the theme and the information presented.♦ Look at the physical or political features of
the area. How might the theme of the mapaffect them?
♦ What are the relationships among the data?
Cartograms A cartogram presentsinformation about countries other than theirshapes and sizes. The size of each country isdetermined by the data being presented, notits actual land size. On the cartogram shownhere, the countries, sizes show the amounts of their oil reserves.
Use the suggestions below to help youinterpret the map.♦ Check the title and the legend to identify
the data being presented.♦ Look at the relative sizes of the countries
shown. Which is the largest?♦ Which countries are smallest?♦ How do the sizes of these countries on a
physical map differ from their sizes in the cartogram?
♦ What are the relationships among the data?
Rhine
R.
Danube R.Rome
A T L A N T I C
O C E A N
N o r t hS e a
Black Sea
Red Sea
M e d i t e r r a n e a n S e a
40°N
30°N
20°N
0
0 500 1,000 kilometers
500 1,000 miles
Azimuthal Equidistant Projection
Christian areas around A.D. 500
Romance language spoken, present day
Boundary of Roman Empire, A.D. 395
N
S
EW
Cultural Legacy of the Roman Empire
SAUDIARABIA
IRAQ
CHINA
AUSTRALIA
QATAR
OMANYEMEN
1. KAZAKHSTAN2. AZERBAIJAN
BRUNEI
INDONESIA
MALAYSIA
INDIA1
2
ROMANIARUSSIA
KUWAIT
U.A.E.
IRAN
VENEZUELA
BRAZIL
ARGENTINA
ECUADOR
MEXICO
UNITEDSTATES
CANADA
COLOMBIA
UNITEDKINGDOM
ALGERIA
ANGOLAREP. OFCONGO
GABON
LIBYA
NIGERIA
EGYPT
NORWAY
SYRIA
Each square equals 1 billion barrels
1–10 billion barrels
10–40 billion barrels
40–100 billion barrels
100+ billion barrels
Oil Reserves Cartogram
Different Types of Maps, cont.
wcp-0101_p004-013_GeoHandbook 10/17/02 11:34 AM Page 10
Geography Skills Handbook 11
Flow-Line Maps Flow-line mapsillustrate movements of people,goods, or ideas. The movements areusually shown by series of arrows.Locations, directions, and scopes ofmovement can be seen. The width of an arrow may show how extensivea flow is. Often the information isrelated to a period of time. The mapshown here portrays the movementof the Bantu peoples in Africa.
Use the suggestions below to helpyou interpret the map.♦ Check the title and the legend to
identify the data being presented.♦ Over what period of time did the
movement occur?♦ In what directions did the
movement occur?♦ How extensive was the
movement?A
D5
00
–1
00
0
INDIANOCEANATLANTIC
OCEAN
LakeVictoria
LakeNyasa
LakeTanganyika
Congo River
Lim
popo R.
Orange R .
Za
mbezi R.
KALAHARIDESERT
CENTRALAFRICAN
RAIN FOREST
NA
MIB
DE
SE
RT
0° Equator
20°S
20°E0°
Tropic of Capricorn
2000 BC
20
00
BC
AD
1–
50
0
AD 1 –500
AD
1–
50
0A
D5
00
–1
00
0Original
Bantu Area
0
0 500 1,000 kilometers
500 1,000 miles
Azimuthal Equal-Area Projection
N
S
EW
Desert
Tropical rain forest
Migration route
1. In what direction does the Ganges Riverflow?
2. Kathmandu is the capital of which SouthAsian nation?
3. Which city is closer to the Thar Desert—Lahore, Pakistan, or New Delhi, India?
4. Why are only a few nations shown in thecartogram?
5. Which kind of thematic map would bebest for showing the locations of climatezones?
Use pages 8–11 to help you answer these questions. Use the mapson pages 8–9 to answer questions 1–3.
Exploring Local Geography Obtain a physical-politicalmap of your state. Use the data on it to create two separate maps.One should show physical features only, and the other should showpolitical features only.
Bantu Migration
wcp-0101_p004-013_GeoHandbook 10/17/02 11:34 AM Page 11
VOLCANOan opening in Earth’s surface throughwhich gases and lava escape fromEarth’s interior
STRAITa narrow strip of waterconnectingtwo largebodies ofwater
SWAMPan area of land that is saturated by water
FLOOD PLAINflat land alongside a river,formed by mud and siltdeposited by floods
DELTAa triangular area of land formed fromdeposits at the mouth of a river
MARSHa soft, wet, low-lying, grassyarea located between waterand dry land
BUTTEa raised, flat area ofland with steep sides,smaller than a mesa
OASISa spot of fertile land in adesert, supplied with waterby a well or spring
DESERTa dry area wherefew plants grow
(RIVER) MOUTHthe place where a river flows into a lake or an ocean
HARBORa sheltered area of water, deepenough for docking ships
CAPEa pointed piece of land extendinginto an ocean or a lake
ISLANDa body of landsurrounded bywater
Geographic Dictionary
SEA LEVELthe level of the ocean’s surface, usedas a reference point when measuringheights and depths on Earth’s surface
BAYpart of an ocean or a lakepartially enclosed by land
Geographic Dictionary
12 UNIT 1
wcp-0101_p004-013_GeoHandbook 10/17/02 11:34 AM Page 12
PRAIRIEa large, level areaof grassland withfew or no trees
STEPPEa wide, treeless plain
VALLEYlow landbetween hills or mountains
PLATEAUa broad, flat area of land higherthan the surrounding land
CLIFFthe steep, almostvertical edge of a hill,mountain, or plain
CANYONa deep, narrow, valleywith steep sides
CATARACTa large, powerfulwaterfall
GLACIERa large ice mass thatmoves slowly down amountain or over land
MESAa wide, flat-toppedmountain with steep sides,larger than a butte
MOUNTAINa natural elevation of Earth’s surfacewith steep sides, higher than a hill
Geography Skills Handbook 13
wcp-0101_p004-013_GeoHandbook 10/17/02 11:34 AM Page 13