Manhattan LSAT Reading Comprehension Strategy Guide

TableofContents

1.ReadingComprehensionOverview

WhyStudyReadingComprehension?YourPathtoSuccessReadingComprehensionontheLSAT

Part1:ReadLikeALawStudent

2.RecognizingtheArgument

GettingFamiliarRecognizingtheArgumentTheChallengesofRecognizingtheArgumentDrillIt:RecognizingtheArgument

3.UsingtheArgumentasaFramework

ReadingLikeALawStudentDrillIt:UsingtheArgumentasaFrameworkPuttingItAllTogetherTheBenefitsofReadingLikeALawStudent

4.PassageAnnotationandtheReadingProcess

PassageAnnotationProjectPEARDrillIt:Annotation

PartII:MastertheQuestions

5.TheSearchforCorrectAnswers

GettingFamiliarTheSearchforCorrectAnswersTheCharacteristicsofCorrectAnswersAnswers,Explanations,andTipsDrillIt:AnswerCharacteristics

6.IncorrectAnswers

TheSearchforIncorrectAnswersTheCharacteristicsofIncorrectAnswersDrillIt:IncorrectAnswerCharacteristics

PartIII:ApplyYourKnowledge

7.ComparativePassages

ComparativePassagesDrillIt:ComparativePassages

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8.PuttingItAllTogether

TheCompleteProcessTheFinalDrillSolutions:The180ExperienceSolutions:DetailedExplanations

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Chapter1ReadingComprehensionOverview

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WhyStudyReadingComprehension?

IAlreadyKnowWhatReadingComprehensionIs.WhatCanThisBookDoforMe?

Readingcomprehensionisastapleofalmostallstandardizedtesting.Yousawitonstatetestsinelementaryschool,yousawitontheSAT,andofcourseyouwillseeitontheLSAT.

There isa reason for this: readingcomprehensionexamsareagreatwayto testan individual'sabilitytoabsorb,comprehend,process,andrelatewritteninformationinatime-efficientmanner.Theseareskillsyou'llneedasalawyer,bytheway.

Itseemstomakesense,butisitreallypossibletoaccuratelyquantifyaperson'slevelofreadingcomprehension?Can'tweall,bylookingatourownlivesandexperiences,seethatourownlevelofreadingcomprehensionissomethingthatfluctuatesfromsituationtosituation?

Let'slookatafewscenarios:

1.Tedisanelectricalengineer.Hehasbeenworkinginanicheindustryforyears,butit'sveryeasyforhimtounderstandandevaluatearticlesonengineeringconceptsthatfalloutsideofhisspecialty,evenwhenheisn'tfamiliarwiththespecificterminologyinvolved.He'srecentlybecomeinterestedinthestockmarket,andhasbeentryingtoreaduponit.However,he'shavingalotoftroubleunderstandingandorganizingtheinvestmentadvicethathe'sreadinvariousfinancialpublications.2. Sally is a freshman inhigh school. Shehasmastered the artof instantmessaging, andsendsandreceiveshundredsofmessagesaday.Shefiltersthemandorganizesthemeasily,andisabletoweavetogetheracohesiveunderstandingofthelivesofherfriends.However,when she tries to organize the personalities and events of 18th century Europe from herhistorytextbook,she'shopelesslylost.3.JaneisanEnglishliteratureprofessor,andaluddite.She'sfinallygettingaroundtousingthe internet tocommunicatewithher students. She is surprisedby the short, abrupt, andcasual messages they send to her. She is unable to catch subtlety and has difficultyinterpretingthetoneofthemessagesshereceives.Shetriestowriteshortresponsesback,butinvariablyendsupsendingemailsthataretoolongandtakehertoomuchtimetoputtogether.

It'seasytoseehowdifferenttypesofreadingcomprehensionexamswouldscoreTed,Sally,andJaneverydifferently. The truth is, noneofushas adefinable (orquantifiable) levelof readingcomprehension.Putsimply,ourreadingcomprehensionabilityishighlyvariable.Itdependsonmanyfactors,includingourfamiliaritywiththesubjectmatter,themannerinwhichthematerialiswritten,thepurposeofourread,andouroverallinterestandfocuslevel.

For a few of you, the strengths you possess as readers already align with the LSAT readingcomprehensiontest.Inotherwords,yourabilitytoreadandcomprehendLSATpassagesissimilarto Sally's ability to organize and synthesize her text messages. However, for most of us, thecomplexpassagesthatappearontheLSATdonotnaturallyfallintoourreading“sweetspot.”Sowhatdowedo?Wemustwork tobecome intimately familiarwith the characteristics of LSAT

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passages,andthendefineourreadingapproachbasedonthesecharacteristics. Inotherwords,wemustexpandoursweetspottoincludetheLSAT.

Thisbookisdesignedtoleadyouthroughthisprocess,onestepatatime.Ifyouarenotalreadyan“LSATreader,”youwillbecomeonebythetimewearethrough.

YourPathtoSuccess

MasteringReadingComprehensionontheLSAT isnoteasy. It takesa lotofwork toget to thepointwhereyoucanreadandunderstandanLSATpassagejustascomfortably(oratleastalmostas comfortably) as youwould the articles in your favoritemagazine. Here are the stepswe'regoingtotaketogetyouthere.

1.BuildingFamiliarity. Ingeneral,whenreadersreadmaterialthattheyalreadyknowsomethingabout,theytendtocomprehendatamuchhigherlevelthanwhenreadingsomethingaboutanunfamiliar topic. Ted, from the previous page, is a perfect example. Material related toengineering,evenifoutofhisdirectareaofexpertise,iseasierforhimtoreadandcomprehendbecause he has a framework of prior knowledge uponwhich he can“hang” any new, relatedmaterial, and he understands the fundamental logic of engineering principles.When he readsabout the stockmarket and investment theory, however, he lacks apre-existing framework ofknowledgeandhestrugglestocomprehend.

In an ideal world, we would all be experts on the subject matter covered in LSAT readingcomprehensionpassages,andwe'dbeabletoleverageourpriorknowledgetobetterunderstandwhatwe read.Tedwouldace the readingcomprehensionsectionof theLSAT ifeverypassagewererelatedtoengineering!

Theissueisthat,forthepurposesoftheLSAT,wecannotrelyonpriorknowledgeofthesubjectmattertohelpus.Formostofus,thegoodmajorityofpassageswillcoversubjectsthatweknowlittle about. Should we spend our preparation time anticipating and studying everything thatcouldappearinanLSATpassage?Notverypractical,andbecauseofthebroadnetofpossibilities,nottoouradvantage.

We need to generate a different kind of framework off of which to“hang” new information.Insteadofusingasubjectmatterframework,wewilluseastructureframework.

Considerthefollowingexample:

Knock,knock.

Who'sthere?

Shelby.

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Shelbywho?

Shelbycomingroundthemountainwhenshecomes.

Imagine for a second that you'd never before in your life heard a knock-knock joke. This textwouldmakeabsolutelynosensetoyouatall!Onlybecauseyouarecompletelyfamiliarwiththeformof knock-knock jokesareyouable to immediatelyprocessandunderstand the joke.Youknow,forinstance,thatlines1,3,and5arespokenbythejoker,andthatlines2and4arespokenby the person towhom the joke is being delivered. You know to expect a play on the name“Shelby” in the punch-line. You know that the jokewill likely notmake awhole lot of logicalsense,butyou'reabletoreadit,understandit,andappreciateitnonethelessbecauseyourelatedthestructureofthisparticulartexttopreviousexperiencewithknock-knockjokes.

LSAT passages are built around a very consistent structure as well. If you learn to see thisstructure, itwill bemuch easier for you to organize the various elements of the passage, andunderstandtheirsignificance.

2.DefiningYourReadingPerspective. Theperspective fromwhich you read canhave ahugeimpactonhowyoumakesenseofagivenpieceoftext.Let'sgobacktohighschoolforaminute.ImagineyourEnglish teacherhasassignedShakespeare'sHamlet, and that your readingof theplaywillbeevaluatedinoneofthefollowingthreeways:

1.Youwillbegivenaquoteexam,duringwhichyouwillbeaskedtoidentifycertainlinestakenfromthetextoftheplay.2.Youwillbeaskedtowriteanessayaboutthemajorthemesintheplay.3.Youwillbeassignedoneoftherolesinahighschoolproductionoftheplay.

Ifyouwereaskedtocompleteaquoteexam,youwouldreadwithaparticularfocusonlearningthecharactersandunderstandingthebasicplot.Ifyouwereaskedtowriteanessayonthemajorthemes, you would interpret and extrapolate, attempting to uncover the author's implicitmessages. Ifyouwereaskedtoactouttheplay,youwouldreadwithaneyetowardscharacterdevelopment,andyouwouldpaycloseattentiontotheemotionsofthecharactersatdifferentpointsinthestory.Needlesstosay,yourinteractionwiththetext,andyourinterpretationoftheplay,wouldbegreatlyaffectedbytheperspectivethatyouadopt.

We'llspendagooddealoftimeinthisbookdefininganadvantageousperspectivefromwhichyou'llwanttoreadallLSATpassages:fromtheperspectiveofalawstudent.Thisperspectivewillhelpyouquicklyrecognizeandorganizethemostimportantinformationinagivenpassage.

3.UnderstandingtheCoreCompetencies. Every readingcomprehensionquestionontheLSATtestsyourabilitytodooneormoreofthefollowing:(1)IDENTIFYapieceofsupportingtext,(2)INFERfromapieceoftext,and(3)SYNTHESIZEmultiplepiecesoftextinordertomakeageneralinterpretation.

We'llspendachapterexaminingthecharacteristicsofthesecorecompetencies.You'lldevelopakeensenseforwhatcorrectanswersshouldaccomplish.

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4. Identifying Patterns in Incorrect Answer Choices. Success on reading comprehensionquestionsdepends, in largepart,onyourabilitytoeliminate incorrectanswers.Forthehardestproblems,therightanswercanbeunpredictableandnot ideal. Infact, it isofteneasiertospotwrong answers than it is to spot the right answer.With this inmind, it is important that youdevelopasenseforhowthetest-writercreatesincorrectchoices.

We'll examine the common characteristics of incorrect answers and learn to use ourunderstandingofthesecharacteristicstoeffectivelyeliminatebadchoices.

With these four tools inhand, you'llbe ready tomasterReadingComprehensionon theLSAT.Beforewegetstartedwiththeprocessofexpandingyourreading“sweetspot”to includeLSATpassages,let'sdiscusssomeofthelogisticsoftheReadingComprehensionsectionofthetest.

ReadingComprehensionontheLSAT

SectionBreakdown

TheentireLSATexamiscomprisedofthefollowingsections(notnecessarilyinthisorder):

SECTION QUESTIONS SCORED? TIME

LogicGames 22–23 yes 35minutes

ReadingComprehension 26–28 yes 35minutes

LogicalReasoning(1) 24–26 yes 35minutes

LogicalReasoning(2) 24–26 yes 35minutes

EXPERIMENTAL 22–28 no 35minutes

Essay 1essay no 30minutes

Note that every LSAT exam will contain one Reading Comprehension section that will counttowardsyourfinalscore.Thus,justaboutonequarterofthetotalquestionsontheLSATwillbeReadingComprehensionquestions.

Keep in mind that the Experimental section could end up being a Reading Comprehensionsectionaswell.IfyoudoreceivetwoRCsectionsonyourexam,onlyoneofthosetwosectionswillactuallycounttowardsyourfinalscore(unfortunately,it'simpossibletoknowwhichone).

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Scoring

EachReadingComprehensionquestion,andeveryotherquestionontheLSATforthatmatter,isworthexactly1point.Ifyouansweraquestioncorrectly,youwillbecreditedwith1pointforthatquestion.Ifyouanswerthequestionincorrectly,orifyoufailtoanswerthequestion,youwillbecreditedwith0pointsforthatquestion.

ItisimportanttonotethatthereisnoguessingpenaltyontheLSAT.Anincorrectanswerisscoredthesameasa“noanswer.”Thus,it istoyouradvantagetoanswereverysinglequestionontheexam,evenifsomeofthoseanswersareguesses.

Duringthescoringofyourexam,yourpointsare totaledandthenconvertedtoascaledscorebetween120and180.Theconversiondependsontheperformanceofalltheothertest-takerswhotookthesameexam;astandardizedcurveisusedtoassignyourscaledscore.

SubjectMatter:DoIHavetoKnowAbouttheLaw?

EveryReadingComprehensionsectioncontainsfourpassages.Youcanexpecttoseeonepassagepersectionineachofthefollowingfoursubjectareas:

SubjectArea Expecttoseepassageson…

THELAW legalhistory,internationallaw,legaltheory,socialramificationsoflaw

NATURALSCIENCES evolution,biology,chemistry,physics

SOCIALSCIENCES history,politicalscience,sociology,economics

HUMANITIES literature,art,film

TheLSATdoesNOTexpectthatyouhaveanypriorknowledgewhenitcomestothelaw,naturalsciences,socialsciences,orhumanities.Alltheinformationyouwillneedtoanswerthequestionswill be contained in thepassage. That said, studentswith a certain levelof familiarity in thesesubjectareaswillhaveaslightadvantage.Aswediscussedearlier,themorefamiliaryouarewiththesubjectmatter,themorelikelyyouaretocomprehendwhatyouarereading.

Pacing

Youwill have a total of 35minutes to complete the fourpassages. Thisworksout to 8:45perpassage.However,youwillneed tobe faster than8:45oneasierpassages inorder tohave theextratimenecessaryforthemoredifficultpassages.Generallyspeaking,thefourpassagesontheLSATarearranged fromeasier toharder (easierpassagesat the startof the sectionandharderpassages at the end; this is a tendency, NOT an absolute). With that in mind, consider thefollowingpacingplanforareadingcomprehensionsection:

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For each specific passage, time must be allocated to reading the text and answering thequestions.Ingeneral,itisrecommendedthatyouspendmoretimeonansweringthequestionsthanonreadingthetext,butthisratiooftimespentwilldependonyourownpersonalstyleandyourparticularstrengthsandweaknesses.

Asyougoforwardinthisbook,andasyoupracticemoreonrealexams,keepreturningtothefollowinglistinordertohoneyourprocess.

SIGNSTHATYOUARESPENDINGTOOLITTLETIMEINTHEREADING

PROCESS

SIGNSTHATYOUARESPENDINGTOOMUCHTIMEINTHEREADINGPROCESS

Youhavetroublerecognizingthecentralargument

Youtrytomemorizeandnotateeverysingledetailinthetext

Youhavetroubleorganizingtheinformationinthepassagerelativetotheargument

Whileyouarereading,youtrytogobeyondunderstandingthetextrelativetothecentralargumentandtrytoseewhatelseyoucaninfer

Youdon'tunderstandtheroleeachparagraphplaysrelativetotherestofthepassage

Youspendalotofextratimetryingtounderstandspecificelementsofthetext,elementsthatultimatelydon'tshowupinthequestions

Youhavetroubleparaphrasingthepurposeofaparagraph Youfeelrushedwhilegoingthroughthequestions

Youdon'thaveaclearsenseoftheauthor'sopinion

Youoftenfeelthatyoudonothavetimetogothroughtheprocessofelimination

Youdon'thaveaclearsenseofwhichopinionscontrastoneanother Youoftenansweroffofa“gut”feeling

Youoftenmissproblemspertainingtothe Youoftenfeelthatyoudonothaveenoughtimeto

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passageasawhole returntothetexttoverifyanswers

Youoftenhavetogobackandrereadthetextinordertoanswerquestionsaboutthepassageasawhole

Youdopoorlyonquestionsthataskyoutocomparethetexttosomesortofanalogy

Youoftenfeellostwhenyouhavetogobackintothetexttofindanswerstoquestionsthataskaboutaspecificdetail

Again, rememberthattherearenoabsoluteswhenitcomestotiming.Usethisbookandyourown practice to get a sense for how you should allocate time between reading the text andansweringthequestions.

Let'sgettowork.

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Chapter2RecognizingtheArgument

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GettingFamiliar

TimedTrialReadthefollowingpassagein2to3minutes.Underlineandnotatehoweveryouwouldlike.Attheendofyourreadingprocess,lookoverthetextagain,andtrytocreateaquicksummaryofthepassageintheboxprovided.Don'tworryaboutwritingincompletesentences,etc.Styleisnotimportant.Justtrytoidentifythekeypoints.

October2002,Section3,Passage2

Intellectualauthority isdefinedastheauthorityofargumentsthatprevailbyvirtueofgoodreasoning and do not depend on coercion or convention. A contrasting notion, institutionalauthority,referstothepowerofsocialinstitutionstoenforceacceptanceofargumentsthatmayormay not possess intellectual authority. The authoritywielded by legal systems is especiallyinterestingbecausesuchsystemsare institutionsthatnonethelessaspiretoapurely intellectualauthority.Onejudgegoessofarastoclaimthatcourtsaremerelypassivevehiclesforapplyingintellectualauthorityofthelawandpossessnocoercivepowersoftheirown.

In contrast, some criticsmaintain thatwhatever authority judicial pronouncementshave isexclusivelyinstitutional.Someofthesecriticsgofurther,claimingthatintellectualauthoritydoesnotreallyexist—i.e.,itreducestoinstitutionalauthority.Butitcanbecounteredthattheseclaimsbreakdownwhenasufficientlybroadhistoricalperspectiveistaken:Notallargumentsacceptedby institutions withstand the test of time, and some well-reasoned arguments never receiveinstitutional imprimatur. The reasonable argument that goes unrecognized in its own timebecauseitchallengesinstitutionalbeliefsiscommoninintellectualhistory;intellectualauthorityandinstitutionalconsensusarenotthesamething.

But, the criticsmight respond, intellectual authority is only recognized as suchbecauseofinstitutional consensus. For example, if a musicologist were to claim that an allegedmusicalgenius who, after several decades, had not gained respect and recognition for his or hercompositionsisprobablynotagenius,thecriticsmightsaythatbasingajudgementonaunitoftime—”severaldecades“—isaninstitutionalratherthananintellectualconstruct.What,thecriticsmightask,makesaparticularnumberofdecadesreasonableevidencebywhichtojudgegenius?The answer, of course, is nothing, except for the fact that such institutional procedures haveprovedusefultomusicologistsinmakingsuchdistinctionsinthepast.

Theanalogouslegalconceptisthedoctrineofprecedent,i.e.,ajudge'smerelydecidingacasea certain way becoming a basis for deciding later cases the same way—a pure example ofinstitutionalauthority.Butthecriticsmissthecrucialdistinctionthatwhenajudicialdecisionisbadlyreasoned,orsimplynolongerappliesinthefaceofevolvingsocialstandardsorpractices,thenotionofintellectualauthorityisintroduced:judgesreconsider,revise,orinsomecasesthrowoutthedecision.Theconflictbetweenintellectualandinstitutionalauthority in legalsystemsisthusplayedoutinthereconsiderationofdecisions,leadingonetodrawtheconclusionthatlegalsystemscontainasignificantdegreeof intellectualauthorityevenifthethrustoftheirpowerispredominantlyinstitutional.

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RecognizingtheArgument

ALookIntotheFuture…We'llgetbacktothepassageonthepreviouspagemomentarily,butfirst,let'sfast-forwardintothefuture.Imagineyourselfasalawstudent,alegalscholar.Thereyousit,poringthroughlegalcases, frantically scribbling notes, wondering if your name will be cold-called in tomorrow'slecture.Youhavesomanycasestoread,andsolittletime.

Whilethereadingwillbechallenging,andyou'lloftenwonderifyou'llbeabletogetthroughitall,your fundamental task foreachcasethatyoureadcanbethoughtof inverysimpleterms:yourjobwillbeto(1)clearlydefinethetwosidesofacentralargument,orcase,(2)makenoteofthepartiesthatfalloneachsideoftheargument,and(3)consideranyevidencethatispresentedinsupportofeitherside.

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Thisallmakesgoodsense.Afterall,lawschoolisdesignedtoprepareyouforacareerinlaw.Inorderforalawyerorjudgetosuccessfullyprepareforacase,shemustunderstandthetwosidesofacentralargumentinaclearandspecificmanner.Thisunderstandingcreatestheframeworkfromwhichshecanevaluateandorganizetheevidenceandopinionsthatarepresented.

It isnowonder,then,thattheLSATwouldtestyourabilitytodeconstructareadingpassageinjustthisway.

DefiningYourPerspective:ReadLikeaLawStudentThoughLSATreadingcomprehensionpassagesvaryagooddealintermsofsubjectmatter,theyareremarkablyconsistentwhenitcomestostructure.MostLSATpassagescontainthefeaturesthatyouwouldfindinastandardlegalcase(though,fortunately,withoutallthelegallanguage).Mostpassageswill:

1.Givebackgroundinformationnecessarytounderstandanargument.2.Presenttwosidesofanargument.3.Provideevidenceorsupportforoneside,orboth.

Think of your approach to reading LSAT passages as similar to that which you would use tounderstandandanalyzealegalcase.Inshort,thinkofyourselfasalawstudentasyouread.Itisfrom this perspective that you will most effectively organize and understand the informationpresented.

VisualizingtheScaleAsyoureadanygivenLSATpassage,yourtoppriorityshouldbetoidentify,inaclearandspecificway,thetwosidesoftheargument.Indoingso,itishelpfultoimaginethetwosidesofabalancescaleasrepresentingthecompetingsidesoftheargument.

Forexample:

Somepassageswillgiveequalconsiderationtobothsidesofanargument.Literatureshouldnotberequired

toconveyculturalrootsItisimportantforliteraturetoexpressitsculturalroots

Somepassageswillgiveconsiderationtobothsides,butplaceemphasisononesideovertheother.

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Somepassageswillintroduceanargumentbutfocusentirelyontheevidenceforoneside.

*Occasionallythesepassageswillusetheargumentasaspringboardtoarelatedtopic.

Forexample,apassagethatstartsout,“Renewableenergysourcesneedtobeexplored,”maygo on to talk about one specificmethod of utilizing solar energy, and the positives andnegativesofthatparticularmethod.

The two sides of the argument will provide you with a frame for “hanging” all of the otherelementsofthepassage.Everythingelseinthepassageexistsinordertoinformthesidesoftheargumentinsomeway.Inshort,thescaleimageprovidesasimpleapproachfororganizingtheelementsofthepassageasyouread.

In thenextchapter,we'll lookmorecloselyat thisconceptofusing thescale toorganizeyourreading.

TheCurveballsEverynowandagain you'll see apassage thatdeviates from the standard argument structure.Herearethemostcommoncurveballtypes:1.StrictlyInformative.Afewrarepassageswillnotcontainanargumentatall.Thesepassagesaresimilarperhaps towhata lawstudentmight read forbackground information.Thesepassagestendtobeobjectiveinnature,withoutopinionoremotion.Becauseofthat,thesepassageswilltendtobestructuredsoastogivethereaderinformationinanorganizedway,ratherthanintheconflictingmannerofanargument.Oftenthesepassagesarestructuredchronologically(perhapsthepassagedescribes changes to the interpretationof a lawatdifferentperiods ina country'shistory) or by logical necessity (perhaps it describes the workings of an artificial protein bydiscussingitsindividualparts).2.TwoSides,butNotOpposing. Therehavealsobeenacoupleofinstancesinthelastfewyearswhere the two sides of an LSAT argument are somewhat conflicting but not opposites. Forexample,certaincriticsmightsaythatanewlawisflawedbecauseitnegativelyimpactsworkers.Others say the law is flawed because it negatively impactsmanagers. In these instances, it ishelpfultounderstand,goingintothequestions,thatthesearenotopposingarguments,andthat

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theseopinionsmayplaysupportingrolesinabiggerargument(thatthenewlawisflawed).

Overall,however, thevastmajorityofpassages thathaveappearedon theLSAT in thepast10years have centered around a debatable argument. Finding the argument, and using it tomentally organize the passage, will make the reading process much easier. In the rare casesabove, recognizing thatanargument isn'tpresentwillgenerallygiveyouanadvantagewhen itcomestoansweringthequestions.

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TheChallengesofRecognizingtheArgument

Itcansometimestakelawyersandjudgesweeksormonthstoidentifythecrucialargumentinacase.Fortunatelyforyou,theLSATisn'tgivenoverthecourseofweeks.Still,thetestwritersliketoto challenge you by making the argument difficult to find. Here are two tips to help youovercomesuchobstacles:

1.Thecentralargumentwillnotnecessarilyberevealedatthestartofthepassage.

Rememberthat,ingeneralterms,LSATpassages

(1)Givebackgroundinformationnecessarytounderstandtheargument

(2)Presenttheargument

(3)Provideevidenceorsupportforoneside,orboth

Unfortunately, the LSAT does not always give us passageswritten in this order. In fact, as thepassagesbecomemoredifficult, the threeelements tend togetmoreandmoremixedup.DoNOT use physical structure to anticipatewhere themeat of the argument is. Rather,maintainsomeflexibilityasyousearchforthefundamentaldebateinthepassage.

Here is a visual representationof threedifferentways inwhichapassagemightbe structured.These are representative of what you might see on the exam, but this is certainly not anexhaustivelistofpossibilities.Thegrayboxesrepresentparagraphs:

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2.TheArgumentisNOTtobeconfusedwithacomparison.

In a challenging passage, it is easy to confuse a comparison with an argument. What's thedifference?Let'suseananalogyyoumayhaveheardonceortwicebeforeinyourlife:Ononesideyouhaveapplesand… …ontheothersideoranges.

Isthisanargument?Absolutelynot.Youcancompareapplesandoranges,buttheyarenottwosidesof an argument. If onepersondebates,“Apples!” and theother,“Oranges!”wewouldbelisteningtoanillogicalargument.

Now,let'sthinkofsomelogicalargumentswecanmakeusingapplesandoranges:

“Applestastebetterthanoranges.”“Orangesdon'ttasteassweetasapples.”“Applesarehealthierforchildrenthanorangesare.”

Notice, all of these arguments are debatable, involve an opinion, and contain two sides.Furthermore,theyallinvolveanaction:“taste,don'ttaste,are.”Let'srevisitthebeginningpartofthepassagethatappearedatthestartofthechapter.Passage: Comment:Intellectualauthorityisdefinedastheauthorityofargumentsthatprevailbyvirtueof

ThepassagebeginsbyCOMPARINGintellectualauthorityandinstitutional

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goodreasoninganddonotdependoncoercionorconvention.Acontrastingnotion,institutionalauthority,referstothepowerofsocialinstitutionstoenforceacceptanceofargumentsthatmayormaynotpossessintellectualauthority.

authority,butitwouldbeamistaketoassignthoseideas,inandofthemselves,tooppositesidesofanargument.Theyarecontrastingideas,butwehaveyettobeintroducedtoadebate.Wecanconsiderthisbackgroundinformation.

RushingtojudgmentatthispointleadstothefollowingINCORRECTscaleanalysis:

Intellectualauthority Institutionalauthority

Theauthoritywieldedbylegalsystemsisespeciallyinterestingbecausesuchsystemsareinstitutionsthatnonethelessaspiretoapurelyintellectualauthority.

Thisismorebackgroundinformationthatnarrowsdownthescopeoftheargument.Nowwehaveanarena,“legalsystems,”forthesecontrastingideastosquareoffin.

Onejudgegoessofarastoclaimthatcourtsaremerelypassivevehiclesforapplyingintellectualauthorityofthelawandpossessnocoercivepowersoftheirown.

Thisisthefirstconcreteopinionthathasbeenpresented:onejudgeclaimsthatcourtsarevehiclesforintellectualauthority,andhavenoinstitutionalauthority.

Courtsapplyintellectual

authorityonly

Incontrast,somecriticsmaintainthatwhateverauthorityjudicialpronouncementshaveisexclusivelyinstitutional…

Wecouldprobablyanticipatethisbeforewegettothispoint.Anopposingopinionispresented:somecriticssaythatthepoweroflegalsystemsispurelyinstitutional.Nowwehavethetwosidesofourcentralargument.

Courtsapplyintellectual

authorityonlyThepowerofcourtsispurelyinstitutional

Atthispoint,takealookbackatthepassagesummaryyouwroteonthefirstpageofthechapterand compare it with this scale. The central argument is themost important information in apassage,andyournotesshouldreflectthat.

WhenyoureadarealLSATargument,youshouldnottrytodrawthisscale.However,itisausefulmentalstructuretotrainyourselftouse.

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Let'sgetsomepracticelookingforthecentralargumentandthetwosidesofthescale.

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DRILLIT:RecognizingtheArgument

InstructionsEachofthefollowingisatruncatedversionofarealreadingpassagethathasappearedonapastLSAT.Giveyourselfoneminuteperpassage.Yourgoalistocorrectlyidentifythetwosidesoftheargument.


Themythpersiststhatin1492theWesternHemispherewasanuntamedwildernessandthatitwasEuropeansettlerswhoharnessedandtransformeditsecosystems.Butscholarshipshowsthatforests, in particular, hadbeen altered to varyingdegreeswell before the arrival of Europeans.Nativepopulationshadconvertedmuchoftheforeststosuccessfullycultivatedstands,especiallybymeansofburning.Nevertheless,someresearchershavemaintainedthattheextent,frequency,and impact of such burningwasminimal. However, a large body of evidence for the routinepractice of burning exists in the geographical record. One group of researchers found, forexample,thatsedimentarycharcoalaccumulationsinwhatisnowthenortheasternUnitedStatesaregreatestwhereknownnativeAmericansettlementsweregreatest.

December2002,Section3,Passage3

Withtheapproachofthetwentiethcentury,theclassicalwavetheoryofradiation—awidelyaccepted theory in physics—began to encounter obstacles. One fundamental assumption ofwavetheorywasthatasthelengthofawaveofradiationshortens,itsenergyincreasessmoothly—likeavolumedialonaradiothatadjustssmoothlytoanysetting—andthatanyconceivableenergyvaluecouldthusoccur innature.MaxPlanck,aclassicalphysicistwhomadeimportantcontributionstowavetheory,discardedtheassumptionofradiation'ssmoothenergycontinuumand took the then bizarre position that these atomic processes could only involve discreteenergies that jump between certain units of value—like a volume dial that “clicks” betweenincrementalsettings.ThephysicscommunitywasatfirstquitecriticalofPlanck'shypothesis,inpart because he presented it without physical explanation. Soon thereafter, however, AlbertEinsteinandotherphysicistsprovidedtheoreticaljustificationforPlanck'shypothesis.

June2002,Section1,Passage1

Acrucialcomponentofthejurytrial,atleastinseriouscriminalcases,istherulethatverdictsbe unanimous among the jurors. Under this requirement, dissenting jurors must either beconvincedoftherightnessoftheprevailingopinion,or,conversely,persuadetheotherjurorstochangetheirminds.Ineitherinstance,theunanimityrequirementcompelsthejurytodeliberatefullyandtrulybeforereachingitsverdict.Criticsoftheunanimityrequirement,however,seeitasacostlyrelicthatextendsthedeliberationprocessandsometimes,inahungjury,bringsittoahalt. But thematerial costs of hung juries do notwarrant losing the benefit to society of theunanimousverdict.Requiringunanimityprovidesabetterchancethatatrial,andthusaverdict,willbefair.


ThecontemporaryMexicanartisticmovementknownasmuralism,amovementofpublicartthat beganwith imagespaintedonwalls in an effort to representMexicannational culture, is

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closelylinkedideologicallywithitsmainsponsor,thenewMexicangovernmentelectedin1920following theMexican Revolution. This government promoted an ambitious cultural program,andtheyoungrevolutionarystatecalledonartiststodisplayMexico'srichnessandpossibility.Butthe theoretical foundation of the movement was formulated by the artists themselves. Whilemanymuralistworks expresspopulistornationalist ideas, it is amistake to attempt to reduceMexicanmuralpaintingtoformulaic,officialgovernmentart.Itismorethanmerelytheresultofthe changes in political and social awareness that theMexican Revolution represented; it alsoreflected important innovations in theartworld.Awarenessof these innovationsenabledtheseartiststobefreerinexpressionthanweremoretraditionalpractitionersofthisstyle.


How does the brain know when carbohydrates have been or should be consumed? Theanswer to this question is not known, but one element in the explanation seems to be theneurotransmitter serotonin, oneof a classof chemicalmediators thatmaybe released fromapresynaptic neuron and that cause the transmission of nerve impulse across a synapse to anadjacentpostsynapticneuron. Ingeneral, ithasbeenfoundthatdrugsthatselectively facilitateserotonin-mediated neurotransmission tend to cause weight loss, whereas drugs that blockserotonin-mediatedtransmissionoftenhavetheoppositeeffect:theyofteninducecarbohydratecravingandconsequentweightgain.

Serotoninisaderivativeoftryptophan,anaminoacidthatisnormallypresentatlowlevelsinthe bloodstream. The rate of conversion is affected by the proportion of carbohydrates in anindividual'sdiet:carbohydratesstimulatethesecretionofinsulin,whichfacilitatestheuptakeofmostaminoacidsintoperipheraltissues,suchasmuscles.Bloodtryptophanlevels,however,areunaffectedby insulin,sotheproportionoftryptophan inthebloodrelativetotheotheraminoacidsincreaseswhencarbohydratesareconsumed.Sincetryptophancompeteswithotheraminoacids for the transport across theblood-brainbarrier into thebrain, insulin secretion indirectlyspeedstryptophan'sentryintothecentralnervoussystem,where,inaspecialclusterofneurons,itisconvertedintoserotonin.

28

SOLUTIONS:RecognizingtheArgument

Thepartsofthepassagethatinformusofthecentralargumenthavebeenunderlined.


Themythpersiststhatin1492theWesternHemisphere wasanuntamedwildernessandthatitwasEuropeansettlerswhoharnessedandtransformeditsecosystems.Butscholarshipshowsthatforests, in particular, had been altered to varying degreeswell before the arrival of Europeans.Nativepopulationshadconvertedmuchoftheforeststosuccessfullycultivatedstands,especiallybymeansofburning.Nevertheless,someresearchershavemaintainedthattheextent,frequency,and impact of such burningwasminimal. However, a large body of evidence for the routinepractice of burning exists in the geographical record. One group of researchers found, forexample,thatsedimentarycharcoalaccumulationsinwhatisnowthenortheasternUnitedStatesaregreatestwhereknownnativeAmericansettlementsweregreatest.

SideA:Western Hemisphere was untamedwilderness before European settlers, and they were first toharnessandtransformecosystems.(Note:Later,thisopiniongetssoftenedabit,withresearchersacknowledging thatNativeAmericansmighthavealtered the landslightly,but that theoveralleffectwasminimal.)

SideB:WesternHemisphereecosystems,particularlyforests,werealteredbyhumanswellbeforearrivalof Europeans. (Note: The author's opinion is made clear through a shift in wording. The firstopinion is characterized as a “myth,” while the second is written with authority, “scholarshipshows…”)


Withtheapproachofthetwentiethcentury,theclassicalwavetheory ofradiation—awidelyaccepted theory in physics—began to encounterobstacles. One fundamental assumption ofwavetheorywasthatasthelengthofawaveofradiationshortens,itsenergyincreasessmoothly—likeavolumedialonaradiothatadjustssmoothlytoanysetting—andthatanyconceivableenergyvaluecould thusoccur innature.MaxPlanck,aclassicalphysicistwhomadeimportantcontributionstowavetheory,discardedtheassumptionofradiation'ssmoothenergycontinuumand took the then bizarre position that these atomic processes could only involve discreteenergies that jump between certain units of value—like a volume dial that “clicks” betweenincrementalsettings.ThephysicscommunitywasatfirstquitecriticalofPlanck'shypothesis, inpart because he presented it without physical explanation. Soon thereafter, however, AlbertEinsteinandotherphysicistsprovidedtheoreticaljustificationforPlanck'shypothesis.

SideA:ClassicalWavetheoryiscorrect.

29

SideB:ClassicalWavetheoryisincorrect.

Here the argument is not clearly spelled out. In the first sentence, a theory on how radiationwaves function is introducedand immediatelyput intodoubt.The restof thepassage supportsthesecondopinion,andispresentedwithanobjectivetonethattellsusthathisopinioncanbeconsideredfact.

30



Acrucialcomponentofthejurytrial,atleastinseriouscriminalcases,istherulethatverdictsbe unanimous among the jurors. Under this requirement, dissenting jurors must either beconvincedoftherightnessoftheprevailingopinion,or,conversely,persuadetheotherjurorstochangetheirminds.Ineitherinstance,theunanimityrequirementcompelsthejurytodeliberatefullyandtrulybeforereachingitsverdict. Criticsoftheunanimityrequirement,however,seeitasacostlyrelicthatextendsthedeliberationprocessandsometimes,inahungjury,bringsittoahalt. But thematerial costs of hung juries do notwarrant losing the benefit to society of theunanimousverdict.Requiringunanimityprovidesabetterchancethatatrial,andthusaverdict,willbefair.

SideA:Thejurytrialisacostlyrelicthatslowsdownthetrialprocess.

SideB:Thebenefitsofjurytrialsoutweighthecosts.


ThecontemporaryMexicanartisticmovementknownasmuralism,amovementofpublicartthat beganwith imagespaintedonwalls in an effort to representMexicannational culture, iscloselylinkedideologicallywithitsmainsponsor,thenewMexicangovernmentelectedin1920following theMexican Revolution. This government promoted an ambitious cultural program,andtheyoungrevolutionarystatecalledonartiststodisplayMexico'srichnessandpossibility.Butthe theoretical foundation of the movement was formulated by the artists themselves. Whilemanymuralistworks expresspopulistornationalist ideas, it is amistake to attempt to reduceMexicanmuralpaintingtoformulaic,officialgovernmentart.Itismorethanmerelytheresultofthe changes in political and social awareness that theMexican Revolution represented; it alsoreflected important innovations intheartworld.Awarenessof these innovationsenabled theseartiststobefreerinexpressionthanweremoretraditionalpractitionersofthisstyle.

SideA:Mexicanmuralpaintingisformulaic,officialgovernmentart.

SideB:Mexicanmuralpaintingismorethanthat;italsoreflectedimportantinnovationsintheartworld.

Note:The first sentenceof thepassage sounds like it couldbe the introductionofanargument(perhaps some othersdon't think that the mural movement is closely linked to governmentideology) but it turns out otherwise because the other side of that potential argument is neverpresented.Rather,theargumentturnsouttobeaboutsomethingmorespecificandsubtle—theauthoracknowledgestheconnectionbetweenthetwo,butmakesaclaimthatpolitical ideology

31

isn'ttheonlyinfluence.

32



How does the brain know when carbohydrates have been or should be consumed? Theanswer to this question is not known, but one element in the explanation seems to be theneurotransmitter serotonin, oneof a classof chemicalmediators thatmaybe released fromapresynaptic neuron and that cause the transmission of nerve impulse across a synapse to anadjacentpostsynapticneuron. Ingeneral, ithasbeenfoundthatdrugsthatselectively facilitateserotonin-mediated neurotransmission tend to cause weight loss, whereas drugs that blockserotonin-mediatedtransmissionoftenhavetheoppositeeffect:theyofteninducecarbohydratecravingandconsequentweightgain.

Serotoninisaderivativeoftryptophan,anaminoacidthatisnormallypresentatlowlevelsinthe bloodstream. The rate of conversion is affected by the proportion of carbohydrates in anindividual'sdiet:carbohydratesstimulatethesecretionofinsulin,whichfacilitatestheuptakeofmostaminoacidsintoperipheraltissues,suchasmuscles.Bloodtryptophanlevels,however,areunaffectedby insulin,sotheproportionoftryptophan inthebloodrelativetotheotheraminoacidsincreaseswhencarbohydratesareconsumed.Sincetryptophancompeteswithotheraminoacids for the transport across theblood-brainbarrier into thebrain, insulin secretion indirectlyspeedstryptophan'sentryintothecentralnervoussystem,where,inaspecialclusterofneurons,itisconvertedintoserotonin.

CURVEBALL:StrictlyInformativeThere is no argument here at all! Notice that all the information is presented in an objective,unemotionalmanner.Noteventheauthorexpressesanopinion.

Note: Even when a passage lacks a clear argument, reading like a law student is useful. Byactively seeking the argument, and by attempting to anticipatewhat the argumentmight turnout to be at different points in the passage, you are keeping yourself actively engaged in thereadingprocess.Thisinandofitselfwillleadtohigherlevelsofcomprehension.

33


Chapter3UsingtheArgumentasaFramework

34

ReadingLikeALawStudent

IsitenoughtocomeawayfromourfirstreadofanLSATpassagewithjustanunderstandingofthecentralargument?Canweignoretherestofthepassage?Unfortunately,no.

Use the argument as a framework that allowsus to correctly interpret andorganize the entirepassage.Thatis,considereverypieceofthepassagecarefullyintermsoftheroleitcouldplayrelativetothecentralargument.

Let'sdefinealloftherolesthatdifferentpartsofthepassagecanplay:

1.BackgroundinformationIn general, LSATpassageswill involve topics that the typical readerwill know little or nothingabout. Think of the background information as a platform or playing field for the argument.Backgroundinformationisgenerallygivenatthebeginningofapassage,butitisnotlimitedtothebeginningofthepassage.

2.TheargumentitselfBeware of the difference between two comparable elements and two sides of a debate orargument.Sometimestheargument isclear;othertimes it issubtleandwellhiddenwithinthetext,andsometimes itunravels itselfwithinafewdifferentparts.Don'trushto judgement.Theprocessofpeelingawaythelayers,andsearchingfortheexactissueathand,shouldmakeyouastrongerreader.

3.OpinionsThe opinions presented in a text will support one side of the argument or the other. Someopinionswillbeassignedtovague,generalgroups,suchas“critics”and“lawyers,”whileotherswillbeaccreditedtospecificindividuals.Questionsareoftenbuiltaroundopinionspresentedinthe text,and in thesecases it is imperative tohaveaclearunderstandingofwhichsideof theargumentanopinionfallson.Ofcourse,themostimportantopinionis…

Theauthor'sopinion ,whichmaybe clearlygiven, or stated subtly, perhaps implicitly.LSATpassagesareneverwritteninthefirstperson;often,theauthor'sopinionismadeclearbecauseitisimplicitlytheopinionofthepassageitself.Forexample,considerthestatement,“CriticsfindCarver'sworkderivativeandsimplistic,buttheyareclearlywrong.”Inthiscase,itis clear that theauthor'sopinion is theoppositeof thatof thecritics.Almostallpassagescontainanauthor'sopinio,nanditisatoppriorityforyoutoidentifyitandassignittothecorrectsideoftheargument.

4.EvidencethatsupportsonesideoftheargumentThis evidence can be theoretical, such as the idea that great literature should be emotionallymoving,oritcanbefactual,suchastheexistenceofgeneticproofofmutations.Evidencethatgoesagainstanopinioncanbeconsideredevidencefortheothersideoftheargument.

35

5.TheCurvedTailOnce inawhile, therewillbea section thatplaysnoneof these roles.Often, these“curveball”elementscomeattheendofapassage,andtakeusintosometangentialdiscussion,outsidetheimmediatescopeofthecentralargument.

36

DRILLIT:UsingtheArgumentasaFramework

InstructionsFollowingaresomeofthesametruncatedLSATtextsfromthedrillinthepreviouschapter.Thistime,theyhavebeenseparatedintoindividualsentences.Yourtaskistocorrectlyrecognizetherole each sentenceplays in the overall argument.Note that itmaybedifficult to categorize aparticularsentenceuntilyou'vereadmoreofthepassage.

Thepossible rolesare:Background Information,Bothsidesof theargument,Onesideof theargument (A),Theothersideoftheargument (B),Support forA,Support forB.Sometimesasentencewillplaymultipleroles.Feelfreetouseyourownshorthandifyou'dlike.


(1)Themythpersiststhatin1492theWesternHemispherewasanuntamedwildernessandthatitwasEuropeansettlerswhoharnessedandtransformeditsecosystems.

___________________________

(2)Butscholarshipshowsthatforests,inparticular,hadbeenalteredtovaryingdegreeswellbeforethearrivalofEuropeans.

___________________________

(3)Nativepopulationshadconvertedmuchoftheforeststosuccessfullycultivatedstands,especiallybymeansofburning.

___________________________

(4)Nevertheless,someresearchershavemaintainedthattheextent,frequency,andimpactofsuchburningwasminimal.

___________________________

(5)However,alargebodyofevidencefortheroutinepracticeofburningexistsinthegeographicalrecord. ___________________________

(6)Onegroupofresearchersfound,forexample,thatsedimentarycharcoalaccumulationsinwhatisnowthenortheasternUnitedStatesaregreatestwhereknownnativeAmericansettlementsweregreatest.

___________________________


(1)Withtheapproachofthetwentiethcentury,theclassicalwavetheoryofradiation—awidelyacceptedtheoryinphysics—begantoencounterobstacles.

___________________________

(2)Onefundamentalassumptionofwavetheorywasthatasthelengthofawaveofradiationshortens,itsenergyincreasessmoothly—likeavolumedialonaradiothatadjustssmoothlytoanysetting—andthatanyconceivableenergyvaluecouldthusoccurinnature.

___________________________

37

(3)MaxPlanck,aclassicalphysicistwhomadeimportantcontributionstowavetheory,discardedtheassumptionofradiation'ssmoothenergycontinuumandtookthethenbizarrepositionthattheseatomicprocessescouldonlyinvolvediscreteenergiesthatjumpbetweencertainunitesofvalue—likeavolumedialthat“clicks”betweenincrementalsettings.

___________________________

(4)ThephysicscommunitywasatfirstquitecriticalofPlanck'shypothesis,inpartbecausehepresenteditwithoutphysicalexplanation.

___________________________

(5)Soonthereafter,however,AlbertEinsteinandotherphysicistsprovidedtheoreticaljustificationforPlanck'shypothesis.

___________________________


(1)Acrucialcomponentofthejurytrial,atleastinseriouscriminalcases,istherulethatverdictsbeunanimousamongthejurors.

___________________________

(2)Underthisrequirement,dissentingjurorsmusteitherbeconvincedoftherightnessoftheprevailingopinion,or,conversely,persuadetheotherjurorstochangetheirminds.

___________________________

(3)Ineitherinstance,theunanimityrequirementcompelsthejurytodeliberatefullyandtrulybeforereachingitsverdict.

___________________________

(4)Criticsoftheunanimityrequirement,however,seeitasacostlyrelicthatextendsthedeliberationprocessandsometimes,inahungjury,bringsittoahalt.

___________________________

(5)Butthematerialcostsofhungjuriesdonotwarrantlosingthebenefittosocietyoftheunanimousverdict. ___________________________

(6)Requiringunanimityprovidesabetterchancethatatrial,andthusaverdict,willbefair. ___________________________

December2002,Section3,Passage1(1)ThecontemporaryMexicanartisticmovementknownasmuralism,amovementofpublicartthatbeganwithimagespaintedonwallsinanefforttorepresentMexicannationalculture,iscloselylinkedideologicallywithitsmainsponsor,thenewMexicangovernmentelectedin1920followingtheMexicanRevolution.

___________________________

(2)Thisgovernmentpromotedanambitiousculturalprogram,andtheyoungrevolutionarystatecalledonartiststodisplayMexico'srichnessandpossibility.

___________________________

38

(3)Butthetheoreticalfoundationofthemovementwasformulatedbytheartiststhemselves.Whilemanymuralistworksexpresspopulistornationalistideas,itisamistaketoattempttoreduceMexicanmuralpaintingtoformulaic,officialgovernmentart.

___________________________

(4)ItismorethanmerelytheresultofthechangesinpoliticalandsocialawarenessthattheMexicanRevolutionrepresented;italsoreflectedimportantinnovationsintheartworld.

___________________________

(5)Awarenessoftheseinnovationsenabledtheseartiststobefreerinexpressionthanweremoretraditionalpractitionersofthisstyle.

___________________________

39

SOLUTIONS:UsingtheArgumentasaFramework

Aswementioned,itmaybedifficulttocategorizeaparticularsentenceuntilyou'vereadmoreofthepassage.Thefirstpassageisagoodexample.Wecan'treallydeterminethatSentence(1) isonesideoftheargumentuntilwe'vereadSentence(2).

Also, it's less importantthatyou'vecategorizedeachsentence inexactly thesamewaythatwehave;what'smore important is that you've identified the two sides of the argument, and thatyou'veassignedtheopinions(especiallythatoftheauthor)andevidencetothecorrectsides.

Finally,keepinmindthatthescaleimageismeanttobeawayforyoutomentallyorganizethematerial, and not necessarily a physical note-taking method. While writing out the scale forpracticeisagoodwaytogetaccustomedtothinkinginthismanner,physicallydoingsoduringtheexamwouldbeimpractical.Later,we'lldiscussannotationtechniquesthatyoucanuseduringtheexamtohelpyouthinkthroughthescaleimageinreal-time.


(1)Themythpersiststhatin1492theWesternHemispherewasanuntamedwildernessandthatitwasEuropeansettlerswhoharnessedandtransformeditsecosystems.

Onesideoftheargument(A)

(2)Butscholarshipshowsthatforests,inparticular,hadbeenalteredtovaryingdegreeswellbeforethearrivalofEuropeans.

Othersideoftheargument(B)

(3)Nativepopulationshadconvertedmuchoftheforeststosuccessfullycultivatedstands,especiallybymeansofburning.

SupportforB

(4)Nevertheless,someresearchershavemaintainedthattheextent,frequency,andimpactofsuchburningwasminimal.

SupportforA

(5)However,alargebodyofevidencefortheroutinepracticeofburningexistsinthegeographicalrecord.

SupportforB

(6)Onegroupofresearchersfound,forexample,thatsedimentarycharcoalaccumulationsinwhatisnowthenortheasternUnitedStatesaregreatestwhereknownnativeAmericansettlementsweregreatest.

SupportforB

Opinionsfor:Prevailingmyth,someresearchers

Opinionsfor:Scholarship,AUTHOR,onegroupofresearchers

40

Supportfor:-burningminimal

Supportfor:-nativepopulationsconvertedforeststocultivatedlandsthroughburning-largebodyofevidenceforroutineburningingeographicalrecord-charcoalaccumulationgreatestwherethereweremostsettlements


(1)Withtheapproachofthetwentiethcentury,theclassicalwavetheoryofradiation—awidelyacceptedtheoryinphysics—begantoencounterobstacles.

Backgroundinformation,Bothsidesoftheargument

(2)Onefundamentalassumptionofwavetheorywasthatasthelengthofawaveofradiationshortens,itsenergyincreasessmoothly—likeavolumedialonaradiothatadjustssmoothlytoanysetting—andthatanyconceivableenergyvaluecouldthusoccurinnature.


(3)MaxPlanck,aclassicalphysicistwhomadeimportantcontributionstowavetheory,discardedtheassumptionofradiation'ssmoothenergycontinuumandtookthethenbizarrepositionthattheseatomicprocessescouldonlyinvolvediscreteenergiesthatjumpbetweencertainunitesofvalue—likeavolumedialthat“clicks”betweenincrementalsettings.


(4)ThephysicscommunitywasatfirstquitecriticalofPlanck'shypothesis,inpartbecausehepresenteditwithoutphysicalexplanation.

SupportforA

(5)Soonthereafter,however,AlbertEinsteinandotherphysicistsprovidedtheoreticaljustificationforPlanck'shypothesis.

SupportforB

Opinionsfor:MaxPlanck,AUTHOR,AlbertEinstein,otherphysicists

Opinionsfor:Physicscommunityatfirst

Supportfor:-MPdisprovesfoundationofclassicalwavetheory-AEprovidesjustificationforMPproof

*Noteherethatthescaleisweightedmoreononeside,becausemostofthepassageisaboutwhyclassicalwavetheoryisincorrect.


41

(1)Acrucialcomponentofthejurytrial,atleastinseriouscriminalcases,istherulethatverdictsbeunanimousamongthejurors.

Backgroundinformation

(2)Underthisrequirement,dissentingjurorsmusteitherbeconvincedoftherightnessoftheprevailingopinion,or,conversely,persuadetheotherjurorstochangetheirminds.


(3)Ineitherinstance,theunanimityrequirementcompelsthejurytodeliberatefullyandtrulybeforereachingitsverdict.

Backgroundinformation,SupportforB

(4)Criticsoftheunanimityrequirement,however,seeitasacostlyrelicthatextendsthedeliberationprocessandsometimes,inahungjury,bringsittoahalt.


(5)Butthematerialcostsofhungjuriesdonotwarrantlosingthebenefittosocietyoftheunanimousverdict.


(6)Requiringunanimityprovidesabetterchancethatatrial,andthusaverdict,willbefair. SupportforB

Opinionsfor:Critics

Opinionsfor:AUTHOR

Supportfor:-delaysprocess

Supportfor:-forcesjurytodeliberatefully-providesbetterchancethatthetrialisfair

42

December2002,Section3,Passage1(1)ThecontemporaryMexicanartisticmovementknownasmuralism,amovementofpublicartthatbeganwithimagespaintedonwallsinanefforttorepresentMexicannationalculture,iscloselylinkedideologicallywithitsmainsponsor,thenewMexicangovernmentelectedin1920followingtheMexicanRevolution.


(2)Thisgovernmentpromotedanambitiousculturalprogram,andtheyoungrevolutionarystatecalledonartiststodisplayMexico'srichnessandpossibility.


(3)Butthetheoreticalfoundationofthemovementwasformulatedbytheartiststhemselves.Whilemanymuralistworksexpresspopulistornationalistideas,itisamistaketoattempttoreduceMexicanmuralpaintingtoformulaic,officialgovernmentart.

Backgroundinformation,Bothsidesoftheargument

(4)ItismorethanmerelytheresultofthechangesinpoliticalandsocialawarenessthattheMexicanRevolutionrepresented;italsoreflectedimportantinnovationsintheartworld.


(5)Awarenessoftheseinnovationsenabledtheseartiststobefreerinexpressionthanweremoretraditionalpractitionersofthisstyle.

SupportforA

Opinionsfor:AUTHOR

Supportfor:-innovationsenableartiststobefreerinexpression

43

PuttingItTogether

In the last chapter,we lookedat a complete LSATpassageandbegan todefine the argumentcontainedwithinit.Now,let'srereadthepassage,thistimeusingtheargumentasaframeworkforunderstandingthepassageasawhole.

October2002,Section3,Passage2 Comment:

Intellectualauthorityisdefinedastheauthorityofargumentsthatprevailbyvirtueofgoodreasoninganddonotdependoncoercionorconvention.Acontrastingnotion,institutionalauthority,referstothepowerofsocialinstitutionstoenforceacceptanceofargumentsthatmayormaynotpossessintellectualauthority.

Thisisbackgroundinformation.Institutionalandintellectualauthorityareintroducedascontrastingelements(likeapplesandoranges)buttheyarenottwodifferentsidesofadebate.

Theauthoritywieldedbylegalsystemsisespeciallyinterestingbecausesuchsystemsareinstitutionsthatnonethelessaspiretoapurelyintellectualauthority.

Stillbackgroundinformation.Nowwearenarrowinginonaspecificsubjectareawherethesecontrastingnotionscomeintoconflict:legalsystems.

Onejudgegoessofarastoclaimthatcourtsaremerelypassivevehiclesforapplyingintellectualauthorityofthelawandpossessnocoercivepowersoftheirown.

Onesideoftheargumentispresented(A):legalsystemsapplypureintellectualauthority.

Incontrast,somecriticsmaintainthatwhateverauthorityjudicialpronouncementshaveisexclusivelyinstitutional.

Theopposingsideispresented(B):poweroflegalsystemsisexclusivelyinstitutional.Nowweknowthetwosidesoftheargument.

Someofthesecriticsgofurther,claimingthatintellectualauthoritydoesnotreallyexist—i.e.,itreducestoinstitutionalauthority.

Supportfor,andexpansionof(B)

Butitcanbecounteredthattheseclaimsbreakdownwhenasufficientlybroadhistoricalperspectiveistaken:Notallargumentsacceptedbyinstitutionswithstandthetestoftime,andsomewell-reasonedargumentsneverreceiveinstitutionalimprimatur.Thereasonableargumentthatgoesunrecognizedinitsowntimebecauseitchallengesinstitutionalbeliefsiscommoninintellectualhistory;

Counter-argumentthatsupports(A).

intellectualauthorityandinstitutionalconsensusarenotthesamething.

Noticethestructureandtone.Thisistheauthor'sopinion.Theauthorsideswithintellectualauthority(A).

44

Passage

Comment:

But,thecriticsmightrespond,intellectualauthorityisonlyrecognizedassuchbecauseofinstitutionalconsensus.Forexample,ifamusicologistweretoclaimthatanallegedmusicalgeniuswho,afterseveraldecades,hadnotgainedrespectandrecognitionforhisorhercompositionsisprobablynotagenius,thecriticsmightsaythatbasingajudgementonaunitoftime—”severaldecades“—isaninstitutionalratherthananintellectualconstruct.What,thecriticsmightask,makesaparticularnumberofdecadesreasonableevidencebywhichtojudgegenius?Theanswer,ofcourse,isnothing,exceptforthefactthatsuchinstitutionalprocedureshaveprovedusefultomusicologistsinmakingsuchdistinctionsinthepast.

SupportforopinionB,institutionalauthority.

Theanalogouslegalconceptisthedoctrineofprecedent,i.e.,ajudge'smerelydecidingacaseacertainwaybecomingabasisfordecidinglatercasesthesameway—apureexampleofinstitutionalauthority.

SupportforopinionB.

Butthecriticsmissthecrucialdistinctionthatwhenajudicialdecisionisbadlyreasoned,orsimplynolongerappliesinthefaceofevolvingsocialstandardsorpractices,thenotionofintellectualauthorityisintroduced:judgesreconsider,revise,orinsomecasesthrowoutthedecision.Theconflictbetweenintellectualandinstitutionalauthorityinlegalsystemsisthusplayedoutinthereconsiderationofdecisions,leadingonetodrawtheconclusionthatlegalsystemscontainasignificantdegreeofintellectualauthorityevenifthethrustoftheirpowerispredominantlyinstitutional.

Counter—argumentthatsupportsopinionA.Noticeaslightsofteningofthestance—thoughtheauthorbelievesintheimpactofintellectualauthorityandisclearlyononesideofthisdebate,his/heropinionisnotasabsoluteastheonegivenbythejudgeattheendofparagraphone.

Thisisanextremelydifficultpassage.Thesubjectmatterismostlikelyunfamiliar,thelanguageischallenging,andtheflowofthepassageseemstochangedirectionsoften.Thebestwaytomakesenseofthispassageistoorganizetheinformationaccordingtothecentralargument.Mentally“hang”eachpassagecomponentonyourscaleimageasyouread.

AVisualRepresentation

Ifweputtheargumentandtherelatedpiecesonascale,itmightlooklikethis:

Background:IntellectualAuthority:authoritybecauseofreasonInstitutionalAuthority:authoritybecauseof

authority(i.e.withoutreason)

Opinions: Opinions:

45

-critics -judge -AUTHOR

Support: Support:-Critics:PurelyInstitutional -Judge:PurelyIntellectual-Institutional/Intellectualauthorityissame -Institutional/Intellectualauthorityisnotsame-Basingjudgmentonunitoftime(inmusicology)makesitinstitutional

-Thewayjudgescangoagainstprecedentshowpowerofintellectualauthority

-Precedentisexampleofinstitutionalauthority

Again,itisunnecessary(andtootimeconsuming)towriteoutthisscaleontheactualexam,butyouwanttounderstandthepassagewellenoughsothat,ifaskedto,youcouldcreatethisscale.IfyoucancomeawayfromeverypassageontheLSATwiththistypeofunderstanding,youwillbeinterrificpositionforansweringthetypesofquestionsthatappearontheexam.

46

TheBenefitsofReadingLikeALawStudent

Inthesecondhalfofthebook,wewillspecificallydiscusshowreadinglikealawstudentgivesyouanadvantagewhenitcomestoansweringparticulartypesofquestions,butlet'spauseforamomentandquicklyhighlightsomeofthebenefitsofthistypeofreadingstance.

1.Themethodisanaturalfitforthestructureofthepassages.

Asmentionedearlier,thesepassagesaredesignedtotesttheverysamereadingandrecognitionskills thatwillbe required in lawschool,which in turnattempt tomimic the skills thatwillberequired of you as a lawyer, or judge.These passages are meant to be read this way.Furthermore,rememberthattheconstantinalltheexampassagesisnotthesubjectmatterbutrather thestructure; if you are prepared forwhat you are going to read, and understand eachelementofapassage in termsof thepassage'soverall structure,youwill read fasterandretainmorethanyouwouldgoingintothisexamwithablankslate.

2.Most general questions depend on a clear understanding of the central argument in thepassage.

Ifyoucandividethepassage intothetwosidesofthescale,youwillbereadytoanswermostquestionsthatpertaintothepassageasawhole.Also,generalquestionswilloftenrequireyoutocorrectlyincorporateandassignthevariousopinions,especiallythoseoftheauthor.

Let'slookataquestionthatpertainstothepassagewe'vebeendiscussing:

October2002,Section3,Passage2,#99.Whichoneofthefollowingmostaccuratelystatesthemainideaofthepassage?(A) Although some argue that the authority of legal systems is purely intellectual, these

systems possess a degree of institutional authority due to their ability to enforceacceptanceofbadlyreasonedorsociallyinappropriatejudicialdecisions.

(B) Although some argue that the authority of legal systems is purely institutional, thesesystemsaremorecorrectly seenasvehicles forapplying the intellectualauthorityofthelawwhilepossessingnocoercivepoweroftheirown.

(C) Although some argue that the authority of legal systems is purely intellectual, thesesystems in fact wield institutional authority by virtue of the fact that intellectualauthorityreducestoinstitutionalauthority.

(D) Although some argue that the authority of legal systems is purely institutional, thesesystems possess a degree of intellectual authority due to their ability to reconsiderbadlyreasonedorsociallyinappropriatejudicialdecisions.

(E) Although some argue that the authority of legal systems is purely intellectual, thesesystemsinfactwieldexclusivelyinstitutionalauthorityinthattheypossessthepowertoenforceacceptanceofbadlyreasonedorsociallyinappropriatejudicialdecisions.

Noticethestructureoftheanswerchoices:eachanswerstartswithan“although,”andthengives

47

usanopinionthatisattributedtoavaguegroup,“some;”next,analternateopinionisgiventhatclearlyrepresentstheauthor'sopinion.Whenwethinkaboutourscaleinthesetermstheanswershouldread(inageneralsense):

“Althoughsomethinkthepoweroflegalsystemsisinstitutional,itisintellectual.”

Basedonthisgeneralunderstanding,wecanquicklyeliminateanswerchoices(A), (C),and(E),whichincorrectlyrepresenttheargumentinreverse.

Leftwith(B)and(D),weexaminetheremainingchoicesinmoredepth.(B)mayinitiallysoundcorrect,butitistooextremewhenitassertsthatithas“nocoercivepower.”Thoughtheauthorisonthesideofintellectualpower,herfeelingsarenotthatabsolute.Sheendsthepassage,“legalsystemscontainasignificantdegreeof intellectualauthorityevenifthethrustoftheirpowerispredominantlyinstitutional.”

Answerchoice(D)iscorrect.Theabilityofcourtstoreconsiderbadjudgmentswasasignificantpieceofevidencethatfellonthesamesideastheauthor'sopinion.

Isanswerchoice (D)aperfect summaryof thepassage?No. Itdoesn'taccurately represent theprioritiesoftheauthor.However,itisclearlythebestoftheavailableanswerchoices.

3. Specific questions often depend on an understanding of the role played by a piece ofinformationinthepassage.

Let'slookataspecificquestion:

October2002,Section3,Passage2,#1313.Theauthordiscussestheexamplefrommusicologyprimarilyinorderto(A)distinguishthenotionofinstitutionalauthorityfromthatofintellectualauthority.(B)giveanexampleofanargumentpossessingintellectualauthoritythatdidnotprevailin

itsowntime.(C)identifyanexampleinwhichtheascriptionofmusicalgeniusdidnotwithstandthetest

oftime.(D)illustratetheclaimthatassessingintellectualauthorityrequiresanappealtoinstitutional

authority.(E) demonstrate that the authority wielded by the arbiters of musical genius is entirely

institutional.

In order to answer a specific question successfully, you need to interpret a piece of text andunderstanditsroleintheargument.Lookbackatthescale.Inthiscase,musicologyismentionedasanexamplethatsupportstheclaimmadeinthefirstsentenceofthethirdparagraph:“But,thecriticsmight respond, intellectual authority is only recognized as suchbecauseof institutionalconsensus.”

48

Thecorrectansweris(D).

49


Chapter4PassageAnnotationandthe

ReadingProcess

50

PassageAnnotation

ThePurposeofAnnotationIdeally,youwanttowalkintotheexamwithanannotationsystemthatyou'vepracticedandfeelverycomfortablewith.Theprocessofannotating,ormarkingthepassagewithnotes,willhelpyouinseveralways.Forone,mostofusreadmuchmoreactively,andcarefully,whenwetakenotes.Theveryactofmarkingthepassageforcesustomakedecisionsaboutwhatinformationisimportant, and how parts of the passage relate to one another. As you are answering thequestions, your notes should help reinforce the central concepts in the passage, and, moreimportantly,yournotesshouldhelpyourecallthethoughtprocessesyouwentthroughonyourinitialread.

All that said, passage annotation canquicklybecome counter-productive if you're not careful.We'll present our recommended annotation approaches in aminute, but first a fewwords ofwarning.Asyouworkonyourownannotationprocess,keepthefollowinginmind:

1.Annotationisameanstoanend. Neverlettheprocessofannotationbecomemoreimportantthanactuallyunderstandingthepassage.Youmustrememberthattheprocessismeanttoserveyour understanding of the central argument and its associated parts. The end goal is alwayscomprehension. If yourannotationprocess isn'thelpingyouunderstand thecentral argument,thenyouneedtochangeyourprocess.

2.Thereisnosuchthingascorrectorincorrectannotation. Eachofuswillannotatedifferently,meaningthateachofuswillendupwithauniquesetofnotes.Again,theannotationinandofitselfisnotwhat'simportant.Rather,youshouldevaluateyournotatingsystemintermsofhowmuchithelpsyoureadmorecarefully,andhowmuchithelpsyouretaininformationmoreeasily.

3. Your annotationwill be a record of your evolvingunderstandingof thepassage. Youmaymarkup thebeginningof thepassagebasedonsomeprematureunderstandingof thecentralargumentonlytodiscoverlaterthatyouneedtorevisethatunderstanding.Doesthismeanthatyour initialmarkings are wrong or need to be erased? No! Leave them as is. Remember, youshouldbeguessingandreassessingyourunderstandingofthepassage.That'spartoftheprocess.Letyournotesbearecordofyourevolvingunderstanding.

TheProcessofAnnotationAswementioned,therearemanydifferentwaystoannotate,andeveryonewillhaveadifferentmethodthatismosteffectiveforthem.Remember,whateverprocessyoudodecidetouse,makesureyouarepracticedatitbytestday.

Herearethreesuggestionsfortheannotationprocess:

1.Underlineandmark-upasyouread.

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Thisisprobablythemostobviousmethod,butbecareful:veryfewofuscanunderlineeffectivelyas we read. The reason is that it's very difficult to understand themeaning and purpose of asentencewithoutthecontextofknowingbothwhat'scomebeforeitandwhat'scomingafterit.

Ifyouunderlineasyouread,andyouarenotcareful,it'seasytoenduppassivelyunderliningtoomuch,orgettingintoarhythmandthinkingyouhavetounderlineonceeveryfewsentences.It'seasytogetdistractedbytheunderlining,sothatyoulosefocusofwhatyouarereading.

Therefore, thismethod is effective only for a small percentage of test-takers. Use thismethodonlyifit'sclearlytheonethatfeelsmostnaturaltoyou.Generally,that'sgoingtobeifyouareaverystrongreadertobeginwith,andveryselectivewhenitcomestowhatitemsyouaregoingtounderlineornotate(youtendtounderlinetoolittle,ratherthantoomuch).

Herearesomesymbolsyoumightwanttouseaspartofyournotationprocess:

=onesideoftheargument

=othersideoftheargument

=opinionforoneside

=opinionfortheother

=author'sopinion

Again, ifothersymbolsmakemoresensetoyou,pleasefeelfreetousethem.Inanycase,anynotationsystemyouuseshouldbeautomaticforyoubytestday.

2.Underlineandmark-upattheendofeachparagraph

This is themethodwe recommend formost test-takers.Once youaredonewith aparagraph,skimitquicklyanddecideonwhatismostimportant,andwhatisworthyoftakingnoteof.Thenusethesameunderliningandsymbolprocesswejustdiscussed.Thismethodnaturallybuildsinareviewprocesswe'lldiscussshortly.

3.Takenotesontheside

Writingnotesinyourownwordswilltakealittlemoretimethanunderliningwill.However,forsomepeople, it'samuchmorenaturalprocess. Inaddition,putting ideas intoyourownwordsforces you to figureoutwhat ismost important, andwhat the text trulymeans. Furthermore,writingnotesallowsyoutobemorespecificaboutthepurposeofeachpartofthepassage.

Itmightseemhelpful to takenotes in the formofascale image.We've foundthat this isverydifficulttodo,andwedon'tgenerallyrecommendit.Remember,ifyoudodecidetotakenotes,

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makesuretheprocessdoesn'tslowyoudowntoomuch.

WhattoNotateWith any annotation process, the goal is to help you focus in on, and remember, the mostimportantinformation.Whatisthemostimportantinformation?It'sthestuffwe'vebeenfocusedoninthepastfewchapters.Attheendoftheday,yourannotationprocessshouldhelpyou:

1.Figureoutthecentralargument2.Assignopinionstodifferentsides3.Recognizethepurposeofallsupportinginformation

Ifyouareunderlining,youwanttofocusonsentencesthatinformyouaboutnumbers1and2.These are the most important issues to understand completely. Essentially, this means thateverythingyoudon'tunderlineissupportingevidenceorbackgroundinformation.Thoughthesepartswillgounnotated,youshouldbeabletoseehowtheserelatetotheopinionsandcentralargumentthatyoudonotate.

Ifyouaretakingnotesontheside,youcannotethecentralargument,opinions, andpurposeofsupportinginformation.Itisunnecessary,andawasteoftime,tosummarizethe meaningofthesupportingevidence—youjustwanttonotateitspurposerelativetotheargument.

ProjectPEAR

Thus far in this chapter, we've discussed the physical processes you should go throughwhilereadinganLSATpassage.Nowlet'sdiscusssomeimportantmentalprocesses.

You can use the acronymPEAR to remember these key stepsnecessary forbeing an effectivereader.

PauseWhenpeopleareaskedtorushthroughthereadingofapassage,toreadfasterthantheywouldotherwise,theytendtocutoutthetimetheyspendpausingandreflectingonthematerial.Thisisacrucialmistake.Weneedthesepauses to thinkaboutwhatwe've read;without them, there'ssimply too much information for us to absorb. What often results is that we'll be able tounderstand the meaning of sentences only in relation to those immediately preceding orfollowing,butnotinrelationtothepassageasawhole.

Thebreaksbetweenparagraphsarenaturalplacestopauseandreflectonthesignificanceofwhatyou'veread.(It'salsohelpfultopausewhenyoufirstencounterasentencethathintsatthecentralargument.)

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Specifically,youwanttopauseattheendofeachparagraphand…

EvaluateEvaluatewhatyou'vejustread.Didanythingclueyouinonthecentralargument?Werethereanyopinionspresented?Didtheauthortiphishandintermsofhisownopinion?Ifso,reviewtheseideasagain,andtryyourbesttoconnectthemtooneanother.Ifyouarenotunderliningasyouread,thisisanaturalmomenttounderlineandmark-up,ortotakenotes.

and…

AnticipateNext, try topredict thevarious roles thenextparagraphcanplay.Will it supportan ideawe'vealready been presented with? Will it focus on the other side of an argument? When yourpredictionsareright,it'smucheasiertounderstandthenextparagraphquickly.Evenwhenyourpredictions are wrong, the act of anticipating something, and recognizing the text as beingsomethingelse,willmakeyouastrongerreader.

andfinally,asyoubegintoreadthenextparagraph…

ReassessTake note when the passage unravels in a way you didn't expect. Constantly reassess yourunderstanding as you read. Perhaps new information alters your perception of the centralargument,ortheauthorusestheargumentasaspringboardforatangentialdiscussion,ortheauthorsurprisesyouwithanopinionyoudidn'texpect.

NotethatwerecommendthisPEARProcesstoeveryone,nomatterthenotationprocessyouuse.Aninternalreviewprocessisaconstantcharacteristicofalleffectivereaders.

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DRILLIT:Annotation

Let'susethefollowingpassagetopracticetheannotationmethodswe'vediscussed.Annotateasyoureadthefollowingpassagebyunderliningandsymbolizing,orbytakingnotes.Remembertogo through the PEAR process as well. Give yourself four minutes. Afterwards, we'll discusswhetheryourannotationmethodwaseffectiveforyou.


TragicdramaswritteninGreeceduringthefifthcenturyB.C.engenderconsiderablescholarlydebate over the relative influence of individual autonomy and the power of the gods on thedrama'saction.Oneearly scholar,B. Snell, argues thatAeschylus, forexample,develops inhistragedies a concept of the autonomy of the individual. In these dramas, the protagonistsinvariably confront a situation that paralyzes them, so that their prior notions about how tobehave or think are dissolved. Facedwith a decision onwhich their fate depends, theymustreexamine their deepest motives, and then act with determination. They are given only twoalternatives, eachwith grave consequences, and theymake the decision only after a torturedinternal debate. According to Snell, this decision is “free” and “personal” and such personalautonomy constitutes the central theme in Aeschylean drama, as if the playswere devised toisolate an abstract model of human action. Drawing psychological conclusions from thisinterpretation, another scholar, Z. Barbu, suggests that “[Aeschylean] drama is proof of theemergencewithinancientGreekcivilizationoftheindividualasafreeagent.”

To A. Rivier, Snell's emphasis on the decision made by the protagonist, with its implicitnotionsofautonomyandresponsibility,misrepresentstheroleofthesuperhumanforcesatwork,forcesthatgivethedramastheirtrulytragicdimension.Theseforcesarenotonlyexternaltotheprotagonist;theyarealsoexperiencedbytheprotagonistasaninternalcompulsion,subjectinghimorhertoconstrainteven inwhatareclaimedtobehisorher“choices.”Henceall thatthedeliberationdoes is tomake theprotagonistawareof the impasse, rather thanmotivatingonechoiceoveranother.Itisfinallyanecessityimposedbythedeitiesthatgeneratesthedecision,sothatataparticularmomentinthedramanecessitydictatesapath.Thus,theprotagonistdoesnotsomuch“choose”betweentwopossibilitiesas“recognize”thatthereisonlyonerealoption.

A.Lesky,inhisdiscussionofAeschylus’play Agamemnon,disputesbothviews.Agamemnon,rulerofArgos,mustdecidewhethertobrutallysacrificehisowndaughter.Amessagefromthedeity Artemis has told him that only the sacrifice will bring a wind to blow his ships to animportant battle. Agamemnon is indeed constrainedby a divine necessity. But he also deeplydesires a victorious battle: “If this sacrifice will loose the winds, it is permitted to desire itfervently,”hesays.TheviolenceofhispassionsuggestthatAgamemnonchoosesapath—chosenby the gods for their own reasons—on the basis of desires that must be condemned by us,becausetheyarehisown.InLesky'sview,tragicactionisboundbytheconstanttensionbetweenaselfandsuperhumanforces.

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WasYourMethodEffective?Inamoment,we'llbreakdownhowtheannotationmethodcouldhaveplayedoutrelativetothispassage,butlet'spauseforamomenttodiscusstheeffectivenessofyourownmethod.

Inordertoevaluatethis,wedon'tneeda“solution”tocomparewith.Everyone'sprocesswillbealittlebitdifferent,andtheactofunderliningoneparticularclausemighthaveadifferenteffectforyouthanitdoesforanotherreader.

When it comes to effective annotation, theproof is in thepudding: that is, yourmethodwaseffectiveforyouifithelpedyouaccomplishthecorrectgoals.

Review your annotation process now. If you underlined and marked-up, reread only theunderlinedpartsofthepassage.Ifyoutooknotes,onlyfocusonthosenotes.

Ifyourprocesswaseffective,itshouldhelpyou

1.Figureoutthecentralargument2.Assignopinionstodifferentsides3.Recognizethepurposeofallsupportinginformation

Ifyournotesdon'thelpyouaccomplishanyofthesegoals,or,worseyet,ifyournotesconfuseyou,thenyouknowyouneedmorepractice,oradifferentsystem.

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SOLUTION:Annotation

Thissolutionhasthreeseparatecomponents:

(1)Thepassageisunderlinedandmarked-up(2)Notesonthepassagearewritteninboldontheside(noteyoushouldhavedone1or2,notboth)(3)TheimaginedPEARprocessiscontainedintheboxes

PauseandEvaluate:

Gaveus central argument:Greek dramadrivenby individual autonomyor power of gods.Rest of paragraph confirms understanding of central argument. Two opinions given forindividualautonomy.Anticipate:Moresupportforindividualautonomy,orevidencefortheotherside.

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PauseandEvaluate:Evidenceforpowerofthegods.

Anticipate:Moresupportforindividualautonomy,orevidenceforpowerofthegods.

PauseandEvaluate:Finalview:Greekdramabasedonstrugglebetweenindividualautonomyandpowerofgods.

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Chapter5TheSearchforCorrectAnswers

59

GettingFamiliar

Read the following passage and answer the questions to the best of your ability. For morerigorouspractice,trytoanswerallthequestionswithoutlookingbackatthetext.Whileeventhebesttest-takerswillreferbacktothetextattime,over-relianceonre-readingapassagecaneasilyslowyoudowntoomuch.


MostofwhathasbeenwrittenaboutThurgoodMarshall,a formerUnitedStatesSupremeCourtjusticewhoservedfrom1967to1991,hasjustfocusedonhisjudicialrecordandonthe

(5)ideologicalcontentofhisearlierachievementsasalawyerpursuingcivilrightsissuesinthe courts. But whenMarshall's career is viewed from a technical perspective, hisworkwiththeNAACP(NationalAssociationfortheAdvancementof

(10)ColoredPeople)revealsastrategicandmethodicallegacytothefieldofpublicinterestlaw. Though the NAACP, under Marshall's direction, was not the first legalorganizationintheU.S.tobedrivenbyapoliticalandsocialagenda,heand

(15)theNAACPdevelopedinnovationsthatforeverchangedthelandscapeofpublicinterestlaw: during the 1940s and 1950s, in their campaign against state-sanctioned racialsegregation,MarshallandtheNAACP,insteadofsimplypursuingcasesas

(20) theopportunity arose, set up apredetermined legal campaign thatwasmeticulouslycraftedandcarefullycoordinated.

Oneaspectofthiscampaign,thetestcasestrategy,involvedsponsoringlitigationoftactically

(25)chosencasesatthetrialcourtlevelwithcarefulevaluationoftheprecedentialnuancesand potential impact of each decision. This allowed Marshall to try out differentapproachesanddiscoverwhichwasthebesttobeused.Anessentialelementinthe

(30) success of this tactic was the explicit recognition that in a public interest legalcampaign,choosingtherightplaintiffcanmeanthedifferencebetweensuccessandfailure. Marshall carefully selected cases with sympathetic litigants, whose publicappeal,

(35)credibility,andcommitmenttotheNAACP'sgoalswereunsurpassed. Inaddition,Marshallusedsociologicalandpsychologicalstatistics—presented in

experttestimony,forexample,aboutthepsychological(40) impact of enforced segregation—as a means of transforming constitutional law by

persuading the courts that certain discriminatory laws produced public harms inviolationofconstitutionalprinciples.Thistactic,whileofteneffective,has

(45)beencriticizedbysomelegalscholarsasapragmaticattempttogivejudgesnonlegalmaterialwithwhichtofillgapsintheir justificationsfordecisionswherethepurelylegalprinciplesappearinconclusive.

SincethetimeofMarshall'sworkwiththe(50)NAACP,thenumberofpublicinterestlawfirmsintheU.S.hasgrownsubstantially,and

theyhavewidelyadoptedhiscombinationofstrategiesforlitigation,devotingthemtovariouspublicpurposes.Thesestrategieshavebeenused,forexample,in

(55) consumer advocacy campaigns and,more recently, by politically conservative publicinterest lawyersseekingtoachieve,throughlitigation,changesinthelawthattheyhavenotbeenabletoaccomplishinthelegislature.Ifwefocusontheparticular

(60) contentofMarshall'sgoalsand successes, itmight seemsurprising thathisworkhasinfluencedthequestforsuchdivergentpoliticalobjects,butthetechniquesthathehoned—originallyconsideredtobearadicaldeparturefromacceptedconventions

60

(65)—havebecomethenormforU.S.publicinterestlitigationtoday.

IDENTIFICATION7.Accordingtothepassage,somelegalscholarshavecriticizedwhichofthefollowing?

(A)theideologyMarshallusedtosupporthisgoals(B)recentpublicinterestcampaigns(C)theuseofMarshall'stechniquesbypoliticallyconservativelawyers(D)theuseofpsychologicalstatisticsincourtcases(E)thesetofcriteriaforselectingpublicinterestlitigants

INFERENCE5.Thepassageprovidesthemostsupportforwhichoneofthefollowingstatements?

(A) The ideological motivations for Marshall's work with the NAACP changed during histenureontheU.S.SupremeCourt.

(B)MarshalldeclinedtopursuesomecasesthatwereinkeepingwiththeNAACP'sgoalsbutwhoseplaintiffs’likelyimpressiononthepublichedeemedtobeunfavorable.

(C) Marshall's tactics were initially opposed by some other members of the NAACP whofavoredamoretraditionalapproach.

(D)Marshallreliedmoreonexperttestimonyinlowercourts,whosejudgesweremorelikelythanhighercourtjudgestogiveweighttostatisticalevidence.

(E)Marshall'scolleaguesattheNAACPsubsequentlyrevisedhismethodsandextendedtheirapplicationstoareasoflawandpoliticsbeyondthoseforwhichtheyweredesigned.

SYNTHESIS1.Whichoneofthefollowingmostaccuratelyexpressesthemainpointofthepassage?

(A) In his role as a lawyer for theNAACP,Marshall developed a number of strategies forlitigationwhich,whileoftencontroversial,proved tobehighly successful inarguingagainstcertaindiscriminatorylaws.

(B)ThelitigationstrategiesthatMarshalldevisedinpursuitoftheNAACP'scivilrightsgoalsduring the 1940s and1950s constituted significant innovations that have sincebeenadoptedasstandardtacticsforpublicinterestlawyers.

(C)AlthoughcommentaryonMarshallhasoftenfocusedonlyonasingleideologicalaspectofhisaccomplishments,areinvestigationofhisrecordasajudgerevealsitsinfluenceoncurrentdivergentpoliticalobjectives.

(D)InhisworkwiththeNAACPduringthe1940'sand1950's,Marshalladoptedasetoftacticsthatwerepreviouslyconsideredaradicaldeparturefromacceptedpractice,butwhichheadapted in suchaway that theyeventuallybecameacceptedconventions in thefieldoflaw.

(E) Contrary to the impression commonly given by commentary on Marshall, hiscontributions to theworkof theNAACPhavehadmoreofa lasting impact thanhisachievementsasaU.S.SupremeCourtjustice.

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TheSearchforCorrectAnswers

Okay, you've read the passage. You understand the argument, and you understand howeverythingelseinthepassagerelatestothatargument.Nowwhat?

Nowcomestheimportantpart.Theydon'tgiveyoupointsforreading.Theygiveyoupointsforansweringquestionscorrectly.Andsinceyou'vegottenthroughthepassagesoquickly,youhavetheextratimeyouneedtoconsidereachquestioncarefully.You'regoingtoneedit!Let'slookatsomechallengesthattheLSATpresents:

1.Thequestionsareoftenaskedinavagueorconfusingfashion.

Considertheprompt,

”Criticsoftheauthor'sargumentwouldmostlikelydisagreewithwhichofthefollowing?”

Noticethedoublenegative(critics,disagree).Thisisacomplicatedwayofessentiallyaskingyouwhattheauthorwouldagreewith.

2.Thereisnodirectcorrelationbetweenpromptlanguageandquestiontype.

Thetesttakerhasanadvantageifsheknowswhattypeofanswertolookoutfor.Unfortunately,thereisoftennodirectcorrelationbetweenpromptlanguageandquestiontype.Somequestionsgive you a clear indication ofwhat types of answers you are looking for, but somequestionsdon't.Considerthevagueprompt,

”Accordingtothepassage,theauthorbelievesthat…”

The answer could be something general that relates to the whole passage, or it could besomethingspecific,adetailmentionedinasupportingparagraph.

3.Thebestanswerisoftennotanidealanswer.

Thebestavailableanswerchoiceisoftenincomplete,orwordedinanunnecessarilychallengingmanner.Thisisespeciallytrueforhigherlevelquestions.Theanswertoageneralquestionmaynotencompassallthemainpointsmadeinapassage;theanswertoaspecificquestionmaynotbecompletelyprovable.Sometimes,anansweriscorrectsimplybecauseitisbetterthanalltheothersthatarepresented.

Here'showweovercomethesechallenges:

1.Readforastructuralunderstandingofthepassagerelativetoanargument.

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Mostquestionsarerelatedinadirectorindirectmannertotherolesthatpartsofthepassageplaywith respect to a central argument. Reading and understanding the passage relative to theargumentwillallowyoutocorrectlyunderstandthefunctionofitsvariousparts.Italsowillallowyoutomoreeasilyseeconnectionsbetweentheevidenceandopinionspresented.Thiswillgiveyou intuitive advantages (for example, knowing the author's opinion relative to the argumentoftenmakesitmucheasiertospotobviouslyincorrectanswerchoices)andpracticaladvantages(forexample,havingastructuralunderstandingshouldhelpyoulocatepiecesoftextrelevanttoaspecificquestionfaster).

2.Recognizethecommoncharacteristicsofcorrectanswers.

WhatskillsistheLSATtestingexactly?Thetesttakercanhaveanadvantageifsheknowsexactlywhat typesofmental processes are tested andwhat types arenot.We'll discuss this at lengthstartingonthenextpage.

3.Recognizethecommoncharacteristicsofincorrectanswerchoices.

Imagine that the people who write the LSAT start off each question with fivecorrect answerchoices.Onebyone,theyintroduceflawsintofourofthechoices.Whattypesofflawsdotheyintroduce?Whatcanyoulookoutforthatwilltipyouofftoawronganswer?Aswementionedabove, right answers are often not ideal. The onlyway to get a high percentage of questionscorrectistobeabletoconfidentlyeliminateincorrectchoices.Wewilldiscussthisatlengthinthenextchapter.

4.Useaconsistentapproach.

Ifyoucontinuouslyreadpassagesinapassive,aimlessmanner,andcontinuouslychooseanswersbasedonvague,“gut feeling”sortsof reasons,youareaskingwaytoomuchofyour intuition!Youmaystartoutwithadecentbaselinescore,becauseyoumaybeastrongreader,butyouarenotmakingthetesteasier foryourself,and,most important,youarenotgivingyourselfa realchance to improve. A systematic approach gives you a way toorganize the various thoughtprocesses you must go through in order to successfully and accurately attack a question.Furthermore,aconsistentprocesswillhelpyouidentifyyourflawsandweaknessesmoreeasilysothatyoucancorrectthem.Useeachchapterandeachdrilltohoneyourapproach.

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TheCharacteristicsofCorrectAnswers

Wecangeneralize theskills thatare testedon theLSAT readingcomprehension test into threecategories:identification,inference,andsynthesis.

IdentificationIdentificationisthefirstlevelofunderstanding.About1-2questionsperpassagedependsolelyonyourabilitytoidentifyandunderstandthemeaningofaspecificpieceoftext.Thesequestionswill tend to involvepiecesof text thataredifficult to find,andoften involveanswers thatyoumightnotexpect.Foridentificationquestions,alwaysfind“proofsentences”inthetexttoverifyyouranswerchoice.

InferenceInferencequestionsaskyoutogoastepfurther.Theyaskyoutoidentifyapieceoftextandthenderiveothertruthsfromit.Thecorrectanswerstoinferencequestionsrequireyoutotakealogicalstepthatmaybeunexpected,butisneverthelessvalid.

Forexample,ifapieceoftextstates,“MostpeoplepreferBrandXtoBrandY,”wecaninferthat:

1.MostpeopledonotpreferBrandY.2.AtleastsomepeoplepreferBrandYtoBrandX.

If thepassagestates,“Thecensuscountedpeople invariousoccupationalcategories, includingfarming,”wecaninferthat

1.Farmingisanoccupationalcategory.2.Thecensuscountedpeopleinotheroccupationsbesidesfarming.

It is impossibletoanticipateevery inference.However,youshouldhaveastrongsenseofwhattypesofinferencesarevalid,andwhattypesarenot.

Goingbacktothefirststatement,“MostpeoplepreferBrandXtoBrandY,”itwouldbeincorrecttoinferthat

1.BrandXisbetterthanBrandY(peopledon'talwayspreferthebetterproduct)2.BrandXsellsmorethanBrandY(peopledon'talwaysbuywhattheyprefer;maybeBrandY

ischeaper)

Inferencequestionsarethemostcommontypeyouwillsee.Expect2-5inferencequestionsforeverypassage.

SynthesisSomequestionsrequireyoutotakeonefinalstep:onceyou'veidentifiedtherelevantpiecesoftext and inferred correctly from them, youmust synthesize these elements into some greater

64

understanding.

Forexample, ifwe learn in the firstparagraphthat,“Criticsdon't like theplanbecause it isnotcost-effective”andwe learn in the thirdparagraphthat“The fewparentswhosupport theplanrepresentaminoritywhodisagreewiththeideathattheplanisbadforchildren,”wecanconnectthesetwoideasandconcludethat,“Criticsandmostparentsshareacommonopinion,thoughtheir reasoning for thatopinionmaydiffer.” Incorrectanswers to synthesisquestionswillofteninfercorrectlyfromonepieceofinformationbutnottheother,ortheywillcombineideasinanincorrectmanner.Most synthesisquestionspertain to thepassageasawhole,anda structuralunderstandingofthepassagerelativetoacentralargumentisatremendousassetforansweringthesetypesofquestions.Expecttosee1–4synthesisquestionsperpassage.

HowTheseSkillsRelatetoOneAnotherInordertoinfercorrectly,youmustfirstidentifytherelevantpieceoftext.Inordertosynthesize,youmustbeabletoidentifyandinfer.Noticehowtheseskillsbuildupononeanother.

Ofcourse,itisunnecessarytoconsciouslythinkaboutthischartasyouanswerquestionsontherealtest.However,understandingthischartshouldhelpyouhoneyoursenseofwhatacorrectanswershouldaccomplish.Forexample, ifyou'veansweredasynthesisquestioncorrectly,youshouldbeabletoseethatyoufirsthadtoidentifydifferentpartsofthepassageandtheninferfrom those parts. Likewise, if you answered an inference questionwithout first identifying therelevantpieceoftext,besuspiciousofyouranswer.

Let'slookbackatourexampleinordertobetterunderstandeachcomprehensionskill.

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66

Answers,Explanations,andTips

First,let'sbesurewe'veunderstoodthepassage.Here'sourrepresentationofthescaleimage:


MostofwhathasbeenwrittenaboutThurgoodMarshall,a formerUnitedStatesSupremeCourtjusticewhoservedfrom1967to1991,hasjustfocusedonhisjudicialrecordandonthe

(5)ideologicalcontentofhisearlierachievementsasalawyerpursuingcivilrightsissuesinthe courts. But whenMarshall's career is viewed from a technical perspective, hisworkwiththeNAACP(NationalAssociationfortheAdvancementof

(10)ColoredPeople)revealsastrategicandmethodicallegacytothefieldofpublicinterestlaw. Though the NAACP, under Marshall's direction, was not the first legalorganizationintheU.S.tobedrivenbyapoliticalandsocialagenda,heand

(15)theNAACPdevelopedinnovationsthatforeverchangedthelandscapeofpublicinterestlaw: during the 1940s and 1950s, in their campaign against state-sanctioned racialsegregation,MarshallandtheNAACP,insteadofsimplypursuingcasesas

(20) theopportunity arose, set up apredetermined legal campaign thatwasmeticulouslycraftedandcarefullycoordinated.

Oneaspectofthiscampaign,thetestcasestrategy,involvedsponsoringlitigationoftactically

(25)chosencasesatthetrialcourtlevelwithcarefulevaluationoftheprecedentialnuancesand potential impact of each decision. This allowed Marshall to try out differentapproachesanddiscoverwhichwasthebesttobeused.Anessentialelementinthe

(30) success of this tactic was the explicit recognition that in a public interest legalcampaign,choosingtherightplaintiffcanmeanthedifferencebetweensuccessandfailure. Marshall carefully selected cases with sympathetic litigants, whose publicappeal,

(35)credibility,andcommitmenttotheNAACP'sgoalswereunsurpassed. Inaddition,Marshallusedsociologicalandpsychologicalstatistics—presentedin

experttestimony,forexample,aboutthepsychological(40) impact of enforced segregation—as a means of transforming constitutional law by

persuading the courts that certain discriminatory laws produced public harms inviolationofconstitutionalprinciples.Thistactic,whileofteneffective,has

(45)beencriticizedbysomelegalscholarsasapragmaticattempttogivejudgesnonlegalmaterialwithwhichtofillgapsintheir justificationsfordecisionswherethepurelylegalprinciplesappearinconclusive.

SincethetimeofMarshall'sworkwiththe(50)NAACP,thenumberofpublicinterestlawfirmsintheU.S.hasgrownsubstantially,and

theyhavewidelyadoptedhiscombinationofstrategiesforlitigation,devotingthemtovariouspublicpurposes.Thesestrategieshavebeenused,forexample,in

(55) consumer advocacy campaigns and,more recently, by politically conservative publicinterest lawyersseekingtoachieve,throughlitigation,changesinthelawthattheyhavenotbeenabletoaccomplishinthelegislature.Ifwefocusontheparticular

(60) contentofMarshall'sgoalsand successes, itmight seemsurprising thathisworkhasinfluencedthequestforsuchdivergentpoliticalobjects,butthetechniquesthathehoned—originallyconsideredtobearadicaldeparturefromacceptedconventions

(65)—havebecomethenormforU.S.publicinterestlitigationtoday.

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Note that theargument,developedat the startof thepassage, isusedasa springboard todiscussthespecificsofMarshall'sworkwiththeNAACP.Theargumentisn'tthecentralfocushere,butithelpsustoorganizetheinformationthatcomeslater.

Answers,Explanations,andTips

IDENTIFICATION

7.Accordingtothepassage,somelegalscholarshavecriticizedwhichofthefollowing?

(A)theideologyMarshallusedtosupporthisgoals

(B)recentpublicinterestcampaigns(C)theuseofMarshall'stechniquesbypoliticallyconservativelawyers

theuseofpsychologicalstatisticsincourtcases

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(E)thesetofcriteriaforselectingpublicinterestlitigants

Referencedtext:

Inaddition,Marshallusedsociologicalandpsychologicalstatistics—presented inexperttestimony,forexample,aboutthepsychological

(40) impact of enforced segregation—as a means of transforming constitutional law bypersuading the courts that certain discriminatory laws produced public harms inviolationofconstitutionalprinciples.Thistactic,whileofteneffective,has

(45)beencriticizedbysomelegalscholars…

Comment:Notice that the right answer here requires very little interpretation. It is easy to over-thinkidentificationquestions.Justlookforananswerthatprovidesagoodmatchbetweenmaterialinthe question and material in the text. Here we want to look for material that matches “legalscholarshavecriticized.”Wecanfindthis inthethirdparagraph.Agoodgeneralunderstandingfromyourfirstreadshouldmakeiteasiertofindtherelevantpieceoftextquickly.Inotherwords,thebetteryouhavethepassageorganized,theeasieryoursearchwillbe.

TheLSAThastriedtomakethisquestionmoredifficultbyusingtherelativephrase“thistactic”inthetext(boldedtotheleft). Itrequiresalittleextraworktoconfirmthat“thistactic”referstotheuseofsociologicalandpsychologicalstatistics.

The other answers are mentioned in the text, and it's not unreasonable to think that some ofthem can or should be criticized. However, the only one that is clearly stated as having beenspecificallycriticizedis(D).

TipsforIdentificationQuestions

1.Lookfor“Identification”cues.Usethequestionstemandtheanswerchoicesascluestohelpyourecognizethequestiontype.Here,“accordingtothepassage”tipsusoffthatitisprobablyidentificationinsteadofinference,and“legalscholars”and“criticized”narrowourscope.Furthermore,everyitemintheanswerlistissomething that isexplicitlymentioned in (rather than inferred from) thepassage.Together, allthesecluestellusthatthequestionprobablyjustrequiressimpleidentification.

2.Watchoutforfalsematches.Don'tpickananswerjustbecauseyouvaguelyrememberreadingsomethingsimilarinthetext.Confirm that the textdoesmatchupspecificallywith theparticularquestionstemandanswerchoice.Inthisquestion,theotheranswersarementionedinthetext,buttheyarenotspecificallywhatthelegalscholarshavecriticized.

3.Connectwiththetext.

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Ifyouarestuck,don'tspendextratimecomparinganswersagainstoneanother.Instead,spendthattimerereadingthepassagetolocatetherelevanttext.Nothingintheanswerchoicesinandof themselveswill tip you off. It's only by connecting the choiceswith the text that you canconfirmyouranswer.

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INFERENCE5.Thepassageprovidesthemostsupportforwhichoneofthefollowingstatements?

(A) The ideologicalmotivations forMarshall's workwith the NAACP changed during his

tenureontheU.S.SupremeCourt.

MarshalldeclinedtopursuesomecasesthatwereinkeepingwiththeNAACP'sgoalsbutwhoseplaintiffs’likelyimpressiononthepublichedeemedtobeunfavorable.

(C) Marshall's tacticswere initially opposed by some othermembers of the NAACPwhofavoredamoretraditionalapproach.

(D)Marshallreliedmoreonexperttestimonyinlowercourts,whosejudgesweremorelikelythanhighercourtjudgestogiveweighttostatisticalevidence.

(E)Marshall'scolleaguesattheNAACPsubsequentlyrevisedhismethodsandextendedtheirapplicationstoareasoflawandpoliticsbeyondthoseforwhichtheyweredesigned.

Comment:The phrase“most support” tips us off thatwemay be looking to do somethingmore than justidentify. We need to use something in the text to prove something else. Though this is aninference question, the process of answering is similar—we want to start by identifying therelevant part of the text. Again, a good first read gives us a solid understanding of theorganizationof thepassage. Ifwe'vedoneagood jobofconstructing thescale image,perhapswerememberthatthetestcasestrategywasthefirstinnovationmentioned;thisinturnhelpsustospeedupoursearchforthistextinthepassage.

(A)issimplynotmentionedinthetext.(C),(D)and(E)straytoofarfromwhatwe'vebeengiven.IfweknowthatMarshallscreenedcasestofindsympatheticlitigants,wecanlogicallydeducethathedeclinedsomecasesinvolvingunsympatheticlitigants.

Referencedtext:

(35) …difference between success and failure. Marshall carefully selected cases withsympathetic litigants, whose public appeal, credibility, and commitment to theNAACP'sgoalswereunsurpassed.

TipsforInferenceQuestions

1.Identifybeforeyouinfer.Inferonlyafteryou'vefoundtherelevantpartofthetext.Itwillmakeyourworkmucheasier!

2.Eliminateattractivewronganswersbycomparingthemtospecific,relevantpartsoftext.

Obviously,youdon'thavetimetodouble-checkeveryanswerchoice,butyoudowanttoconfirmordeny themostattractiveanswersby comparing themagainst the relevantpartsof the text.Here, (C) is anattractiveanswer. It's easy toget the impression thatothers in theNAACPwereinitiallyopposedtoMarshall'stactics(becausethesetacticswerenewandinnovative)butthatisneverdirectlyorindirectlysupportedbythetext.(E)isalsoattractive.It'seasytomisreadtheend

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and assume that the NAACP extended his work into other areas, but a rereading of the lastparagraphconfirmsthatthereisnosupportforthisinference.SomeoneusedMarshall'stacticsforotherpurposes,butnotnecessarilytheNAACP.

3.Don'tinfertoomuch!Many of thewrong choices sound attractive because they are (a) reasonable and (b) in someindirectwayconnectedtothetext.Rightanswersto inferencequestionsneedtobemorethanthat—theyshouldbefairlyprovableusingthetext.Resistanswersthatrequireillogical leapsorlogicalonesthataretoobig.

SYNTHESIS1.Whichoneofthefollowingmostaccuratelyexpressesthemainpointofthepassage?

(A) Inhis role as a lawyer for theNAACP,Marshall developedanumberof strategies forlitigationwhich,whileoftencontroversial,provedtobehighlysuccessful inarguingagainstcertaindiscriminatorylaws.

The litigation strategies thatMarshall devised in pursuit of theNAACP's civil rightsgoalsduringthe1940sand1950sconstitutedsignificantinnovationsthathavesincebeenadoptedasstandardtacticsforpublicinterestlawyers.

(C)AlthoughcommentaryonMarshallhasoftenfocusedonlyonasingleideologicalaspectof his accomplishments, a reinvestigation of his record as a judge reveals itsinfluenceoncurrentdivergentpoliticalobjectives.

(D) In hisworkwith the NAACP during the 1940's and 1950's,Marshall adopted a set oftactics thatwerepreviouslyconsidereda radicaldeparture fromacceptedpractice,but which he adapted in such a way that they eventually became acceptedconventionsinthefieldoflaw.

(E) Contrary to the impression commonly given by commentary on Marshall, hiscontributionstotheworkoftheNAACPhavehadmoreofalastingimpactthanhisachievementsasaU.S.SupremeCourtjustice.

Referencedtext:

ButwhenMarshall'scareerisviewedfromatechnicalperspective,hisworkwiththeNAACP(NationalAssociationfortheAdvancement(10) of Colored People) reveals a strategic and methodical legacy to the field of public

interestlaw.

(15)…andsocialagenda,heand theNAACPdeveloped innovations that foreverchangedthelandscapeofpublicinterestlaw…

…suchdivergentpoliticalobjects,butthetechniquesthathehoned—originallyconsideredtobearadicaldeparturefromaccepted(65)conventions—havebecomethenormforU.S.publicinterestlitigationtoday.

Comment:Synthesis questions often test your understanding of the passage as a whole (or parts of the

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passage relative to the whole), but what often makes synthesis questions challenging is thatcorrectandincorrectanswersoftenhingeonsubtle,smalldetails.Ifyoureadinacasualfashion,severaloftheseanswersseemsimilartooneanotherandmanyseemcorrect.

Answer choice (B) is the best available because it is the only one without a marked flaw. (A)speaks to the “success” of the strategies; though “success” is mentioned in the passage, thisanswer choice fails to note the transformative impact that Marshall had on public interestlitigation.Thus,while(A)isaprovablestatement,itsscopeistoonarrowtoaccuratelyexpressthemainpointofthepassage.(C)incorrectlyfocusesonhisexperiencesasajudge,whereasthebulkofthepassageisabouthisworkwiththeNAACP.Agoodunderstandingofthescalewillhelpuseliminate (C). Remember, the argument (Marshal as judge vs. Marshall with NAACP) is just aspringboardtogettothemaincontentofthepassage:thedetailsofhisworkwiththeNAACP.(D)is veryattractive, but incorrect in small degrees.Hedidnotadapt the tactics, he invented them(“developed innovations”). And the passage does not talk about his tactics becoming acceptedconventionsfortheentirefieldoflaw,butratherforthenicheofpublicinterestwork.(E)capturesthe essence of the argument that we noted in our scale, but the argument is not of centralimportance here and does not capture the“main point” of the passage. Rather, it's used as aspringboard. Besides, (E) goes too far in claiming that one part of his lifewasmore significantthantheother;thepassageitselfdoesnotmakesuchaboldclaim.

Notethatanswer(B)doesagoodjobofsynthesizingmultiplepiecesofthetext.

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TipsforSynthesisQuestions

1.Beflexible.Understandingtheargumentstructureiskey,butsoisflexibility.Remember,thecorrectanswerisoftennotanidealone,andit'softendifferentfromtheansweryoumightpredict.Sometimestherightanswerdoesapoor jobofsummarizingthepassageasawhole.Keepanopenmind,andeliminateonlythosechoicesthatyouarecertainareincorrect.

2.Seetheforestandthetrees.Yes,thesequestionsareprimarilyaboutgeneralunderstanding,butrightandwronganswersareoftendeterminedbysubtledetails.Iftwoorthreedifferentanswersseemthesametoyou,lookfor small differences in thewordingbetween themand compare thesedifferences against thetext.

3.Usetheauthor'sopinionasthetippingpoint.Incorrect choices often misrepresent the author's opinion, both in terms of what side of theargument it falls on andhow subtle or strong that opinion is. A correct understandingof theauthor'sopinionwilloftenhelpyoupickthecorrectanswer.

4. Watch out for “narrow scope” answers. We'll soon discuss the characteristics of incorrectanswers.Fornow,knowthatmanyincorrectanswerstosynthesisquestionsareactuallytrue intermsoftheircontent(e.g.answerchoice(A)onthepreviousquestion),buttoonarrowinscopetoaccuratelyexpressthemainpointofthepassage.

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DRILLIT:CorrectAnswerCharacteristics

Eachofthefollowingpassageshasfourquestionsattached;thesequestionsareallidentification,inference, or synthesis questions. Give yourself six minutes per passage to read the text andanswerallthequestions.Afteryoureviewthecorrectanswers,usethetrackingcharttodetermineyourcomfortlevelwiththedifferentquestiontypes.


Becausethemarketsystemenablesentrepreneursandinvestorswhodevelopnewtechnology to reap financial rewards from their riskof capital, itmay seem that theprimaryresultofthisactivityisthat

(5)somepeoplewhohavesparecapitalaccumulatemore.Butinspiteofthefactthattheprofitsderived fromvarious technologicaldevelopmentshaveaccruedto relativelyfewpeople,thedevelopmentsthemselveshaveservedoverallasaremarkable

(10) democratizing force. In fact, under the regime of the market, the gap in benefitsaccruingtodifferentgroupsofpeoplehasbeennarrowedinthelongterm.

Thistendencycanbeseeninvariouswell-known(15) technological developments. For example, before the printing press was introduced

centuriesago,fewpeoplehadaccesstowrittenmaterials,muchlesstoscribesandprivate secretaries to produce and transcribe documents. Since printed materialshave

(20)becomewidelyavailable,however,peoplewithoutspecialpositionorresources—andinnumbersoncethoughtimpossible—cantakeliteracyandtheuseofprintedtextsforgranted.Withthedistributionofbooksandperiodicalsinpubliclibraries,this

(25)processhasbeenextended to thepointwherepeople ingeneral canhaveessentiallyequalaccesstoavastrangeoftextsthatwouldoncehavebeenavailableonlytoavery few. Amore recent technological development extends this process beyondprinted

(30) documents. A child in school access to a personal computer andmodem—which isbecoming fairly common in technologically advanced societies— has computingpower and database access equal to that of the best-connected scientists andengineers

(35)attop-levellabsofjustfifteenyearsago,atimewhenrelativelyfewpeoplehadpersonalaccess toanycomputingpower.Orconsider theusesof technology for leisure. Inpreviouscenturiesonlyafewpeoplewithabundantresourceshadthe

(40)abilityandtimetohireprofessionalentertainment,andtohavecontactthroughtraveland written communication—both of which were prohibitively expensive—withdistant people. But now broadcast technology is widely available, and so almostanyone

(45) can have an entertainment cornucopia unimagined in earlier times. Similarly, thedevelopmentof inexpensivemaildistributionandtelephoneconnectionand,morerecently,theestablishmentoftheevenmoreefficientmediumofelectronic

(50)mailhavegreatlyextendedthepowerofdistantcommunication.Thiskindofgradualdiffusionofbenefitsacrosssocietyisnotanaccidentofthese

particulartechnologicaldevelopments,butrathertheresult(55) of a general tendency of the market system. Entrepreneurs and investors often are

unable to maximize financial success without expanding their market, and thisinvolvesstructuringtheirpricestotheconsumerssoastomaketheirtechnologies

(60)genuinelyaccessibletoanever-largershareofthepopulation.Inotherwords,becausemarketcompetitiondrivespricesdown,ittendstodiffuseaccesstonewtechnology

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acrosssocietyasaresult.

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16. Which one of the following does the passage identify as being a result of technologicaldevelopment?

(A)burgeoningscientificresearch(B)educationalusesofbroadcasting(C)widespreadexchangeofpoliticalideas(D)fastermeansoftravel(E)increasedaccesstodatabases

18.Whichoneofthefollowingmostaccuratelyrepresentstheprimaryfunctionofthereferencetomaximizationoffinancialsuccess(lines56–58)?

(A) It forms part of the author's summary of the benefits that have resulted from thetechnologicaldevelopmentsdescribedintheprecedingparagraph.

(B) It serves as the author's logical conclusion from data presented in the precedingparagraphregardingthesocialconsequencesoftechnologicaldevelopment.

(C) It forms part of a speculative hypothesis that the author presents for its interest inrelationtothemaintopicratherthanaspartofanargument.

(D)Itservesaspartofacausalexplanationthatreinforcesthethesisinthefirstparagraphregardingthebenefitsoftechnologicaldevelopment.

(E) It formspartof theauthor's concession that certain factors complicate theargumentpresentedinthefirsttwoparagraphs.

19.Itcanbemostreasonablyinferredfromthepassagethattheauthorwouldagreewithwhichoneofthefollowingstatements?

(A)Theprofitsderivedfromcomputertechnologyhaveaccruedtofewerpeoplethanhavetheprofitsderivedfromanyothertechnologicaldevelopment.

(B) Often thedesireof somepeople forprofitsmotivates changes that arebeneficial forlargenumbersofotherpeople.

(C)Nationalboundariesarerarelybarrierstothedemocratizingspreadoftechnology.(D)Typically,investmentintechnologyisriskierthanmanyothersortsofinvestment.(E) Greater geographical mobility of populations has contributed to the profits of

entrepreneursandinvestorsintechnology.

20.Fromthepassageitcanbemostreasonablyinferredthattheauthorwouldagreewithwhichoneofthefollowingstatements?

(A) The democratizing influence of technology generally contributes to technologicalobsolescence.

(B)Whollyunregulatedeconomiesareprobablythefastestinproducinganequalizationofsocialstatus.

(C)Expandedaccesstoprintedtextsacrossapopulationhashistoricallyledtoanincreasein

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literacyinthatpopulation.(D) The inventionof the telephonehashadagreaterdemocratizing influenceon society

thanhastheinventionoftheprintingpress.(E)Nearequalityoffinancialassetsamongpeopleisarealisticgoalformarketeconomies.

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Neurobiologistsoncebelievedthattheworkingsofthebrainwereguidedexclusivelybyelectricalsignals;accordingtothistheory,communicationbetweenneurons(braincells)is

(5) possible because electrical impulses travel from one neuron to the next by literallyleapingacrosssynapses(gapsbetweenneurons).Butmanyneurobiologistspuzzledoverhowthisleapingacrosssynapsesmightbeachieved,andasearlyas

(10) 1904 some speculated that electrical impulses are transmitted between neuronschemically rather thanelectrically.According to thisalternative theory, theexcitedneuron secretes a chemical called a neurotransmitter that binds with itscorresponding

(15)receptormoleculeinthereceivingneuron.Thisbindingoftheneurotransmitterrenderstheneuronpermeabletoions,andastheionsmoveintothereceivingneurontheygenerateanelectricalimpulsethatrunsthroughthecell;theelectricalimpulseis

(20)therebytransmittedtothereceivingneuron.Thistheoryhasgraduallywonacceptanceinthescientificcommunity,butforalong

time littlewas knownabout themechanismbywhichneurotransmittersmanage torenderthereceiving

(25) neuron permeable to ions. In fact, some scientists remained skeptical of the theorybecausetheyhadtroubleimagininghowthebindingofachemicaltoareceptoratthe cell surface could influence the flow of ions through the cell membrane.Recently,

(30)however,researchershavegatheredenoughevidenceforaconvincingexplanation:thatthe structure of receptors plays the pivotal role in mediating the conversion ofchemicalsignalsintoelectricalactivity.

(35) The new evidence shows that receptors for neurotransmitters contain both aneurotransmitterbindingsiteandaseparateregionthat functionsasachannel forions;attachmentoftheneurotransmittertothebindingsitecausesthe

(40) receptor to change shape and so results in the opening of its channel component.Severaltypesofreceptorshavebeenisolatedthatconformtothisstructure,amongthemthereceptorsforacetylcholine,gamma-aminobutyricacid(GABA),

(45)glycine,andserotonin.Thesereceptorsdisplayenoughsimilaritiestoconstituteafamily,knowncollectivelyasneurotransmitter-gatedionchannels.

Ithasalsobeendiscoveredthateachofthereceptorsinthisfamilycomesinseveralvarieties

(50) so that, for example, a GABA receptor in one part of the brain has slightly differentproperties than a GABA receptor in another part of the brain. This discovery ismedicallysignificantbecauseitraisesthepossibilityofthehighlyselectivetreatmentof

(55) certain brain disorders. As the precise effect on behavior of every variety of eachneurotransmitter-gated ionchannel isdeciphered,pharmacologistsmaybeable todesigndrugstargetedtospecificreceptorsondefinedcategoriesofneuronsthat

(60) will selectively impede or enhance these effects. Such drugs could potentially helpameliorateanynumberofdebilitatingconditions, includingmooddisorders, tissuedamageassociatedwithstroke,orAlzheimer'sdisease.

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21.Which one of the followingmost completely and accurately states themain point of thepassage?

(A)Evidenceshowsthattheworkingsofthebrainareguided,notbyelectricalsignals,butbychemicals,andthatsubtledifferencesamongthe receptors for thesechemicalsmaypermittheselectivetreatmentofcertainbraindisorders.

(B)Evidenceshowsthattheworkingsofthebrainareguided,notbyelectricalsignals,butby chemicals, and that enough similarities exist among these chemicals to allowscientiststoclassifythemasafamily.

(C) Evidence shows that electrical impulses are transmitted between neurons chemicallyratherthanelectrically,andthatenoughsimilaritiesexistamongthesechemicalstoallowscientiststoclassifythemasafamily.

(D) Evidence shows that electrical impulses are transmitted between neurons chemicallyrather than electrically, and that subtle differences among the receptors for thesechemicalsmaypermittheselectivetreatmentofcertainbraindisorders.

(E)Evidenceshowsthatreceptormoleculesinthebraindiffersubtlyfromoneanother,andthat thesedifferencescanbeexploited to treatcertainbraindisorders through theuseofdrugsthatselectivelyaffectparticularpartsofthebrain.

23.EachofthefollowingstatementsisaffirmedbythepassageEXCEPT:

(A)Thesecretionofcertainchemicalsplaysaroleinneuroncommunication.(B)Theflowofionsthroughneuronsplaysaroleinneuroncommunication.(C)Thebindingofneurotransmitterstoreceptorsplaysaroleinneuroncommunication.(D)Thestructureofreceptorsonneuronsurfacesplaysaroleinneuroncommunication.(E) The size of neurotransmitter binding sites on receptors plays a role in neuron

communication.

24.Theauthormostlikelyusesthephrase“definedcategoriesofneurons”inline59inordertorefertoneuronsthat

(A)possesschannelsforions(B)respondtodrugtreatment(C)containreceptormolecules(D)influenceparticularbrainfunctions(E)reacttobindingbyneurotransmitters

25.Whichoneofthefollowingmostaccuratelydescribestheorganizationofthepassage?

(A)explanationofatheory;presentationofevidenceinsupportofthetheory;presentationofevidence inopposition to the theory;argument in favorof rejecting the theory;discussionoftheimplicationofrejectingthetheory

(B)explanationofatheory;presentationofevidenceinsupportofthetheory;explanationofanalternativetheory;presentationof informationtosupportthealternativetheory;discussionofanexperimentthatcanhelpdeterminewhichtheoryiscorrect

(C) explanationofatheory;descriptionofanobstacletothetheory'sgeneralacceptance;presentation of an explanation that helps the theory overcome the obstacle;discussionofafurtherimplicationofthetheory

(D)explanationofatheory;descriptionofanobstacletothetheory'sgeneralacceptance;argumentthattheobstacleisinsurmountableandthatthetheoryshouldberejected;discussionoftheimplicationsofrejectingthetheory

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(E)explanationofatheory;descriptionofhowthetheorycametowinscientificacceptance;presentation of new information that challenges the theory; modification of thetheory to accommodate the new information; discussion of an implication of themodification.

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CounteeCullen(CounteeLeroyPorter,1903–1946)wasoneoftheforemostpoetsoftheHarlemRenaissance, themovementofAfricanAmericanwriters,musicians, andartistscentered

(5)intheHarlemsectionofNewYorkCityduringthe1920's.Beginningwithhisuniversityyears,Cullenstrovetoestablishhimselfasanauthorofromanticpoetryonabstract,universaltopicssuchasloveanddeath.Believingpoetryshould

(10) consist of “lofty thoughts beautifully expressed,” Cullen preferred controlled poeticforms. He used European forms such as sonnets and devices such as quatrains,couplets, and conventional rhyme, and he frequently employed classical allusionsand

(15)Christian religious imagery,whichweremost likely theproductbothofhisuniversityeducation and of his upbringing as the adopted son of a Methodist Episcopalreverend.SomeliterarycriticshavepraisedCullen'sskillat

(20)writingEuropean-styleverse,finding,forexample, in“TheBalladoftheBrownGirl”anartful use of diction and a rhythm and sonority that allow him to capture theatmospheretypicaloftheEnglishballadformofpastcenturies.Othershavefound

(25)Cullen's useof European verse forms and techniquesunsuited to treatingpolitical orracialthemes,suchasthethemesin“UncleJim,”inwhichayoungmanistoldbyhisuncleofthedifferentexperiencesofAfricanAmericansandwhitesinUnitedStates

(30)society,or“Incident,”whichrelatestheexperienceofaneight-year-oldchildwhohearsaracialslur.OnesuchcriticcomplainedthatCullen'spersonaasexpressedinhisworksometimesseemstovacillatebetweenaestheteandspokespersonforracial

(35) issues. But Cullen himself rejected this dichotomy, maintaining that his interest inromanticpoetrywasquitecompatiblewithhisconcernoverracialissues.Hedrewadistinction between poetry of solely political intent and his own work, which hebelieved

(40) reflected his identity as an African American. As the heartfelt expression of hispersonalityaccomplishedbymeansofcarefulattentiontohischosencraft,hisworkcouldnothelpbutdoso.

Explicitreferencestoracialmattersdoinfact(45)declineinCullen'slaterwork,butnotbecausehefeltanylesspassionatelyaboutthese

matters.Rather,Cullenincreasinglyfocusedonthereligiousdimensionofhispoetry.In“TheBlackChrist,”inwhichthepoetimaginesthedeathand

(50) resurrection of a rural African American, and“Heritage,”which expresses the tensionbetweenthepoet'sidentificationwithChristiantraditionsandhisdesiretostayclosetohisAfricanheritage,Cullen'sthoughtsonraceweresubsumedwithin

(55)whatheconceivedofasbroaderandmoreurgentquestionsabout the sufferingandredemptionof the soul.Nonetheless, Cullen never abandonedhis commitment totheimportanceofracialissues,reflectingononeoccasionthathefelt“actuatedby

(60)astrongsenseofraceconsciousness”that“growsuponme,Ifind,asIgrowolder.”

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7.Whichoneofthefollowingmostaccuratelystatesthemainpointofthepassage?

(A)WhilemuchofCullen'spoetrydealswithracial issues, inhis laterworkhebecamelessconcerned with racial matters and increasingly interested in writing poetry with areligiousdimension.

(B) While Cullen used European verse forms and his later poems increasingly addressedreligiousthemes,hispoetryneverabandonedaconcernforracialissues.

(C)ThoughCullenusedEuropeanverseforms,heacknowledgedthattheseformswerenotverywellsuitedtotreatingpoliticalorracialthemes.

(D)DespitethesuccessofCullen'spoetryatdealingwithracialissues,Cullen'sprimarygoalwastore-createtheatmospherethatcharacterizedtheEnglishballad.

(E) ThereligiousdimensionthroughoutCullen'spoetrycomplementedhis focusonracialissuesbyprovidingthecontextwithinwhichtheseissuescouldbeunderstood.

8. Given the information in the passage,which one of the followingmost closely exemplifiesCullen'sconceptionofpoetry?

(A)asonnetwrittenwithcarefulattentiontotheconventionsof the formtore-createtheatmosphereofsixteenth-centuryEnglishpoetry

(B) asonnetwrittenwithdeliberatedisregardfortheconventionsoftheformto illustratetheperilsofpoliticalchange

(C) a sonnet written to explore the aesthetic impact of radical innovations in diction,rhythm,andsonority

(D) a sonnet written with great stylistic freedom to express the emotional upheavalassociatedwithromanticlove

(E)asonnetwrittenwithcarefulattentiontotheconventionsoftheformexpressingfeelingsabouttheinevitabilityofdeath

9.WhichoneofthefollowingisNOTidentifiedbytheauthorofthepassageascharacteristicofCullen'spoetry?

(A)Itoftendealswithabstract,universalsubjectmatter.(B)Itoftenemploysrhyme,classicalallusions,andreligiousimagery.(C)Itavoidstraditionalpoeticformsinfavorofformalexperimentation.(D)Itsometimesdealsexplicitlywithracialissues.(E)Iteventuallysubsumedracialissuesintoadiscussionofreligiousissues.

10.The passage suggests which one of the following about Cullen's use of controlled poeticforms?

(A)Cullenusedcontrolledpoeticformsbecausehebelievedtheyprovidedthebestmeanstobeautifulpoeticexpression.

(B)Cullen'sinterestinreligiousthemesnaturallyledhimtousecontrolledpoeticforms.(C) Only themost controlled poetic forms allowed Cullen to address racial issues in his

poems.(D) Cullen had rejected the less controlled poetic forms he was exposed to prior to his

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universityyears.(E)Lesscontrolledpoeticformsarebettersuitedtopoetrythataddressesracialorpolitical

issues.

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Althoughphilanthropy—the volunteeringofprivate resources for humanitarianpurposes— reached its apex in England in the late nineteenth century, moderncommentatorshavearticulated

(5)twomajorcriticismsofthephilanthropythatwasamainstayofEngland'smiddle-classVictoriansociety.Theearliercriticismisthatsuchphilanthropywasevenbythelaternineteenthcenturyobsolete,sinceindustrialismhadalready

(10)createdsocialproblemsthatwerebeyondthescopeofsmall,privatevoluntaryefforts.Indeed, these problems required substantial legislative action by the state.Unemployment,forexample,wasnottheresultofafailureofdiligenceonthepartof

(15)workersorafailureofcompassiononthepartofemployers,norcoulditbesolvedbywell-wishingphilanthropists.

ThemorerecentchargeholdsthatVictorianphilanthropywasbyitsverynatureaself-serving

(20) exercise carried out by philanthropists at the expense of those whom they wereostensiblyserving. Inthisview,philanthropywasameansofflauntingone'spowerandpositioninasocietythatplacedgreatemphasisonstatus,orevena

(25)meansofcultivatingsocialconnectionsthatcouldleadtoeconomicrewards.Further,ifphilanthropyisseenasservingtheinterestsofindividualphilanthropists,soitmaybeseenasservingtheinterestsoftheirclass.Accordingtothis“social

(30) control” thesis, philanthropists, in professing to help the poor, were encouraging inthem such values as prudence, thrift, and temperance, values perhaps worthy inthemselvesbutalsodesignedtocreatemoreproductivemembersofthelaborforce.

(35) Philanthropy, in short, was ameans of controlling the labor force and ensuring thecontinueddominanceofthemanagementclass.

Modern critics of Victorian philanthropy often use the words“amateurish” or“inadequate”

(40)todescribeVictorianphilanthropy,asthoughVictoriancharitycanonlybeunderstoodasanantecedenttotheeraofstate-sponsored,professionallyadministeredcharity.Thisassumptionistypicalofthe“Whigfallacy”:thetendencytoread

(45)thepastasaninferiorpreludetoanenlightenedpresent.IfmostVictoriansresistedstatecontrolandexpended their resourcesonprivate, voluntaryphilanthropies, it couldonlybe,theargumentgoes,becauseoftheircommitmenttoavestedinterest,

(50)orbecausetheadministrativeapparatusofthestatewasincapableofcopingwiththeeconomicandsocialneedsofthetime.

ThisversionofhistorypatronizestheVictorians,whowereinfactwellawareoftheirvulnerability

(55) to charges of condescension and complacency, but were equally well aware of thepotentialdangersofstatemanagedcharity.Theywereperhapscondescendingtothepoor,but—touseanun-Victorianmetaphor—theyputtheirmoneywhere

(60)theirmouthswere,andgaveuptheircareersandlivesaswell.

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21.Whichoneofthefollowingbestsummarizesthemainideaofthepassage?

(A) While the motives of individual practitioners have been questioned by moderncommentators, Victorian philanthropy successfully dealt with the social ills ofnineteenth-centuryEngland.

(B)Philanthropy,inadequatetodealwiththemassivesocialandeconomicproblemsofthetwentiethcentury,hasslowlybeenreplacedbystate-sponsoredcharity.

(C) The practice of reading the past as a prelude to an enlightenedpresent has fosteredrevisionistviewsofmanyinstitutions,amongthemVictorianphilanthropy.

(D) Although modern commentators have perceived Victorian philanthropy as eitherinadequate or self-serving, the theoretical bias behind these criticisms leads to anincorrectinterpretationofhistory.

(E) Victorian philanthropists, aware of public resentment of their self-congratulatoryattitude,useddeviousmethodstocamouflagetheirselfservingmotives.

22.Accordingtothepassage,whichoneofthefollowingistrueofbothmoderncriticismsmadeaboutVictorianphilanthropy?

(A) Both criticisms attribute dishonorable motives to those privileged individuals whoengagedinprivatephilanthropy.

(B)Bothcriticismspresupposethatthesocialrewardsofcharitableactivityoutweighedtheeconomicbenefits.

(C)BothcriticismsunderemphasizethecomplacencyandcondescensiondemonstratedbytheVictorians.

(D)Bothcriticismssuggestthatgovernmentinvolvementwasnecessarytocuresocialills.(E) Bothcriticismstakeforgrantedthefutilityofeffortsbyprivate individualstoenhance

theirsocialstatusbymeansofphilanthropy.

25.ItcanbeinferredfromthepassagethatasocialcontroltheoristwouldbemostlikelytoagreewithwhichoneofthefollowingstatementsconcerningthemotivesofVictorianphilanthropists?

(A)Victorianphilanthropistsweredrivenmorebythedesireforhighsocialstatusthanbythehopeofeconomicgain.

(B) Victorianphilanthropistsencouragedsuchvaluesas thriftandtemperance inorder toinstill in the working class the same acquisitiveness that characterized themanagementclass.

(C)Thoughbasicallywell-intentioned,Victorianphilanthropistsfacedproblemsthatwerefarbeyondthescopeofprivatecharitableorganizations.

(D) By raising the living standards of the poor, Victorian philanthropists also sought toimprovetheintellectualstatusofthepoor.

(E)Victorianphilanthropistsseephilanthropyasameanstoanendratherthanasanendinitself.

26.Whichofthefollowingbestdescribestheorganizationofthepassage?

(A)Tworelatedpositionsarediscussed,thenbotharesubjectedtothesamecriticism.(B)Twoopposingtheoriesareoutlined,thenasynthesisbetweenthetwoisproposed.

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(C)Apositionisstated,andtwodifferingevaluationsofitaregiven.(D)Threeexamplesofthesamelogicalinconsistencyaregiven.(E)Atheoryisoutlined,andtwosupportingexamplesaregiven.

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SOLUTIONS:CorrectAnswerCharacteristics



(5)somepeoplewhohavesparecapitalaccumulatemore.Butinspiteofthefactthattheprofitsderived fromvarious technologicaldevelopmentshaveaccruedto relativelyfewpeople,thedevelopmentsthemselveshaveservedoverallasaremarkable

(10) democratizing force. In fact, under the regime of the market, the gap in benefitsaccruingtodifferentgroupsofpeoplehasbeennarrowedinthelongterm.

Thistendencycanbeseeninvariouswell-known(15) technological developments. For example, before the printing press was introduced

centuriesago,fewpeoplehadaccesstowrittenmaterials,muchlesstoscribesandprivate secretaries to produce and transcribe documents. Since printed materialshave

(20)becomewidelyavailable,however,peoplewithoutspecialpositionorresources—andinnumbersoncethoughtimpossible—cantakeliteracyandtheuseofprintedtextsforgranted.Withthedistributionofbooksandperiodicalsinpubliclibraries,this

(25)processhasbeenextended to thepointwherepeople ingeneral canhaveessentiallyequalaccesstoavastrangeoftextsthatwouldoncehavebeenavailableonlytoavery few. Amore recent technological development extends this process beyondprinted

(30) documents. A child in school access to a personal computer andmodem—which isbecoming fairly common in technologically advanced societies— has computingpower and database access equal to that of the best-connected scientists andengineers

(35)attop-levellabsofjustfifteenyearsago,atimewhenrelativelyfewpeoplehadpersonalaccess toanycomputingpower.Orconsider theusesof technology for leisure. Inpreviouscenturiesonlyafewpeoplewithabundantresourceshadthe

(40)abilityandtimetohireprofessionalentertainment,andtohavecontactthroughtraveland written communication—both of which were prohibitively expensive—withdistant people. But now broadcast technology is widely available, and so almostanyone

(45) can have an entertainment cornucopia unimagined in earlier times. Similarly, thedevelopmentof inexpensivemaildistributionandtelephoneconnectionand,morerecently,theestablishmentoftheevenmoreefficientmediumofelectronic

(50)mailhavegreatlyextendedthepowerofdistantcommunication.Thiskindofgradualdiffusionofbenefitsacrosssocietyisnotanaccidentofthese

particulartechnologicaldevelopments,butrathertheresult(55) of a general tendency of the market system. Entrepreneurs and investors often are

unable to maximize financial success without expanding their market, and thisinvolvesstructuringtheirpricestotheconsumerssoastomaketheirtechnologies

(60)genuinelyaccessibletoanever-largershareofthepopulation.Inotherwords,becausemarketcompetitiondrivespricesdown,ittendstodiffuseaccesstonewtechnologyacrosssocietyasaresult.

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Theargumentisintroducedrightatthebeginningofthepassage;theremainderofthepassageisusedtoprovideexamplesandsupportfortheauthor'sopinion.

IDENTIFICATION16. Which one of the following does the passage identify as being a result of technologicaldevelopment?

(A)burgeoningscientificresearch(B)educationalusesofbroadcasting(C)widespreadexchangeofpoliticalideas(D)fastermeansoftravel

increasedaccesstodatabases

Referencedtext:

…processbeyondprinteddocuments.Achild(30) inschoolwithaccess toapersonalcomputerandmodem—which isbecoming fairly

common in technologically advanced societies—has computing power anddatabaseaccessequaltothatofthebest-connectedscientistsandengineersattop-levellabs

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(35)ofjustfifteenyearsago,atimewhenrelativelyfewpeoplehadpersonalaccesstoanycomputingpower.

Comment:Theotheranswerchoicesseemlikereasonable, logicalresultsoftechnologicaldevelopment,butonly answer choice (E) is specifically mentioned. Be careful not to over-think identificationquestions.Ageneralanswer like (A)canseemattractive,but ishardtoprove.Answer (D) isalsoattractive because “travel” is mentioned in line 39. However, “faster” travel is never discussed.Watchoutforfalsematches!SYNTHESIS18.Whichoneofthefollowingmostaccuratelyrepresentstheprimaryfunctionofthereferencetomaximizationoffinancialsuccess(lines56–58)?

(A) It forms part of the author's summary of the benefits that have resulted from thetechnologicaldevelopmentsdescribedintheprecedingparagraph.

(B) It serves as the author's logical conclusion from data presented in the precedingparagraphregardingthesocialconsequencesoftechnologicaldevelopment.

(C) It forms part of a speculative hypothesis that the author presents for its interest inrelationtothemaintopicratherthanaspartofanargument.

Itservesaspartofacausalexplanationthatreinforcesthethesisinthefirstparagraphregardingthebenefitsoftechnologicaldevelopment.

(E) It formspartof theauthor's concession that certain factors complicate theargumentpresentedinthefirsttwoparagraphs.

Referencedtext:

(5) …peoplewhohave spare capital accumulatemore. But in spite of the fact that theprofitsderived fromvarious technologicaldevelopmentshaveaccruedto relativelyfew people, the developments themselves have served overall as a remarkabledemocratizing

(10)force.Infact,undertheregimeofthemarketthegapinbenefitsaccruingtodifferentgroupsofpeoplehasbeennarrowedinthelongterm.

(55)…generaltendencyofthemarketsystem.Entrepreneursandinvestorsoftenareunable

to maximize financial success without expanding their market, and this involvesstructuringtheirpricestotheconsumerssoastomaketheirtechnologiesgenuinelyaccessibletoanever-largershareofthepopulation.

Comment:The thesis in the first paragraph states that technological advancements are a democratizingforcethathasapositiveimpactonthegeneralpublic,notjustonthespecificindividualswhoareresponsiblefortheinnovations.Didyourscalehelpyouunderstandthis?Thoughthismayseemlike an inference question, getting the correct answer requires a synthesis of information frommorethanonepartofthepassage.

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INFERENCE

19.Itcanbemostreasonablyinferredfromthepassagethattheauthorwouldagreewithwhichoneofthefollowingstatements?

(A)Theprofitsderivedfromcomputertechnologyhaveaccruedtofewerpeoplethanhave

theprofitsderivedfromanyothertechnologicaldevelopment.

Oftenthedesireofsomepeopleforprofitsmotivateschangesthatarebeneficialforlargenumbersofotherpeople.

(C)Nationalboundariesarerarelybarrierstothedemocratizingspreadoftechnology.(D)Typically,investmentintechnologyisriskierthanmanyothersortsofinvestment.(E) Greater geographical mobility of populations has contributed to the profits of

entrepreneursandinvestorsintechnology.

Referencedtext:


(5)somepeoplewhohavesparecapitalaccumulatemore.Butinspiteofthefactthattheprofitsderived fromvarious technologicaldevelopmentshaveaccruedto relativelyfew people, the developments themselves have served overall as a remarkabledemocratizingforce.

(55)…generaltendencyofthemarketsystem.Entrepreneursandinvestorsoftenareunable

to maximize financial success without expanding their market, and this involvesstructuringtheirpricestotheconsumerssoastomaketheirtechnologiesgenuinelyaccessibletoanever-largershareofthepopulation.

Comment:Note that this inference requiresno furtherassumptionsor extrapolationsonourpart.The twoportionsofreferencedtextbasicallyproveanswerchoice(B).Also,didyounoticethatanswer(B)isessentiallytherightsideofourscale?All the other answer choices infer too much. If you need to add too many of your ownassumptionstovalidatetheanswertoaninferencequestion,thatanswerisprobablyincorrect.INFERENCE

20.Fromthepassageitcanbemostreasonablyinferredthattheauthorwouldagreewithwhichoneofthefollowingstatements?

(A) The democratizing influence of technology generally contributes to technological

obsolescence.(B)Whollyunregulatedeconomiesareprobablythefastestinproducinganequalizationof

socialstatus.

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Expandedaccesstoprintedtextsacrossapopulationhashistoricallyledtoanincreaseinliteracyinthatpopulation.

(D) The inventionof the telephonehashadagreaterdemocratizing influenceon societythanhastheinventionoftheprintingpress.

(E)Nearequalityoffinancialassetsamongpeopleisarealisticgoalformarketeconomies.

Referencedtext:

…documents.Sinceprintedmaterialshavebecome(20) widely available, however, people without special position or resources—and in

numbersoncethoughtimpossible—cantakeliteracyandtheuseofprintedtextsforgranted.

Comment:Again, the referenced textbasicallyprovesanswer (C). If theexpandedaccesshasallowedus totakeliteracyforgranted,wecaninferthatthataccessledtoanincreaseinliteracy.

The rest of the choices infer toomuch or require an added assumption or extrapolation.Theysimplycannotbeprovedusingtheinformationinthepassage.

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Neurobiologistsoncebelievedthattheworkingsofthebrainwereguidedexclusivelybyelectricalsignals;accordingtothistheory,communicationbetweenneurons(braincells)is

(5) possible because electrical impulses travel from one neuron to the next by literallyleapingacrosssynapses(gapsbetweenneurons).Butmanyneurobiologistspuzzledoverhowthisleapingacrosssynapsesmightbeachieved,andasearlyas

(10) 1904 some speculated that electrical impulses are transmitted between neuronschemically rather thanelectrically.According to thisalternative theory, theexcitedneuron secretes a chemical called a neurotransmitter that binds with itscorresponding

(15)receptormoleculeinthereceivingneuron.Thisbindingoftheneurotransmitterrenderstheneuronpermeabletoions,andastheionsmoveintothereceivingneurontheygenerateanelectricalimpulsethatrunsthroughthecell;theelectricalimpulseis

(20)therebytransmittedtothereceivingneuron.Thistheoryhasgraduallywonacceptanceinthescientificcommunity,butforalong

time littlewas knownabout themechanismbywhichneurotransmittersmanage torenderthereceiving

(25) neuron permeable to ions. In fact, some scientists remained skeptical of the theorybecausetheyhadtroubleimagininghowthebindingofachemicaltoareceptoratthe cell surface could influence the flow of ions through the cell membrane.Recently,

(30)however,researchershavegatheredenoughevidenceforaconvincingexplanation:thatthe structure of receptors plays the pivotal role in mediating the conversion ofchemicalsignalsintoelectricalactivity.

(35) The new evidence shows that receptors for neurotransmitters contain both aneurotransmitterbindingsiteandaseparateregionthat functionsasachannel forions;attachmentoftheneurotransmittertothebindingsitecausesthe

(40) receptor to change shape and so results in the opening of its channel component.Severaltypesofreceptorshavebeenisolatedthatconformtothisstructure,amongthemthereceptorsforacetylcholine,gamma-aminobutyricacid(GABA),

(45)glycine,andserotonin.Thesereceptorsdisplayenoughsimilaritiestoconstituteafamily,knowncollectivelyasneurotransmitter-gatedionchannels.

Ithasalsobeendiscoveredthateachofthereceptorsinthisfamilycomesinseveralvarieties

(50) so that, for example, a GABA receptor in one part of the brain has slightly differentproperties than a GABA receptor in another part of the brain. This discovery ismedicallysignificantbecauseitraisesthepossibilityofthehighlyselectivetreatmentof

(55) certain brain disorders. As the precise effect on behavior of every variety of eachneurotransmitter-gated ionchannel isdeciphered,pharmacologistsmaybeable todesigndrugstargetedtospecificreceptorsondefinedcategoriesofneuronsthat


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Notethatwe'veplacedtheauthorundertherightsideofthescale.Theauthor'sopinionissubtle,butlines28-30giveusanindicationthattheauthorhasbeen“convinced.”This passage ends with a“curved tail” (discussed earlier in the book).The central argument isusedasaspringboardintotheimplicationsfordrugtherapyandtreatmentsfordiseases.

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SYNTHESIS

21.Which one of the followingmost completely and accurately states themain point of thepassage?

(A)Evidenceshowsthattheworkingsofthebrainareguided,notbyelectricalsignals,but

bychemicals,andthatsubtledifferencesamongthe receptors for thesechemicalsmaypermittheselectivetreatmentofcertainbraindisorders.

(B)Evidenceshowsthattheworkingsofthebrainareguided,notbyelectricalsignals,butby chemicals, and that enough similarities exist among these chemicals to allowscientiststoclassifythemasafamily.

(C) Evidence shows that electrical impulses are transmitted between neurons chemicallyratherthanelectrically,andthatenoughsimilaritiesexistamongthesechemicalstoallowscientiststoclassifythemasafamily.

Evidenceshowsthatelectrical impulsesaretransmittedbetweenneuronschemicallyrather than electrically, and that subtle differences among the receptors for thesechemicalsmaypermittheselectivetreatmentofcertainbraindisorders.

(E)Evidenceshowsthatreceptormoleculesinthebraindiffersubtlyfromoneanother,andthat thesedifferencescanbeexploited to treatcertainbraindisorders through theuseofdrugsthatselectivelyaffectparticularpartsofthebrain.

Referencedtext:

…thisleapingacrosssynapsesmightbeachieved,(10)andasearlyas1904somespeculatedthatelectrical impulsesaretransmittedbetween

neuronschemicallyratherthanelectrically.…receptor in another part of the brain. This discovery ismedically significant because itraisesthepossibilityofthehighlyselectivetreatmentof(55)certainbraindisorders.

Comment:Knowingtheargument,andwheretheauthorstands,isveryimportantforthisquestion.Thefirstpartofanswer (D), thecorrectanswer, isbasically the rightsideofourscale!Becarefulwith (A)and (B):“workingsof thebrain” is toogeneral.Thepassagediscusses only one specific processwithinthebrain:thetransferofelectricalimpulsesfromneurontoneuron.Remember,whenmorethanoneanswerlooksgood,besuretoexaminethesmalldetailsofeach.

IDENTIFICATION

23.EachofthefollowingstatementsisaffirmedbythepassageEXCEPT:

(A)Thesecretionofcertainchemicalsplaysaroleinneuroncommunication.(B)Theflowofionsthroughneuronsplaysaroleinneuroncommunication.(C)Thebindingofneurotransmitterstoreceptorsplaysaroleinneuroncommunication.(D)Thestructureofreceptorsonneuronsurfacesplaysaroleinneuroncommunication.

The size of neurotransmitter binding sites on receptors plays a role in neuron

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communication.

Referencedtext:

(10)aretransmittedbetweenneuronschemically ratherthanelectrically.Accordingtothisalternativetheory,theexcitedneuronsecretesachemicalcalledaneurotransmitterthatbindswithitscorrespondingreceptormoleculeinthereceiving

(15)neuron.Thisbindingoftheneurotransmitterrenderstheneuronpermeabletoions,andastheionsmoveintothereceivingneuron…

(31) …convincing explanation: that the structure of receptors plays the pivotal role in

mediatingtheconversionofchemicalsignalsintoelectricalactivity.

Comment:Identificationquestionsaskedinthe“except”formattendtorequirethemosttimeandenergy.Ifyoudon'thavea strong initial impression, youmustarriveat the correctanswerby finding theotherfourinthetext.

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INFERENCE

24.Theauthormostlikelyusesthephrase“definedcategoriesofneurons”inline59inordertorefertoneuronsthat

(A)possesschannelsforions(B)respondtodrugtreatment(C)containreceptormolecules

influenceparticularbrainfunctions(E)reacttobindingbyneurotransmitters

Referencedtext:

…receptor in another part of the brain. This discovery ismedically significant because itraisesthepossibilityofthehighlyselectivetreatmentof(55) certain brain disorders. As the precise effect on behavior of every variety of each

neurotransmitter-gated ionchannel isdeciphered,pharmacologistsmaybeable todesigndrugstargetedtospecificreceptorsondefinedcategoriesofneuronsthat


Comment:While theauthordoesn'texplicitly statewhat shemeansby“definedcategoriesofneurons,”wecaninferthemeaningfromthesurroundingtext.Anunderstandingofcontextiscrucialhere.Theterm“defined categories of neurons” is mentioned in the context of treating different types ofbraindisorders.

SYNTHESIS

25.Whichoneofthefollowingmostaccuratelydescribestheorganizationofthepassage?

(A)explanationofatheory;presentationofevidenceinsupportofthetheory;presentation

ofevidence inopposition to the theory;argument in favorof rejecting the theory;discussionoftheimplicationofrejectingthetheory

(B)explanationofatheory;presentationofevidenceinsupportofthetheory;explanationofanalternativetheory;presentationof informationtosupportthealternativetheory;discussionofanexperimentthatcanhelpdeterminewhichtheoryiscorrect

explanationofatheory;descriptionofanobstacletothetheory'sgeneralacceptance;presentation of an explanation that helps the theory overcome the obstacle;discussionofafurtherimplicationofthetheory

(D)explanationofatheory;descriptionofanobstacletothetheory'sgeneralacceptance;argumentthattheobstacleisinsurmountableandthatthetheoryshouldberejected;discussionoftheimplicationsofrejectingthetheory

(E)explanationofatheory;descriptionofhowthetheorycametowinscientificacceptance;

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presentation of new information that challenges the theory; modification of thetheory to accommodate the new information; discussion of an implication of themodification.

Comment:This is another synthesis question for which a strong structural understanding of the passagerelative to theargument isofgreatbenefit.Theother choicesmaydescribeoneor twopartsofthepassageaccurately,but(C)istheonlychoicethatdescribesallpartsofthepassagecorrectly.

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CounteeCullen(CounteeLeroyPorter,1903–1946)wasoneoftheforemostpoetsoftheHarlemRenaissance, themovementofAfricanAmericanwriters,musicians, andartistscentered

(5)intheHarlemsectionofNewYorkCityduringthe1920's.Beginningwithhisuniversityyears,Cullenstrovetoestablishhimselfasanauthorofromanticpoetryonabstract,universaltopicssuchasloveanddeath.Believingpoetryshould

(10) consist of “lofty thoughts beautifully expressed,” Cullen preferred controlled poeticforms. He used European forms such as sonnets and devices such as quatrains,couplets, and conventional rhyme, and he frequently employed classical allusionsand

(15)Christian religious imagery,whichweremost likely theproductbothofhisuniversityeducation and of his upbringing as the adopted son of a Methodist Episcopalreverend.

SomeliterarycriticshavepraisedCullen'sskillat(20)writingEuropean-styleverse,finding,forexample, in“TheBalladoftheBrownGirl”an

artful use of diction and a rhythm and sonority that allow him to capture theatmospheretypicaloftheEnglishballadformofpastcenturies.Othershavefound

(25)Cullen's useof European verse forms and techniquesunsuited to treatingpolitical orracialthemes,suchasthethemesin“UncleJim,”inwhichayoungmanistoldbyhisuncleofthedifferentexperiencesofAfricanAmericansandwhitesinUnitedStates

(30)society,or“Incident,”whichrelatestheexperienceofaneight-year-oldchildwhohearsaracialslur.OnesuchcriticcomplainedthatCullen'spersonaasexpressedinhisworksometimesseemstovacillatebetweenaestheteandspokespersonforracial

(35) issues. But Cullen himself rejected this dichotomy, maintaining that his interest inromanticpoetrywasquitecompatiblewithhisconcernoverracialissues.Hedrewadistinction between poetry of solely political intent and his own work, which hebelieved

(40) reflected his identify as an African American. As the heartfelt expression of hispersonalityaccomplishedbymeansofcarefulattentiontohischosencraft,hisworkcouldnothelpbutdoso.

Explicitreferencestoracialmattersdoinfact(45)declineinCullen'slaterwork,butnotbecausehefeltanylesspassionatelyaboutthese

matters.Rather,Cullenincreasinglyfocusedonthereligiousdimensionofhispoetry.In“TheBlackChrist,”inwhichthepoetimaginesthedeathand

(50) resurrection of a rural AfricanAmerican, and“Heritage,”which expresses the tensionbetweenthepoet'sidentificationwithChristiantraditionsandhisdesiretostayclosetohisAfricanheritage,Cullen'sthoughtsonraceweresubsumedwithin

(55)whatheconceivedofasbroaderandmoreurgentquestionsabout the sufferingandredemptionof the soul.Nonetheless, Cullen never abandonedhis commitment totheimportanceofracialissues,reflectingononeoccasionthathefelt“actuatedby

(60)astrongsenseofraceconsciousness”that“growsuponme,Ifind,asIgrowolder.”

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Notetheverysubtleindicationoftheauthor'sopinioninlines40–43.Alsonotethe“curvedtail”inthe last paragraph. In the last paragraph, the author moves beyond the central argument todiscusstrendsinCullen'slaterwork.

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SYNTHESIS


(A)WhilemuchofCullen'spoetrydealswithracialissues,inhislaterworkhebecamelessconcernedwith racialmatters and increasingly interested inwriting poetry with areligiousdimension.

WhileCullenusedEuropeanverse formsandhis laterpoems increasinglyaddressedreligiousthemes,hispoetryneverabandonedaconcernforracialissues.

(C)ThoughCullenusedEuropeanverseforms,heacknowledgedthattheseformswerenotverywellsuitedtotreatingpoliticalorracialthemes.

(D)DespitethesuccessofCullen'spoetryatdealingwithracialissues,Cullen'sprimarygoalwastore-createtheatmospherethatcharacterizedtheEnglishballad.

(E) ThereligiousdimensionthroughoutCullen'spoetrycomplementedhis focusonracialissuesbyprovidingthecontextwithinwhichtheseissuescouldbeunderstood.

Referencedtext:

(10) … death. Believing poetry should consist of “lofty thoughts beautifully expressed,”Cullenpreferredcontrolledpoetic forms.HeusedEuropean formssuchas sonnetsanddevicessuchasquatrains,couplets,andconventionalrhyme…

(45)…declineinCullen'slaterwork,butnotbecausehefeltanylesspassionatelyaboutthese

matters.Rather,Cullenincreasinglyfocusedonthereligiousdimensionofhispoetry.(57)…thesoul.Nonetheless,Cullenneverabandonedhiscommitmenttotheimportanceof

racialissues…

Comment:This is another synthesis question for which the correct answer is not ideal, but is the bestavailable. (B)correctlybringstogetherelementsmentioned indifferentpartsof thepassage. (A)incorrectly states thatCullenbecame less concernedwith racial issues inhis laterwork. (C) is indirectcontradictiontoCullen'sactualopinion(wecanseethis inourscale).Neither(D)nor(E) issupportedbyinformationinthepassage.

INFERENCE

8. Given the information in the passage,which one of the followingmost closely exemplifiesCullen'sconceptionofpoetry?

(A)asonnetwrittenwithcarefulattentiontotheconventionsoftheformtore-createtheatmosphereofsixteenth-centuryEnglishpoetry

(B) asonnetwrittenwithdeliberatedisregardfortheconventionsoftheformto illustratetheperilsofpoliticalchange

(C) a sonnet written to explore the aesthetic impact of radical innovations in diction,rhythm,andsonority

(D) a sonnet written with great stylistic freedom to express the emotional upheavalassociatedwithromanticlove

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a sonnet written with careful attention to the conventions of the form expressingfeelingsabouttheinevitabilityofdeath

Referencedtext:

…1920's.Beginningwithhisuniversityyears,Cullenstrovetoestablishhimselfasanauthor of romantic poetry on abstract, universal topics such as love and death.Believingpoetryshould

(10) consist of “lofty thoughts beautifully expressed,” Cullen preferred controlled poeticforms. He used European forms such as sonnets and devices such as quatrains,couplets,andconventionalrhyme…

Comment:(E)isfairlyprovablebasedonthetext.Remember,correctanswerstoinferencequestionswon'tbeexplicitly stated in the text, but they can generally be inferred, withoutmaking any additionalassumptionsorlogicalleaps,fromspecificlinesinthetext.

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IDENTIFICATION

9.WhichoneofthefollowingisNOTidentifiedbytheauthorofthepassageascharacteristicofCullen'spoetry?

(A)Itoftendealswithabstract,universalsubjectmatter.(B)Itoftenemploysrhyme,classicalallusions,andreligiousimagery.

Itavoidstraditionalpoeticformsinfavorofformalexperimentation.(D)Itsometimesdealsexplicitlywithracialissues.(E)Iteventuallysubsumedracialissuesintoadiscussionofreligiousissues.

Referencedtext:

(5)…theHarlemsectionofNewYorkCityduringthe1920's.Beginningwithhisuniversityyears,Cullenstrovetoestablishhimselfasanauthorofromanticpoetryonabstract,universaltopics……couplets,andconventionalrhyme,andhefrequentlyemployedclassicalallusionsand

(15)Christianreligiousimagery,..…themesin“UncleJim,”inwhichayoungmanistoldbyhisuncleofthedifferentexperiencesofAfricanAmericansandwhitesinUnitedStates

(30)society,or“Incident,”whichrelatestheexperienceofaneight-year-oldchildwhohearsaracialslur.

(46)…anylesspassionatelyaboutthesematters.Rather,Cullenincreasinglyfocusedonthe

religiousdimensionofhispoetry.

Comment:Thisisverysimilartoan“except”question.(C)jumpsoutasbeingincongruousrelativetotherestof the passage (Cullen borrowed from European tradition, and there is no mention of hisexperimenting).Becauseofthis,wecanscanthetexttomakesure it isnotthere.However, ifwewereuncertainabout (C),wecouldalsoget to the rightanswerby finding theother four in thetext,aswe'vedoneabove.

IDENTIFICATION

10. The passage suggests which one of the following about Cullen's use of controlled poeticforms?

Cullen used controlled poetic forms because he believed they provided the bestmeanstobeautifulpoeticexpression.

(B)Cullen'sinterestinreligiousthemesnaturallyledhimtousecontrolledpoeticforms.(C) Only themost controlled poetic forms allowed Cullen to address racial issues in his

poems.

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(D) Cullen had rejected the less controlled poetic forms he was exposed to prior to hisuniversityyears.

(E)Lesscontrolledpoeticformsarebettersuitedtopoetrythataddressesracialorpoliticalissues.

Referencedtext:

(10)…death.Believingpoetryshouldconsistof“loftythoughtsbeautifullyexpressed,”Cullenpreferredcontrolledpoeticforms.

Comment:It's easy to over-think a question like this. Don't waste time comparing themeaning of certainanswer choices to thatofothers. Instead, spend that time looking forproof in the text thatwillvalidateaparticularanswerchoice.

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Althoughphilanthropy—the volunteeringofprivate resources for humanitarianpurposes— reached its apex in England in the late nineteenth century, moderncommentatorshavearticulated

(5)twomajorcriticismsofthephilanthropythatwasamainstayofEngland'smiddle-classVictoriansociety.Theearliercriticismisthatsuchphilanthropywasevenbythelaternineteenthcenturyobsolete,sinceindustrialismhadalready

(10)createdsocialproblemsthatwerebeyondthescopeofsmall,privatevoluntaryefforts.Indeed, these problems required substantial legislative action by the state.Unemployment,forexample,wasnottheresultofafailureofdiligenceonthepartof

(15)workersorafailureofcompassiononthepartofemployers,norcoulditbesolvedbywell-wishingphilanthropists.

ThemorerecentchargeholdsthatVictorianphilanthropywasbyitsverynatureaself-serving(20) exercise carried out by philanthropists at the expense of those whom they were

ostensiblyserving. Inthisview,philanthropywasameansofflauntingone'spowerandpositioninasocietythatplacedgreatemphasisonstatus,orevena

(25)meansofcultivatingsocialconnectionsthatcouldleadtoeconomicrewards.Further,ifphilanthropyisseenasservingtheinterestsofindividualphilanthropists,soitmaybeseenasservingtheinterestsoftheirclass.Accordingtothis“social

(30) control” thesis, philanthropists, in professing to help the poor, were encouraging inthem such values as prudence, thrift, and temperance, values perhaps worthy inthemselvesbutalsodesignedtocreatemoreproductivemembersofthelaborforce.

(35) Philanthropy, in short, was ameans of controlling the labor force and ensuring thecontinueddominanceofthemanagementclass.

ModerncriticsofVictorianphilanthropyoftenusethewords“amateurish”or“inadequate”(40)todescribeVictorianphilanthropy,asthoughVictoriancharitycanonlybeunderstood

asanantecedenttotheeraofstate-sponsored,professionallyadministeredcharity.Thisassumptionistypicalofthe“Whigfallacy”:thetendencytoread

(45)thepastasaninferiorpreludetoanenlightenedpresent.IfmostVictoriansresistedstatecontrolandexpended their resourcesonprivate, voluntaryphilanthropies, it couldonlybe,theargumentgoes,becauseoftheircommitmenttoavestedinterest,

(50)orbecausetheadministrativeapparatusofthestatewasincapableofcopingwiththeeconomicandsocialneedsofthetime.

Thisversionofhistorypatronizes theVictorians,whowere in factwell awareof theirvulnerability(55) to charges of condescension and complacency, but were equally well aware of the

potentialdangersofstatemanagedcharity.Theywereperhapscondescendingtothepoor,but—touseanun-Victorianmetaphor—theyputtheirmoneywhere

(60)theirmouthswere,andgaveuptheircareersandlivesaswell.

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The central argument in thispassagedoesn't reveal itself until the last paragraph!All themorereason to remain flexible, to constantly scrutinize yourunderstanding, toguessand reassessasyouread.

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SYNTHESIS

21.Whichoneofthefollowingbestsummarizesthemainideaofthepassage?

(A) While the motives of individual practitioners have been questioned by moderncommentators, Victorian philanthropy successfully dealt with the social ills ofnineteenth-centuryEngland.

(B)Philanthropy,inadequatetodealwiththemassivesocialandeconomicproblemsofthetwentiethcentury,hasslowlybeenreplacedbystate-sponsoredcharity.

(C) The practice of reading the past as a prelude to an enlightenedpresent has fosteredrevisionistviewsofmanyinstitutions,amongthemVictorianphilanthropy.

Although modern commentators have perceived Victorian philanthropy as eitherinadequate or self-serving, the theoretical bias behind these criticisms leads to anincorrectinterpretationofhistory.

(E) Victorian philanthropists, aware of public resentment of their self-congratulatoryattitude,useddeviousmethodstocamouflagetheirselfservingmotives.

Referencedtext:

(6)…England'smiddle-classVictoriansociety.Theearliercriticismisthatsuchphilanthropywasevenbythelaternineteenthcenturyobsolete…

(18)ThemorerecentchargeholdsthatVictorianphilanthropywasbyitsverynatureaself-

serving…ModerncriticsofVictorianphilanthropyoftenusethewords“amateurish”or“inadequate”(40)todescribeVictorianphilanthropy,asthoughVictoriancharitycanonlybeunderstood

asanantecedenttotheeraofstate-sponsored,professionallyadministeredcharity. This versionof historypatronizes theVictorians,whowere in factwell awareof theirvulnerability(55) to charges of condescension and complacency, but were equally well aware of the

potentialdangersofstatemanagedcharity.

Comment:(D)correctlycombinesdifferentelementsof thepassage intoacohesivewholethatmatchestheargumentscaleandrepresentstheauthor'sopinion.

INFERENCE

22.Accordingtothepassage,whichoneofthefollowingistrueofbothmoderncriticismsmadeaboutVictorianphilanthropy?

(A) Both criticisms attribute dishonorable motives to those privileged individuals whoengagedinprivatephilanthropy.

(B)Bothcriticismspresupposethatthesocialrewardsofcharitableactivityoutweighedtheeconomicbenefits.

(C)Bothcriticismsunderemphasizethecomplacencyandcondescensiondemonstratedby

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theVictorians.

Bothcriticismssuggestthatgovernmentinvolvementwasnecessarytocuresocialills.(E) Bothcriticismstakeforgrantedthefutilityofeffortsbyprivate individualstoenhance

theirsocialstatusbymeansofphilanthropy.

Referencedtext:

…moderncommentatorshavearticulatedtwomajor(5) criticisms of the philanthropy thatwas amainstay of England'smiddle-class Victorian

society.ModerncriticsofVictorianphilanthropyoftenusethewords“amateurish”or“inadequate”(40)todescribeVictorianphilanthropy,asthoughVictoriancharitycanonlybeunderstood

asanantecedenttotheeraofstate-sponsored,professionallyadministeredcharity.

Comment:Thisisachallengingquestion,andthecorrectanswerisonethatisdifficulttoanticipate.Still,wecan see that it is fairly provable based on the text. If Victorian philanthropy is viewed as aninadequate precursor to state-sponsored charity, we can infer that the critics feel state-sponsorship is required of wiser charitable actions. Some of the other answers are attractivebecausetheyarementionedinrelationtoonecriticismortheother,butonly(D)referstoboth.

INFERENCE

25.ItcanbeinferredfromthepassagethatasocialcontroltheoristwouldbemostlikelytoagreewithwhichoneofthefollowingstatementsconcerningthemotivesofVictorianphilanthropists?

(A)Victorianphilanthropistsweredrivenmorebythedesireforhighsocialstatusthanbythehopeofeconomicgain.

(B) Victorianphilanthropistsencouragedsuchvaluesas thriftandtemperance inorder toinstill in the working class the same acquisitiveness that characterized themanagementclass.

(C)Thoughbasicallywell-intentioned,Victorianphilanthropistsfacedproblemsthatwerefarbeyondthescopeofprivatecharitableorganizations.

(D) By raising the living standards of the poor, Victorian philanthropists also sought toimprovetheintellectualstatusofthepoor.

Victorianphilanthropistsseephilanthropyasameanstoanendratherthanasanendinitself.

Referencedtext:

Accordingtothis“socialcontrol”thesis,(30)philanthropists,inprofessingtohelpthepoor,wereencouraginginthemsuchvaluesas

prudence, thrift, and temperance, values perhaps worthy in themselves but alsodesigned to createmore productivemembers of the labor force. Philanthropy, inshort, was a means of controlling the labor force and ensuring the continueddominanceofthemanagementclass.

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Comment:

Severalofthewronganswerstothisquestionmakelogicalsense,butarenotprovablebythetextitself The text tells us that these philanthropists were looking forward to secondary, self-preservingramificationsoftheirseeminglyselflessacts.

SYNTHESIS

26.Whichofthefollowingbestdescribestheorganizationofthepassage?

Tworelatedpositionsarediscussed,thenbotharesubjectedtothesamecriticism.(B)Twoopposingtheoriesareoutlined,thenasynthesisbetweenthetwoisproposed.(C)Apositionisstated,andtwodifferingevaluationsofitaregiven.(D)Threeexamplesofthesamelogicalinconsistencyaregiven.(E)Atheoryisoutlined,andtwosupportingexamplesaregiven.

Referencedtext:

…itsapexinEnglandinthelatenineteenthcentury,moderncommentatorshavearticulatedtwomajor(5) criticismsofthephilanthropythatwasamainstayofEngland'smiddle-classVictorian

society. The earlier criticism is that such philanthropy was even by the laternineteenthcenturyobsolete…

(18)ThemorerecentchargeholdsthatVictorianphilanthropywasbyitsverynaturea

self-serving… Modern criticsofVictorianphilanthropyoftenuse thewords“amateurish”or

“inadequate”(40)todescribeVictorianphilanthropy,asthoughVictoriancharitycanonlybeunderstood

asanantecedenttotheeraofstate-sponsored,professionallyadministeredcharity.ThisversionofhistorypatronizestheVictorians,whowereinfactwellawareoftheir

vulnerability(55) to charges of condescension and complacency, but were equally well aware of the

potentialdangersofstatemanagedcharity.

Comment:Someoftheanswersareobviouslywrong,andsomementiononly limitedpartsofthepassage.(A), though not very insightful, does correctly represent disparate parts of the passage. (A) isbasicallyarewordingofourscale!

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Takeaways:CorrectAnswers

InterpretingYourResultsThepreviouspassagescollectivelycontained4identificationquestions,6inferencequestions,and6synthesisquestions.Takeamomentandgiveyourselfascoreonallthreequestiontypes.

IDENTIFICATION INFERENCE SYNTHESIS

/4 /6 /6

Thoughthisisarelativelysmallsample,markeddifferencesinperformanceondifferentquestiontypesshouldgiveyousomeindicationastowhichpartsofyourprocessareworkingwell,andwhich parts are not. Think about why you are missing certain question types, and adjustaccordingly.Forexample,aweaknessonsynthesisquestionsmaypointtoarushedinitialread,one in which you didn't consider overall argument structure. A weakness on identificationquestionsmaybea resultof your answeringprocess—perhaps youare relyingongut instinctinsteadoftakingthetimetogobackintothetexttofindyourproof.Aweaknessoninferencequestionsmayalsostemfroma failureto findsupportingtext inthepassage. Inaddition,youmaybemakinginvalidassumptionsorextrapolations.Don'tinfertoomuch!Lookingattheresultsincouplesmayalsobeofinterest.Ifyouarestrongatbothidentificationand inference, but not synthesis, perhaps that is evidence that you are not reading towards ageneralizedunderstanding,andthatyouaregettinglostinthedetailsinyourinitialread.Ifyouarestrongatidentificationandsynthesisbutnotinference,perhapsyouneedtoresetyourgaugeintermsofunderstandingthetypeofdeductionprocesses theLSATexpectsofyou. Ifyouarestrongatsynthesisbutweakatidentificationandinference,youmayneedtodoabetterjoboffindingcorroboratingevidence.Aswegoforward,continuetouseyourresultstofinetuneyourprocessonpracticeexams,andyoushouldcontinuetoseeimprovementsinyourscore.

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Chapter6IncorrectAnswers

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TheSearchforIncorrectAnswers

Nowthatyouknowwhatyouare looking for inacorrectanswer,howdoyou find it,exactly?Questionpromptsgenerallysetupscenariosforwhichanynumberofdifferentanswersmightbecorrect.Therefore,

For the vast majority of LSAT Reading Comprehension problems, you should arrive at thecorrectanswerbyeliminatingincorrectanswers.

Oneofthedefiningcharacteristicsofa170+testtakeristheabilitytoeliminateanswerchoicesconfidentlyandaccurately.Let'slookatsomecommoncharacteristicsoftwodifferenttesttakers:

170+ AverageTestTaker

Startsbyactivelyseekingtoeliminatewronganswers Startsbylookingfortherightanswer

Usesanunderstandingofincorrectanswercharacteristicstoconfidentlyeliminateobviouslyincorrectanswers

Usesinstinct,or“gutsense,”toevaluateanswers

Spendsthemajorityofhis/hertimebreakingdownanddouble-checkingthemostattractiveanswerchoices

Wastestimeover-thinkingobviouslyincorrectchoices,anddoesn'thavetimetocarefullyexaminethemostlikelypossibilities

Rarelyreturnstoananswerthathe/sheeliminates

Eliminatessomeanswerswithcertaintyandsomewithout,andoftenhastogobackandre-examineeveryanswerchoiceagain

It's okay if you feel like you fall into the“average test taker” category rightnow. The key is toactivelyworktowardsmakingtheexammorefamiliar,andtoactivelyworktowardsattainingthecharacteristicsofthe170+testtaker.Formost, the conversion is a gradual process.Developing good test-taking skills is not unlikedevelopingagood jump shot. Inorder todevelopagood jump shot, youneed two things: aconsistent, effective form, and practice.Without a consistent form, youwill shoot every shotdifferently, and improvementwill be hard to comeby.Without practice, your formwill neverbecomeintuitive,andthereforewon'teverbefullyeffective,especiallyunderpressure.Thereare fourelementsessential tohaving the right“form”when it comes toansweringLSATReadingComprehensionquestions:

1. Anactiveandaccuratefirstreadthatfocusesonthestructureofthepassagerelativetoacentralargument

2. Aneliminationprocessthatsavestimeandhelpsyounarrowdownyourfocusuntilyouarriveattherightanswer

3. AnunderstandingofhowtheLSATwritesincorrectanswerchoices4. Asolidsenseofhowcorrectanswersarestructured

Sofar,we'vediscussedhowtoreadthepassage,andwhatmakesananswerchoicecorrect.Inthischapter,wewill focuson thecommoncharacteristicsof incorrectchoices.Asyoucontinue to

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practicepassages,focusonyourform.Whenyoumissaquestion,trytobeasspecificaspossibleaboutwhy. It's not enough to say to yourself,“Imisunderstood this,” or“I'm bad at synthesisproblems.”Relateeveryweaknesstoyourformandyourunderstandingofthetest,andactivelyseekoutwaystoimprove.

TheCharacteristicsofIncorrectAnswers

Imagine that the LSAT test writer starts out every question by first listing fivecorrect answerchoices. One by one, she introduces elements into four of the answers that will distort theseanswers inonewayor another. Theoneanswer that remainsuntaintedwillbe theone that iscorrect.Mosttesttakersdon'tgivealotofthoughtastowhyanswersareincorrect.However,ifyoucanrecognize the common characteristics of incorrect answers, and if you practice enough toincorporatethisrecognitionintoyourintuitiveprocess,youwillfundamentallychangehowyoureadtheLSAT.Answerswill jumpoutatyouasbeing incorrect,andyouwillalwaysbeabletozeroinonthemostchallengingorsubtleissueinanyquestion.Answers on the LSAT are not incorrect in haphazard ways. They are incorrect because ofcommon,concreteflaws. Wecategorizetheseflawsintothreecategories:Interpretation,Scope,andDegree. Thoughwewill discussquestion types inwhich these flawsoccurmostoften,beawarethattheycanappearatanypoint,foranytypeofquestion.

InterpretationAnswersincorrectbecauseofinterpretationissuesgenerallytranslatetheinformationinthetextincorrectlyinoneoftwoways:1.Contradiction.Theanswerchoicestatestheexactoppositeofwhatiswritteninthetext.2.Unsupported.Theanswerchoicejumpstoaninterpretationthatrequiresalogicalleapthatisunsupportedbythetext.

Oftentheanswerstoinferencequestionsare incorrectbecauseof interpretation issues.Wearetempted topick answers that are the complete opposite of the text ifwe are uncertain aboutwhere opinions fall on the argument scale. We are often tempted by answers that areunsupportedbythetextbecausewefindthesechoices,likethetext,challengingtounderstand.Ifwesensethatwearemissingsomething,wemightfeelthattherightanswershouldmakealeapin logic,goingbeyondwhatweunderstand.That is rarely thecase.Aswesaw in thepreviouschapter,allanswersarefairlyprovablebasedonthetext,andtheyneverrequireagiantleapinlogic.

ScopeWedefine scopeas the rangeof subjectmatter that isdiscussed.Thereare twomain typesofscopeissues:1.Outofscope. Theanswerchoiceisoutsidethescopeofthepassage(itinvolveselementsthatwerenotmentionedinthepassage).

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2.NarrowScope.Thescopeoftheanswerdoesn'tmatchthescopeofthequestion(thequestionasksaboutthepassageasawhole,buttheanswerrelatestoonlyoneparagraph,forexample).

Oftentheanswerstoidentificationquestionsareincorrectbecausetheyareoutsidethescopeofthepassage,andoftentheanswerstosynthesisquestionsareincorrectbecausethescopeoftheanswersdoesn'tmatchthescopeofthequestion.

Asub-categoryofanswerswithincorrectscopearehalf-scopeanswers,whichpertainspecificallyt ocomparative passages (which we'll discuss in the next chapter). Often questions forcomparativepassagesask youaboutwhat the twopassageshave in common, and thewronganswerstothesequestionstendtotouchononepassageortheother,butnotboth.

DegreeDegreeissuesshowupintwoforms:1 . Incorrect degree: opinion. Think of opinions as sitting on a spectrum: disgust, dislike,objectivity,uncertainty, slight favor, like,and love.An incorrectanswerchoiceof this typewillmisrepresentthedegreeofanopinionstatedinthepassage.2.Incorrectdegree:modifier. Thinkofaspectrumofmodifiersthatdefinenumber:one,afew,some,many,most,all.LSATanswerchoicesareoftenincorrectbecauseamodifiermisrepresentsthedegreeofacertainnumber.Let'suseasimpletruncatedexampletoillustrateeachtypeofcommonflaw.

IncorrectAnswerExamplesTakeamomenttoreadthefollowingtruncatedpassage.Thenconsidertheabbreviatedquestionsandanswersthatfollow.

JazzmusicisrootedinahistorysimilartothatofAmericaitself:ahistoryofconfluence.ThejazzfirstplayedinNewOrleansintheearly1900sborrowedheavilyfromEuropeanandWestAfricanmusicaltraditions.

MusicologistswhoarguethatjazzisapurelyAmericanartformoftenpointtoitsgenesisin New Orleans as evidence for this counter-perspective. The irony, however, is that theessenceofAmericaliesinthepluralityofitsroots.Todenytherichandcomplexhistoryofjazz,andthetrueoriginsoftheartform,isineffectdenyingtheveryaspectsoftheartformthatmakeitundeniablyAmerican.

1.INTERPRETATIONIssuesContradiction(oppositeofwhatwasstatedintext)

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Theauthorofthepassagewouldbemostlikelytoagreewithwhichoneofthefollowingstatements?

ThejazzmusicfirstplayedinNewOrleanswasapurelyAmericanartform.

Noticethattheanswerchoiceisnotonlywrong,itisthecompleteoppositeofwhatisinthepassage(“ThejazzfirstplayedinNewOrleansintheearly1900sborrowedheavilyfromEuropeanandWestAfricanmusicaltraditions.”).Thisisasurprisinglycommoncharacteristicinincorrectchoices;thebestwaytoavoidgettingfooledbytheseanswersistounderstandthecentralargument,andtoassignopinions,especiallytheauthor'sopinion,tothecorrectsideoftheargument.

Unsupported(inferstoofarbeyondtext)Theauthorofthepassagewouldbemostlikelytoagreewithwhichoneofthefollowingstatements?

JazzmusicwasinfluencedmorebyEuropeantraditionsthanbyWestAfricantraditions.

Thisanswermayinitiallybeappealingbecauseitcontainstermsthatareinthetext(EuropeanandWestAfricantraditions);however,theanswertakesanunwarrantedleapinlogic.TheoriginaltextmentionsbothEuropeanandWestAfricantraditionsaselementsthatinfluencedAmericanJazz,butgivesnoindicationwhatsoeverastowhichonewasmoreofaninfluencerelativetotheother.Testtakersoftenfallfortheseanswersonpassagestheyhadadifficulttimeunderstandingasawhole.Don'tbetemptedtopickanswersthatstretchthetextjustbecausethetextwasconfusing.

2.SCOPEIssuesOutofscope(beyondwhatisdiscussedinthetext)Whichofthefollowingmostaccuratelystatesthemainpointofthepassage?

Rockmusicisn'tmentionedinthetext.Therefore,themainpointofthepassagecannotinvolveacomparisonbetweenrockmusicandjazz.

Likerockmusic,jazzmusicborrowedfrommanypre-

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existingmusicaltraditions.Narrowscope(scopeofanswerdoesn'tmatchscopeofquestion)Whichofthefollowingmostaccuratelystatesthemainpointofthepassage?

TheessenceofAmericaliesintherichnessandthediversityofitsroots.

Thisstatementisindeedtrueaccordingtothepassage,butitisjustonepartofalargerargument.ThemainthrustofthepassageisaboutwhetherornotjazzmusicisapurelyAmericanartform.Inthiscase,thescopeoftheanswerdoesn'tmatchthescopeofthequestion.

*It'spossiblethatscopemayworkinreverseaswell.Thatis,ananswerwillapplymoregenerallytothetextasawhole,andbeincorrectbecausethequestionwillapplymorespecificallytoonesection.However,thesesituationsarelesscommon.

3.DEGREEIssuesIncorrectDegree:Opinion(thescaleofanopinionisincorrectlyrepresented)Whichofthefollowingmostaccuratelydescribestheauthor'sattitudetowardthemusicologistsmentionedinthepassage?

completedisgust

Thoughtheauthordisagreeswiththesemusicologists,thetextcertainlydoesnotindicateasstronganemotionas“completedisgust.”Anuanced,andcompleteunderstandingoftheauthor'sopinionisthekeytorecognizingtheseerrors.

IncorrectDegree:Modifier(thescaleofthesubjectmatterhasbeenincorrectlyrepresented)Whichofthefollowingismostdirectlysupportedbythepassage?

AllmusicologistsbelievethatjazzmusicisapurelyAmericanartform.

Theprimaryproblemhereistheword“all.”Musicologistshavebeenmentioned,butthetextdoesn'tgiveanyhintthatallmusicologistsshareacommonopinion.Beonthelookoutforincorrectrepresentationsofthesetypesofmodifiers.Themoreabsoluteandextremetheyare(all,never,every,each,none,etc.),themoresuspiciousyoushouldbe.Thisisaverycommonerrorinincorrectanswerchoices.

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Practical Applications of Knowing the Characteristics of Incorrect AnswerChoices

Wewanttomakeitclearnow:youshouldnotconsciouslycategorizeeveryincorrectansweronthe real exam. That would be a waste of your very limited time. However, a thoroughunderstandingofhowtheLSATmakesananswerincorrectshouldhelpyouintwoways:

1.Youwillgetmoreoutofyourreview.

Gobacktoproblemsyoumissedandsee ifyoucancategorizethewronganswersyoupicked.Mostpeoplewillseesomecommonalityintheincorrectanswerstheyselect(oftenfailtonoticedifferencesindegree,forexample).Ifyounoticetheseissues,it'smucheasiertoaddressthem.

2.Youwillhoneyourintuition.

Let'sseehowanunderstandingofincorrectanswercharacteristicscanhelprefineyourintuition.

Whatmakes

answersincorrect Whatinstinctsthisshouldinspire

Interpretation:contradiction

Interpretation:unsupported

Needtohaveaclearunderstandingofwhatroleopinionsandevidenceplayrelativetothecentralargument.Needtoavoidpickinganswersthat“soundgood.”IshouldverifyallanswersIamnot100%sureofbyrereadingthetext.

Scope:outofscope

Scope:narrowscope

Ishouldn'ttrytoinfertoomuch,ortakebig“logicleaps,”evenwhenIdon'tcompletelyunderstandthetext.Forgeneralquestions,Ineedananswerthatrelatesdifferentpartsofthepassagetogether.

Degree:opinion

Degree:modifiers

Ishouldcontinuouslytrytogaugethelevelsoftheopinionsmentionedinthepassage.Ishouldpayattentiontosmallwords(somevs.most,etc)thatdefineagroup.

Atfirst,you'llconcentrateondevelopingtheseinstincts.Then,you'llbegintonoticethatincorrectanswers jump out a bit more quickly for you. After a while, you'll spot the obviously wronganswers almost instantly as you read them. You want to do the hard work of analyzing andcategorizingwronganswersnowsothatwhenyoutaketheexamtheprocessofeliminatingbadchoiceswillbealmostautomatic.

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DRILLIT:IncorrectAnswerCharacteristics

Readthefollowingpassageandanswerthequestionstothebestofyourability.Dothis untimed.Foreverywronganswer,takethetimetodecidewhy it iswrong: interpretation(I),scope(S)ordegree(D).Someanswersarewrongformultiplereasons.


Inarecentcourtcase,acopy-shopownerwasaccusedofviolatingcopyrightlawwhen,inthepreparationof“coursepacks”—materialsphotocopiedfrombooksand journalsandpackaged(5) as readings forparticularuniversity courses—hecopiedmaterialswithoutobtaining

permissionfromorpayingsufficientfeestothepublishers.Astheowneroffivesmallcopyshopsservingseveraleducationalinstitutionsinthearea,heargued,as

(10) have others in the photocopy business, that the current process for obtainingpermissionsistime-consuming,cumbersome,andexpensive.Healsomaintainedthatcoursepacks,whichareubiquitousinhighereducation,allowprofessorstoassign

(15) important readings in books and journals too costly for students to be expected topurchase individually.While theuseof copyrightedmaterial for teachingpurposes istypicallyprotectedbycertainprovisionsofcopyrightlaw,thiscasewasuniqueinthatthe

(20)copyingofcoursepackswasdonebyacopyshopandataprofit.Copyright law outlines several factors involved in determining whether the use of

copyrightedmaterialisprotected,including:whetheritisfor(25)commercialornonprofitpurposes;thenatureofthecopyrightedwork;thelengthand

importanceoftheexcerptusedinrelationtotheentirework;andtheeffectofitsuseonthework'spotentialmarketvalue.Inbringingsuit,thepublishersheld

(30)thatothercopy-shopownerswouldceasepayingpermissionfees,causingthepotentialvalue of the copyrighted works of scholarship to diminish. Nonetheless, the courtdecidedthatthisreasoningdidnotdemonstratethatcoursepackswouldhavea

(35)sufficientlyadverseeffectonthecurrentorpotentialmarketofthecopyrightedworksoronthevalueofthecopyrightedworksthemselves.Thecourtinsteadruledthatsincethecopieswereforeducationalpurposes,thefactthatthecopy-shopownerhad

(40)profitedfrommakingthecoursepacksdidnotpreventhimfromreceivingprotectionunder the law. According to the court, the owner had not exploited copyrightedmaterialbecausehisfeewasnotbasedonthecontentoftheworkshecopied;

(45)hechargedbythepage,regardlessofwhetherthecontentwascopyrighted.Inthecourt'sview,thebusinessofproducingandsellingcoursepacksismoreproperly

seenastheexploitationofprofessionalcopyingtechnologies(50) and a result of the inability of academic parties to reproduce printed materials

efficiently, not the exploitation of these copyrightedmaterials themselves. The courtheld that laws do not prohibit professors and students, who may make copies forthemselves, from using the photoreproduction services of a third party in order toobtainthosesamecopiesatalessercost.


(A) A court recently ruled that a copy shop thatmakes course packs does not illegallyexploitcopyrightedmaterialsbutratheritlegallyexploitstheefficiencyofprofessionalphotocopyingtechnology.

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(B) Acourtrecentlyruledthatcoursepacksareprotectedbycopyrightlawbecausetheirpriceisbasedsolelyonthenumberofpagesineachpack.

(C)Acourtrecentlyruledthatthedeterminingfactorsgoverningthecopyrightsofmaterialusedincoursepacksarehowthematerialistobeused,thenatureofthematerialitself,andthelengthofthecopiedexcerpts.

(D)Arecentcourtrulinglimitstherightsofpublisherstoseeksuitagainstcopyshopsthatmakecoursepacksfromcopyrightedmaterial.

(E)Exceptionstocopyrightlawaremadewhencopyrightedmaterialisusedforeducationalpurposesandnopartymakesasubstantialprofitfromthematerial.

2. In lines24–29, theauthor lists severalof the factorsused todeterminewhethercopyrightedmaterialisprotectedbylawprimarilyto

(A)demonstratewhythecopy-shopownerwasexemptfromcopyrightlawinthiscase(B)explainthechargesthepublishersbroughtagainstthecopy-shopowner(C)illustrateamajorflawinthepublishers’reasoning(D)defendtherighttousecopyrightedmaterialsforeducationalpurposes(E)providethelegalcontextfortheargumentspresentedinthecase

3.Thecopy-shopownerasdescribedinthepassagewouldbemostlikelytoagreewithwhichoneofthefollowingstatements?

(A)Thepotentialmarketvalueofacopyrightedworkshouldbecalculatedtoincludetheimpactonsalesduetotheuseoftheworkincoursepacks.

(B)Publishersarealwaysopposedtothepreparationandsaleofcoursepacks.(C) More copy shops would likely seek permissions from publishers if the process for

obtainingpermissionswerenotsocumbersomeandexpensive.(D) Certain provisions of copyright law need to be rewritten to apply to all possible

situations.(E)Copyshopsmakemoreofaprofitfromthepreparationandsaleofcoursepacksthan

fromothermaterials.

4. The information in the passage provides themost support for which one of the followingstatementsaboutcopyrightlaw?

(A)Copyrightlawcanbeoneofthemostcomplexareasofanylegalsystem.(B)Courtshavebeeninconsistentintheirinterpretationsofcertainprovisionsofcopyright

law.(C)Thenumberofthekindsofmaterialsgrantedprotectionundercopyrightlawissteadily

decreasing.(D)Newpracticescancompelthecourtstorefinehowcopyrightlawisapplied.(E) Copyright law is primarily concerned withmaking publishedmaterials available for

educationaluse.

5.Whichoneofthefollowingdescribesarolemostsimilartothatofprofessorsinthepassagewhousecopyshopstoproducecoursepacks?

(A)Anartisangeneratesalegiblecopyofanoldheadstoneengravingbyusingcharcoalonnewsprintandframesandsellshigh-qualityphotocopiesofitatacraftsmarket.

(B)Achoirdirectortapesaselectionofanotherwell-knownchoir'sbestpiecesandsendsittoarecordingstudiotobereproducedinasellablepackageforusebymembersofher

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choir.(C) Agrocermakesseveralkindsofsandwichesthatsell for less thansimilarsandwiches

fromanearbyupscalecafe.(D)Aprofessionalgraphicartistprintsreproductionsofseveralwell-knownpaintingsatan

exhibittosellatthemuseum'sgiftshop.(E) Asouvenir store in thecenterofacity sellsminiaturebronze renditionsofa famous

bronzesculpturethatthecityisnotedfordisplaying.

6.Whichoneofthefollowing,iftrue,wouldhavemoststrengthenedthepublishers’positioninthiscase?

(A) Coursepacks for courses that usually have large enrollments hadproduced a largerprofitforthecopy-shopowner.

(B)Thecopy-shopownerhadactivelysolicitedprofessors’ordersforcoursepacks.(C)Therevenuegeneratedbythecopyshop'ssaleofcoursepackshadrisensignificantly

withinthepastfewyears.(D) Manyareabookstoreshadreportedamarkeddecreaseinthesalesofbooksusedfor

producingcoursepacks.(E) Thepublishershadenlisted the supportof theauthors toverify their claims that the

copy-shopownerhadnotobtainedpermission.

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SOLUTIONS:IncorrectAnswerCharacteristics


Inarecentcourtcase,acopy-shopownerwasaccusedofviolatingcopyrightlawwhen,inthepreparationof“coursepacks”—materialsphotocopiedfrombooksand journalsandpackaged5) as readings forparticularuniversity courses—hecopiedmaterialswithoutobtaining

permissionfromorpayingsufficientfeestothepublishers.Astheowneroffivesmallcopyshopsservingseveraleducationalinstitutionsinthearea,heargued,as

(10) have others in the photocopy business, that the current process for obtainingpermissionsistime-consuming,cumbersome,andexpensive.Healsomaintainedthatcoursepacks,whichareubiquitousinhighereducation,allowprofessorstoassign

(15) important readings in books and journals too costly for students to be expected topurchase individually.While theuseof copyrightedmaterial for teachingpurposes istypicallyprotectedbycertainprovisionsofcopyrightlaw,thiscasewasuniqueinthatthe

(20)copyingofcoursepackswasdonebyacopyshopandataprofit.Copyright law outlines several factors involved in determining whether the use of

copyrightedmaterialisprotected,including:whetheritisfor(25)commercialornonprofitpurposes;thenatureofthecopyrightedwork;thelengthand

importanceoftheexcerptusedinrelationtotheentirework;andtheeffectofitsuseonthework'spotentialmarketvalue.Inbringingsuit,thepublishersheld

(30)thatothercopy-shopownerswouldceasepayingpermissionfees,causingthepotentialvalue of the copyrighted works of scholarship to diminish. Nonetheless, the courtdecidedthatthisreasoningdidnotdemonstratethatcoursepackswouldhavea

(35)sufficientlyadverseeffectonthecurrentorpotentialmarketofthecopyrightedworksoronthevalueofthecopyrightedworksthemselves.Thecourtinsteadruledthatsincethecopieswereforeducationalpurposes,thefactthatthecopy-shopownerhad

(40)profitedfrommakingthecoursepacksdidnotpreventhimfromreceivingprotectionunder the law. According to the court, the owner had not exploited copyrightedmaterialbecausehisfeewasnotbasedonthecontentoftheworkshecopied;

(45)hechargedbythepage,regardlessofwhetherthecontentwascopyrighted.Inthecourt'sview,thebusinessofproducingandsellingcoursepacksismoreproperly

seenastheexploitationofprofessionalcopyingtechnologies(50) and a result of the inability of academic parties to reproduce printed materials

efficiently, not the exploitation of these copyrightedmaterials themselves. The courtheld that laws do not prohibit professors and students, who may make copies forthemselves, from using the photoreproduction services of a third party in order toobtainthosesamecopiesatalessercost.

Opinions: Opinions:publishers

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Copy-shopownerOthersinphotocopybusinessCOURTS

Supportfor:-diminishesvalueofcopyrightedworks

Supportfor:-badprocessforobtainingpermissions-cheaperforstudents-foreducationalpurposes-feebasedoncopies,notcontent-exploitingtechnology,NOTcopyrightcontent

Thismightbethemoststraightforwardargumentwe'veseensofar!Becauseitispresentedinthecontextofacourtcase,thecentralargumentiseasytospot,andtheopinionseasytoassign.

Notethattheauthorremainsobjectivethroughout.


(A) A court recently ruled that a copy shop that makes course packs does not illegallyexploitcopyrightedmaterialsbutratheritlegallyexploitstheefficiencyofprofessionalphotocopyingtechnology.

•Thisisthecorrectanswer.

Acourtrecentlyruledthatcoursepacksareprotectedbycopyrightlawbecausetheirpriceisbasedsolelyonthenumberofpagesineachpack.

•SCOPE(narrowscope).Pricebasedonpagesismentioned,butitcertainlydoesnotcapturethemainpointofthepassage.

A court recently ruled that the determining factors governing the copyrights ofmaterial used in course packs are how thematerial is to be used, the nature of thematerialitself,andthelengthofthecopiedexcerpts.

•SCOPE(narrowscope).Thesefactorsarementionedinthepassage,butdonotcapturethemainpoint.

•INTERPRETATION(unsupported) .These elements are mentioned as factors that generallygovern copyright law, but the passage does not state that these are the factors thatgovernthespecificissuesinvolvingmaterialsincoursepacks.

Arecentcourtrulinglimitstherightsofpublisherstoseeksuitagainstcopyshopsthatmakecoursepacksfromcopyrightedmaterial.

•SCOPE(narrow).Again,therulingismentionedinthepassage,anditwillhurtthechancesthat a publisher will successfully win a case against copy shops (though it's arguablewhetheryoucansayitwilllimittherightsofthepublishers),butitisnotthemainpointofthepassage.

Exceptions to copyright law are made when copyrighted material is used foreducationalpurposesandnopartymakesasubstantialprofitfromthematerial.

•INTERPRETATION(unsupported).Educational considerations are not “exceptions” to copyright law; they are a part ofcopyrightlaw(lines16-17).

2. In lines24–29, theauthor lists severalof the factorsused todeterminewhethercopyrighted

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materialisprotectedbylawprimarilyto

demonstratewhythecopy-shopownerwasexemptfromcopyrightlawinthiscase• INTERPRETATION (unsupported) . The list serves as background information to providecontextfortheargumentathand.Thereasonswhycopy-shopownersareprotectedcomelaterintheparagraph.

explainthechargesthepublishersbroughtagainstthecopy-shopowner• INTERPRETATION (unsupported) . The list describes elements involved generally indeterminingtheapplicationofcopyright law,but itdoesnot“explain”thechargesofthepublishersspecifically.

illustrateamajorflawinthepublishers’reasoning•DEGREE (opinion).Though the publishers lost the case, the author never states that theyhad “major flaws” in their reasoning. In fact, remember that the author has not evenstatedhis/heropinion!

•INTERPRETATION(unsupported).Again,thisisnottheroletheselinesplayintheargument.

defendtherighttousecopyrightedmaterialsforeducationalpurposes•INTERPRETATION.Again,thisisnottheroletheselinesplayintheargument.(E)providethelegalcontextfortheargumentspresentedinthecase• This is the correct answer. These lines serve as background information for the centralargumentathand.

3.Thecopy-shopownerasdescribedinthepassagewouldbemostlikelytoagreewithwhichoneofthefollowingstatements?

Thepotentialmarketvalueofacopyrightedworkshouldbecalculatedtoincludetheimpactonsalesduetotheuseoftheworkincoursepacks.

•INTERPRETATION(unsupported) .All of the owner's opinions are clearly stated in the firstparagraph.Whilemarketvalueofcopyrightedworksisdiscussedinthepassage,wedon'tgetanysenseforhowtheownerwouldrecommendcalculatingmarketvalue.Becareful!Elements of this answermight seem familiar and relevant, but youmust be sure you'reinterpretingtheinformationcorrectly.

Publishersarealwaysopposedtothepreparationandsaleofcoursepacks.• INTERPRETATION (unsupported) .Again, while we did read about publishers and coursepacks,thereisnothinginthepassagethatwouldsupportthisinterpretation.

•DEGREE(modifier).Furthermore, it ishighlyunlikely thatallpublisherswill always feel thesamewayaboutsomething.

(C) More copy shops would likely seek permissions from publishers if the process forobtainingpermissionswerenotsocumbersomeandexpensive.

•Thisisthecorrectanswer,andcanbedirectlyinferredfromthetext(lines10-11).

Certain provisions of copyright law need to be rewritten to apply to all possiblesituations.

•SCOPE (outof scope).This is far removed fromtheopinionsof thecopy-shopowner thathavebeenmentioned

•DEGREE(modifier).Furthermore,evenifthiswerewithinthescopeofthepassage,itwouldbe highly unlikely that anyone would think these provisions should be applied to “allpossible”situations.

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Copyshopsmakemoreofaprofitfromthepreparationandsaleofcoursepacksthanfromothermaterials.

•SCOPE (out of scope). The passage never discusses profits made from the sale of othermaterials.

4. The information in the passage provides themost support for which one of the followingstatementsaboutcopyrightlaw?

Copyrightlawcanbeoneofthemostcomplexareasofanylegalsystem.• SCOPE (out of scope). The complexity of other areas of law is not discussed, so nocomparisoncanbemade.

Courts have been inconsistent in their interpretations of certain provisions ofcopyrightlaw.

•INTERPRETATION (unsupported) . The courts disagree with the publishers’ argument, andthere are hints given that the courts rule differently when different situations arise, butthereisnoevidencegiventhattheyareinconsistent.

The number of the kinds ofmaterials granted protection under copyright law issteadilydecreasing.

•SCOPE(outofscope).Thisisnotmentionedinthepassage.(D)Newpracticescancompelthecourtstorefinehowcopyrightlawisapplied.•Thisisthecorrectanswer.Theroleofcopy-shopsintoday'sworldhascompelledthecourtstorefinetheirinterpretationofthelaw(lines18-20).

Copyrightlawisprimarilyconcernedwithmakingpublishedmaterialsavailableforeducationaluse.

• INTERPRETATION (unsupported) . Though this specific passage is about copyright lawrelative to educational use, it is incorrect to assume that copyright law itself is primarilyconcernedwitheducationaluse.

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5.Whichoneofthefollowingdescribesarolemostsimilartothatofprofessorsinthepassagewhousecopyshopstoproducecoursepacks?

Anartisangeneratesalegiblecopyofanoldheadstoneengravingbyusingcharcoalonnewsprintandframesandsellshigh-qualityphotocopiesofitatacraftsmarket.

• INTERPRETATION (unsupported) . This suggests that we have somehow changed theoriginal item in an artistic fashion, in order to create something new and distinctlydifferent.Thisisnotthecase.

(B)Achoirdirectortapesaselectionofanotherwell-knownchoir'sbestpiecesandsendsittoarecordingstudiotobereproducedinasellablepackageforusebymembersofherchoir.

•This is the correctanswer.This is very similar toaprofessorwhopickspartsofpassages,andsendsthemoutforreproductionandeventualsaletohisstudents.

Agrocermakesseveralkindsofsandwichesthatsellforlessthansimilarsandwichesfromanearbyupscalecafe.

• INTERPRETATION (unsupported) . This suggests that the copy-shop owners themselvesdetermine what goes into the packs, and make different types, or that the professorsthemselves are doing the copying,when in fact it is the professorswhodeterminewhatgoes inacoursepackandtheshopownersdotheworkofcopying.Furthermore,wearenottoldabouttheratesofthesecopyshopsrelativetotheircompetitors.

Aprofessionalgraphicartistprintsreproductionsofseveralwell-knownpaintingsatanexhibittosellatthemuseum'sgiftshop.

•INTERPRETATION(unsupported).Theprofessorsthemselvesdonotmakeorsellthecopies.

Asouvenirstoreinthecenterofacitysellsminiaturebronzerenditionsofafamousbronzesculpturethatthecityisnotedfordisplaying.

•INTERPRETATION(unsupported).Theprofessors themselvesdonotmakeorsell thecopies.Furthermore,theprofessorsthemselveshavenomotivationtomakeaprofit.

6.Whichoneofthefollowing,iftrue,wouldhavemoststrengthenedthepublishers’positioninthiscase?

Coursepacksforcoursesthatusuallyhavelargeenrollmentshadproducedalargerprofitforthecopy-shopowner.

•SCOPE(outofscope).Therelationshipbetweenthesizeofacourseandthesizeofacopyshopowner'sprofitsisnotdiscussedinthispassage.

Thecopy-shopownerhadactivelysolicitedprofessors’ordersforcoursepacks.• SCOPE (out of scope).Whether or not the copy-shop owners solicited professors is notdirectlyorindirectlyrelatedtotheargumentsmadeinthepassage.

Therevenuegeneratedbythecopyshop'ssaleofcoursepackshadrisensignificantlywithinthepastfewyears.

•SCOPE(outofscope).Thisanswercomparescurrentprofitswithpastprofits.Thisdifferenceisnotrelevanttotheargumentathand.

(D) Manyareabookstoreshad reportedamarkeddecrease in thesalesofbooksused forproducingcoursepacks.

•This is the correct answer. It is inferred from elementsmentioned directly in the passage:one reason the courts ruled for the shop owners is because they felt that these course

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packswouldnothaveadetrimentalimpactonpublisher'ssales(lines31-35).

Thepublishershadenlistedthesupportoftheauthorstoverifytheirclaimsthatthecopy-shopownerhadnotobtainedpermission.

•SCOPE(outofscope).Whetherornotthecopy-shopownersobtainedpermission isnot inquestion.

• INTERPRETATION(unsupported). We've already been told that the copy-shop owneracknowledgeshedidnothavepermission(line6).

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Takeaways:IncorrectAnswers

InterpretingYourResultsDeterminingthereasonforanincorrectanswerisasubjectiveenterprise,andit'sunnecessaryforyou tocomeupwitha score fordifferentanswer types in this chapter.However,byanalyzingincorrectanswertypesinreview,youshouldbeabletofinetuneyourthoughtprocess.”

If youare continuing toeliminateanswer choices for reasonsother than thosecovered in thischapter,becareful—yourreasoningmightbestrong,butmaynotberelevanttothisexam.

Ifyouarecontinuingtoeliminateanswerchoicesfor“vague”reasons,doyourbesttobecomeasspecificaspossible.Themorespecificyoucanbe,thefasteryouwillimprove.

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PartIII:ApplyYourKnowledge

Chapter8PuttingitAllTogether

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TheCompleteProcess

Let's review some general information, tips and strategies that pertain to timing, reading thepassage,andansweringthequestions.

TIMING

Youhave35minutesforthesection,whichaveragesoutto8:45perpassage.Youwillwanttospendlesstimeoneasierpassagesinordertodevotemoretimetoharderpassages.However,youneedtoadjustyourtimingbasedontheparticularexam.Ifpassage1isverydifficulttounderstand,giveyourselfsomeextratimetoreadit(chancesaresomeoftheotherpassageswillbeeasiertounderstandthannormal).Ifpassage3seemseasytounderstand,pushthroughitquickly,becausechancesarepassage4willmakeupforitbybeingespeciallychallenging.Ingeneral,youwanttospendmoretimeansweringquestionsthanreadingthetext.Again,continuetoadjustyourallocationbasedonthecharacteristicsoftheparticularexam,andbasedonyourownstrengthsandweaknesses.

THEREADINGPROCESS

Mostpassagesaredirectlyorindirectlyrelatedtoacentralargument.Somepassagesdiscussbothsidesoftheargument.Othersusetheargumentonlyasastartingpointforadiscussionofoneside.Ineithercase,youcanusetheimageofascaletomentallyorganizetherestofthetext.Relativetothecentralargument,otherpartsofthepassagecanbeassignedrolessuchasbackgroundinformation,opinionsforonesideortheother,orsupportingevidenceforonesideortheother.Notatetheelementsofthepassagethatdescribethecentralargument,orhaveinformationaboutopinions,particularlytheauthor'sopinion.Mentallyorganizeandassignrolestothepartsofthetextyoudon'tannotate.Don'tgetlostinthenuancesanddetailsofasupportingpieceoftextaslongasyouunderstandtheroleitplays.Pushthepaceinordertospendasmuchtimeansweringthequestionsaspossible.

ANSWERINGTHEQUESTIONS

Useboththepromptandtheanswerchoicestogetasenseofthetypesofmental

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processes(identification,inferenceorsynthesis)thatthequestionrequires.Taketheextratimeneededtocarefullyreadandcompletelyunderstandlongorcomplicatedprompts,especiallythosethatinvolvedoublenegatives.Gothroughtworoundsofelimination.Getridofobviouslywronganswersfirstbyusingyourunderstandingofincorrectanswercharacteristics(interpretation,scope,degree).Devoteextratimetocarefullyevaluatingtheremainingchoices.Don'teliminateanswerchoicesuntilyouarecertaintheyarewrong.Bewaryofanswersthatstraytoofarfromthetext,orrequiretoobigalogicleap.Wheneverpossible,confirmyouranswerbyrereadingthetext.

AreYouCorrectlyAligned?Let'sgobacktotheself-assessmentchartweintroducedinChapter1.Readthroughitcarefully,andseeifthereareanylast-minuteadjustmentsyouwanttomake.

SIGNSTHATYOUARESPENDINGTOOLITTLETIMEINTHEREADINGPROCESS

SIGNSTHATYOUARESPENDINGTOOMUCHTIMEINTHEREADINGPROCESS

YouhavetroublerecognizingthecentralargumentYouhavetroubleorganizingtheinformationinthepassagerelativetotheargumentYoudon'tunderstandtheroleeachparagraphplaysrelativetotherestofthepassageYouhavetroubleparaphrasingthepurposeofaparagraphYoudon'thaveaclearsenseoftheauthor'sopinionYoudon'thaveaclearsenseofwhichopinionscontrastoneanotherYouoftenmissproblemspertainingtothepassageasawholeYouoftenhavetogobackandrereadthetextinordertoanswerquestionsaboutthepassageasawholeYoudopoorlyonquestionsthataskyoutocomparethetexttosomesortofanalogyYouoftenfeellostwhenyouhavetogo

YoutrytomemorizeandnotateeverysingledetailinthetextWhileyouarereading,youtrytogobeyondunderstandingthetextrelativetothecentralargumentandtrytoseewhatelseyoucaninferYouspendalotofextratimetryingtounderstandspecificelementsofthetext,elementsthatultimatelydon'tshowupinthequestionsYoufeelrushedwhilegoingthroughthequestionsYouoftenfeelthatyoudonothavetimetogothroughtheprocessofeliminationYouoftenansweroffofa“gut”feelingYouoftenfeelyoudonothaveenoughtimetoreturntothetextinordertoverifytheanswertoaspecificquestion

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backintothetexttofindanswerstoquestionsthataskaboutaspecificdetail

AreWeThereYet?Let'stakeafinallookatthecommoncharacteristicsofthosewhoperformexceptionallywellontheLSAT.Doonefinalassessment:inwhatareasdoyoufallontheleftsideofthechart,andinwhatareasdoyoufallontheright?

Youcertainlydon'thavetofallontheleftsideforeverycategory;everyonehasadifferentstylethatismosteffectiveforhim/her.However,foralltheareasthatyoudofallontherightsideofthechart,youwanttoaskyourself,“Doesthisinsomewayhindermyabilitytoanswerquestionsaccuratelyandefficiently?”Ifso,youwanttoworktoaddresstheissue.

170+ AverageTestTaker

Isabletomentallyorganizethepassageasshereads

Readspassivelyandabsorbsinformationinanunorganizedmanner

Usesparagraphsasorganizationaltools Jumpsfromparagraphtoparagraphwithoutpausingandreflecting

Uponreflection,caneasilyassignrolesforeachpartofthepassage

Doesnothaveaclearunderstandingofhowthedifferentpartsofthepassagerelatetooneanother

Takesthetimetocarefullyunderstandconfusingquestionprompts

Rushesthroughconfusingquestionpromptsandanswerswithoutaclearsenseofthequestion

Startsproblemsbyactivelyseekingtoeliminatewronganswers Startsbylookingfortherightanswer

Usesanunderstandingofincorrectanswercharacteristicstoconfidentlyeliminate

obviouslyincorrectanswersUsesinstinct,or“gutsense,”toevaluateanswers

Rarelyreturnstoananswerthathe/sheeliminates

Eliminatessomeanswerswithcertaintyandsomewithout,andoftenhastogobackandreexamine

everyanswerchoiceagain

Spendsthemajorityofhis/hertimebreakingdownanddouble-checkingthe

mostattractiveanswerchoices

Wastestimeover-thinkingobviouslyincorrectchoices,anddoesn'thavetimetocarefully

examinethemostlikelypossibilities

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TheFinalDrill

Congratulations!Youarealmostdone!Hereisonefinaldrillyoucanusetoincorporateallofthedifferentlessonswe'vediscussed.

On the followingpages is a complete reading comprehension section fromapast LSATexam(June,2003).Thisshouldbeagoodrepresentationofwhatyouwillexperienceontestday(theonlydifference is that this drill does not contain comparativepassages,whereas your testwillincludeonesetofcomparativepassages).

Completethedrillasifyouwereintheactualexam.Giveyourself35minutes,keeptrackofthetimeyouspendreadingeachpassage,andansweringeachsetofquestions,anddon'ttakeanybreaks!

Followingthedrillaretwoexplanations:The180Experience,andDetailedExplanations.

The point of the drill isnot to see if your thought processes fit exactly into some set form.Different 180 test takers will read the passages in different ways, and assigning reasons forincorrectanswersisahighlysubjectiveartform.

Rather,usethedrillandtheexplanationstoreflectonyourowntestingexperience.Seeifthereare some general, fundamental flaws in the way you are taking the exam. Perhaps you arespendingtoomuchtimereadingthetextinitially;perhapsyouareoftentrickedbyoneparticulartypeof incorrectanswerchoice.Usetheexplanationstoevaluateyourowngeneraltendencies,andtoidentifyareasforimprovement.

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June2003,Section427Questions,35minutes

Directions:Eachpassageinthissectionisfollowedbyagroupofquestionstobeansweredonthebasisofwhatisstatedorimpliedinthepassage.Forsomeofthequestions,morethanoneofthechoicescouldconceivablyanswerthequestion.However,youaretochoosethe bestanswer;thatis, the response that most accurately and completely answers the question, and blacken thecorrespondingspaceonyouranswersheet.

Socialscientistshavetraditionallydefinedmultipolarinternationalsystemsasconsistingof three or more nations, each of roughly equal military and economic strength.Theoretically,the(5)membersofsuchsystemscreateshifting,temporaryalliancesinresponsetochanging

circumstances in the international environment. Such systems are, thus, fluid andflexible.Frequent,smallconfrontationsareoneattributeofmultipolar

(10) systems and are usually the result of less powerful members grouping together tocounter threats from larger, more aggressive members seeking hegemony. Yet theconstant and inevitable counterbalancing typical of such systems usually results instability.

(15) The best-known example of a multipolar system is the Concert of Europe, whichcoincidedwith general peace on that continent lasting roughly 100 years beginningaround1815.Bipolarsystems,ontheotherhand,involvetwo

(20)majormembersofroughlyequalmilitaryandeconomicstrengthvyingforpowerandadvantage.Othermembersoflesserstrengthtendtocoalescearoundoneortheotherpole.Suchsystemstendtoberigidandfixed,inpartduetotheexistence

(25)ofonlyoneaxisofpower.Zero-sumpoliticalandmilitarymaneuverings,inwhichagainforonesideresults inanequivalent loss for theother,areasalient featureofbipolarsystems.Overallsuperiorityissoughtbybothmajormemberswhich

(30)canleadtofrequentconfrontations,debilitatingarmedconflict,andeventually,tothecapitulationofoneortheotherside.AthensandSpartaofancientGreecehadabipolarrelationship,asdidtheUnitedStatesandtheUSSRduringtheColdWar.

(35)However,theshiftinthegeopoliticallandscapefollowingtheendoftheColdWarcallsforareassessmentoftheassumptionsunderlyingthesetwotheoreticalconcepts.TheemergingbutstillvaguemultipolarsysteminEuropetodaybrings

(40)withittheunsettlingprospectofnewconflictsandshiftingalliancesthatmayleadtoadiminution, rather than an enhancement, of security. The frequent, smallconfrontationsthatarethoughttohavekepttheConcertofEuropeinastateof

(45) equilibrium would today, as nations arm themselves with modern weapons, createinstability that could destroy the system. And the larger number of members andshiftingalliancepatternspeculiartomultipolarsystemswouldcreateabewildering

(50)tangleofconflicts.ThisreassessmentmayalsoleadustolookattheColdWarinanewlight.In1914smaller

membersof themultipolar system inEuropebrought the largermembers intoawar thatengulfedthe(55) continent. The aftermath—a crippled system in which certain members were

dismantled, punished, or voluntarily withdrew—created the conditions that led toWorld War II. In contrast, the principal attributes of bipolar systems—two majormembers

(60)withonlyonepossibleaxisofconflict locked ina rigidyetusually stablestruggle forpower—mayhave created thenecessaryparameters for general peace in the secondhalfofthetwentiethcentury.

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1.Whichoneofthefollowingmostaccuratelyexpressesthemainpointofthepassage?

(A) Peacecanbemaintained inEuropeonly ifanewbipolar systememerges to replaceColdWaralliances.

(B)Allkindsofinternationalsystemsdiscussedbysocialscientistscarrywithinthemselvestheseedsoftheirowncollapseandultimatelyendangerinternationalorder.

(C) The current European geopolitical landscape is a multipolar system that stronglyresemblestheConcertofEuropewhichexistedthroughmostofthenineteenthcentury.

(D)MultipolarityfosteredtheconditionsthatledtoWorldWarIIandisincompatiblewithastable,modernEurope.

(E) The characterization ofmultipolar systems as stable andbipolar systems as open todebilitatingconflictneedstobereconsideredin lightoftherealitiesofpost-ColdWarEurope.

2.Whichoneofthefollowingstatementsmostaccuratelydescribesthefunctionofthefinalparagraph?

(A) Theweaknessesof both typesof systems arediscussed in the context of twentieth-centuryEuropeanhistory.

(B)ApredictionismaderegardingEuropeansecuritybasedontheattributesofbothtypesofsystems.

(C)AnewargumentisintroducedinfavorofEuropeancountriesembracinganewbipolarsystem.

(D)Twentieth-centuryEuropeanhistoryisusedtoexpandontheargumentinthepreviousparagraph.

(E)Thetypicalcharacteristicsofthemajormembersofabipolarsystemarereviewed.

3.Theauthor'sreferencetothepossibilitythatconfrontationsmayleadtocapitulation(lines29–32)servesprimarilyto

(A)indicatethatbipolarsystemscanhavecertainunstablecharacteristics(B)illustratehowmultipolarsystemscantransformthemselvesintobipolarsystems(C)contrasttheaggressivenatureofbipolarmemberswiththemorerationalbehaviorof

theirmultipolarcounterparts(D)indicatetheanarchicnatureofinternationalrelations(E) suggest that military and economic strength shifts in bipolar as frequently as in

multipolarsystems

4.WithrespecttotheColdWar,theauthor'sattitudecanmostaccuratelybedescribedas

(A)fearfulthatEuropeangeopoliticsmaybringaboutasimilarbipolarsystem(B)surprisedthatitdidnotendwithamajorwar(C)convincedthatitprovidesanimportantexampleofbipolaritymaintainingpeace(D)regretfulthatthemajorEuropeancountriesweresoambivalentaboutit(E)confidentitwillmarkonlyabriefhiatusbetweenlongperiodsofEuropeanmultipolarity

5.WhichoneofthefollowingstatementsconcerningtheConcertofEurope(lines15–18)canmostreasonablybeinferredfromthepassage?

(A) Each of themany small confrontations that occurred under the Concert of Europe

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threatenedtheintegrityofthesystem.(B) It provided the highest level of security possible for Europe in the late nineteenth

century.(C) Allthefactorscontributingtostabilityduringthelatenineteenthcenturycontinueto

contributetoEuropeansecurity.(D) Equilibrium in the system was maintained as members grouped together to

counterbalancemutualthreats.(E)Itwasmorestablethanmostmultipolarsystemsbecauseitssmallermembersreacted

promptlytoaggressionbyitslargermembers.

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In spite of a shared language, Latin American poetry written in Spanish differs fromSpanishpoetry inmany respects.TheSpanishofLatinAmericanpoets ismoreopen thanthatofSpanish(5) poets, more exposed to outside influences—indigenous, English, French, and other

languages.WhilesomeliterarycriticsmaintainthatthereisasmuchlinguisticunityinLatinAmericanpoetryasthereisinSpanishpoetry,theybase

(10) this claim on the fact that Castilian Spanish, the official and literary version of theSpanishlanguagebasedlargelyonthedialectoriginallyspokenintheCastileregionofSpain,wastransplantedtotheAmericaswhenitwasalreadyarelatively

(15) standardized idiom. Although such unity may have characterized the earliest LatinAmericanpoetry,aftercenturiesintheAmericasthelanguageofLainAmericanpoetrycannothelpbutrevealtheinfluencesofitsuniqueculturalhistory.

(20)LatinAmericanpoetryiscriticalorirreverentinitsattitudetowardlanguage,wherethat of Spanish poets is more accepting. For example, the Spanish-languageincarnations of modernism and the avant-garde, two literary movements that usedlanguageininnovative

(25)andchallengingways,originatedwithLatinAmericanpoets.By contrast,when thesemovements laterreachedSpain,Spanishpoetsgreetedthemwithreluctance.Spanishpoets,eventhoseofthemodernera,seemtotaketheirlanguageforgranted,rarely

(30)usingitinradicalorexperimentalways.ThemostdistinctivenoteinLatin

American poetry is its enthusiastic response to the modern world, while Spanish poetrydisplaysakindofculturalconservatism—thedesiretoreturn(35)toanidealcultureofthedistantpast.BecausenoSpanish-languagecultureliesinthe

equallydistant(i.e.,pre-Columbian)pastoftheAmericas,buthasinsteadbeeninventedbyLatinAmericansdaybyday,LatinAmericanpoetryhasnosuch

(40) long-standing past to romanticize. Instead, Latin American poetry often displays acuriosityabouttheliteratureofothercultures,aninterestinexploringpoeticstructuresbeyondthosetypicalofSpanishpoetry.Forexample,thefirstSpanish-

(45) language haiku—a Japanese poetic form—were written by Jose Juan Tablada, aMexican.AnotheroftheLatinAmericanpoets’responsestothisabsenceisthesearchforaworldbeforerecordedhistory—notonlythatofSpainortheAmericas,

(50)butinsomecasesoftheplanet;theChileanpoetPabloNeruda'swork,forexample,isnoteworthy for its development of an ahistorical mythology for the creation of theearth.ForLatinAmericanpoetsthereisnosuchthingasthepristineculturalpast

(55)affirmedinthepoetryofSpain:thereisonlythefluidinteractionofallworldcultures,orelsetheextensivetimebeforeculturesbegan.

6.Thediscussioninthesecondparagraphisintendedprimarilyto

(A)arguethatLatinAmericanpoetsoriginatedmodernismandtheavant-garde(B)explainhowSpanishpoetryandLatinAmericanpoetrydifferintheirattitudestoward

theSpanishlanguage(C)demonstratewhyLatinAmericanpoetryisnotwellreceivedinSpain(D) show that theCastilian Spanish employed in Spanish poetry has remained relatively

unchangedbytheadventofmodernismandtheavant-garde(E)illustratetheextenttowhichSpanishpoetryromanticizesSpanish-languageculture.

7.Giventheinformationinthepassage,whichoneofthefollowingismostanalogoustotheevolutionofLatinAmericanpoetry?

(A)Afamilymovesitsrestauranttoanewtownandincorporateslocalingredientsintoits

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traditionalrecipes.(B)Afamilymovesitsbusinesstoanewtownafterthebusinessfailsinitsoriginallocation.(C)Afamilywithatwo-hundred-year-oldhouselaborsindustriouslyinordertorestorethe

housetoitsoriginalappearance.(D)Afamilydoesresearchintoitsancestryinordertoconstructitsfamilytree.(E) A family eagerly anticipates its annual vacation but never takes photographs or

purchasessouvenirstopreserveitsmemories.

8. The passage's claims about Spanish poetry would bemost weakened if new evidenceindicatingwhichoneofthefollowingwerediscovered?

(A) Spanishlinguisticconstructshadgreater influenceonLatinAmericanpoetsthanhadpreviouslybeenthought.

(B) CastilianSpanishwas still evolving linguisticallyat the timeof the inceptionofLatinAmericanpoetry.

(C)Spanishpoetsoriginatedaninfluentialliterarymovementthatusedlanguageinradicalways.

(D)CastilianSpanishwasinfluencedduringitsevolutionbyotherSpanishdialects.(E)SpanishpoetsrejectedtheEnglishandFrenchincarnationsofmodernism.

9.ThepassageaffirmseachofthefollowingEXCEPT:

(A)ThefirsthaikuintheSpanishlanguagewerewrittenbyaLatinAmericanpoet.(B)Spanishpoetryisrarelyinnovativeorexperimentalinitsuseoflanguage.(C)Spanishpoetryrarelyincorporatespoetictraditionsfromothercultures.(D)LatinAmericanpoetrytendstotaketheSpanishlanguageforgranted.(E)LatinAmericanpoetryincorporatesaspectsofvariousotherlanguages.

10.Which one of the following canmost reasonably be inferred from the passage aboutLatinAmericanpoetry'suseofpoeticstructuresfromotherworldcultures?

(A)TheuseofpoeticstructuresfromotherworldculturesisanattemptbyLatinAmericanpoetstocreateaculturalpast.

(B) Theuseof poetic structures fromotherworld culturesby LatinAmericanpoets is aresponse to their lack of a long-standing Spanish-language cultural past in theAmericas.

(C)TheuseofpoeticstructuresfromotherworldcultureshasledLatinAmericanpoetstoreconsidertheirlackofalong-standingSpanish-languageculturalpastintheAmericas.

(D)LatinAmericanpoetswhowriteaboutaworldbeforerecordedhistorydonotusepoeticstructuresfromotherworldcultures.

(E) Latin American poetry does not borrow poetic structures from otherworld cultureswhoseliteratureexhibitsculturalconservatism.

11. Basedon thepassage, the authormost likely holdswhichoneof the following viewstowardSpanishpoetry'srelationshiptotheSpanishculturalpast?

(A)ThisrelationshiphasinspiredSpanishpoetstoexaminetheirculturalpastwithacriticaleye.

(B)ThisrelationshipforcesSpanishpoetstowriteaboutsubjectswithwhichtheyfeellittlenaturalaffinity.

(C)ThisrelationshipisitselfthecentralthemeofmuchSpanishpoetry.

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(D)ThisrelationshipinfusesSpanishpoetrywitharomanticismthatisreluctanttoembracethemodernera.

(E) This relationship results in poems that are of little interest to contemporary Spanishreaders.

12.Whichoneofthefollowinginferencesismostsupportedbythepassage?

(A)AtraditionofculturalconservatismhasallowedtheSpanishlanguagetoevolveintoastable,reliableformofexpression.

(B)ItwasonlyrecentlythatLatinAmericanpoetrybegantoincorporateelementsofotherlanguages.

(C)TheculturalconservatismofSpanishpoetryisexemplifiedbytheuncriticalattitudeofSpanishpoetstowardtheSpanishlanguage.

(D) Lain American poets’ interest in other world cultures is illustrated by their use ofJapanesewordsandphrases.

(E)SpanishpoetryisreceptivetotheinfluenceofsomeSpanish-languagepoetsoutsideofSpain.

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Accordingto the theoryofgravitation,everyparticleofmatter in theuniverseattractseveryotherparticlewithaforcethatincreasesaseitherthemassoftheparticleincrease,ortheirproximitytoone(5) another increases, or both. Gravitation is believed to shape the structures of stars,

galaxies,andtheentireuniverse.Butfordecadescosmologists(scientistswhostudytheuniverse)haveattemptedtoaccountforthefindingthatatleast90percent

(10) of the universe seems to bemissing: that the total amount of observable matter—stars,dust, andmiscellaneousdebris—doesnot contain enoughmass to explainwhytheuniverseisorganizedintheshapeofgalaxiesandclustersofgalaxies.Toaccount

(15) for this discrepancy, cosmologists hypothesize that something else, which they call“darkmatter,”provides thegravitational forcenecessary tomake thehuge structurescohere.Whatisdarkmatter?Numerousexoticentities

(20) have been postulated, but among themore attractive candidates—because they areknownactuallytoexist—areneutrinos,elementaryparticlescreatedasaby-productofnuclearfusion,radioactivedecay,orcatastrophiccollisionsbetween

(25)otherparticles.Neutrinos,whichcomeinthreetypes,arebyfarthemostnumerouskindofparticleintheuniverse;however,theyhavelongbeenassumedtohavenomass.Ifso,thatwoulddisqualifythemasdarkmatter.Withoutmass,

(30) matter cannot exert gravitational force; without such force, it cannot induce othermattertocohere.Butnewevidencesuggeststhataneutrinodoeshavemass.Thisevidencecamebyway

ofresearchfindingssupportingtheexistenceofalong-theorized(35)butneverobservedphenomenoncalledoscillation,wherebyeachofthethreeneutrino

typescanchange intooneof theothersas it travels throughspace.Researchersheldthatthetransformationispossibleonlyifneutrinosalsohavemass.Theyobtained

(40) experimental confirmation of the theory by generating one neutrino type and thenfindingevidencethatithadoscillatedintothepredictedneutrinotype.Intheprocess,theywereabletoestimatethemassofaneutrinoatfrom0.5to5electronvolts.

(45)Whileslight,eventhelowestestimatewouldyieldalotofmassgiventhatneutrinosare so numerous, especially considering that neutrinos were previously assumed tohave no mass. Still, even at the highest estimate, neutrinos could only account forabout20

(50)percentoftheuniverse's“missing”mass.Nevertheless, that is enough to alter our picture of the universe even if it does not

accountforallofdarkmatter.Infact,somecosmologistsclaimthatthisnewevidenceoffersthebesttheoreticalsolution(55)yettothedarkmatterproblem.Iftheevidenceholdsup,thesecosmologistsbelieve,it

may add to our understanding of the role elementary particles play in holding theuniversetogether.

13.Whichoneofthefollowingmostaccuratelyexpressesthemainideaofthepassage?

(A) Although cosmologists believe that the universe is shaped by gravitation, the totalamountofobservablematter in theuniverse isgreatly insufficient toaccount for thegravitationthatwouldberequiredtocausetheuniversetobeorganizedintogalaxies.

(B) Given their inability to account formore than20percentof theuniverse's“missing”mass,scientistsarebeginningtospeculatethatourcurrentunderstandingofgravityissignificantlymistaken.

(C)Indirectevidencesuggestingthatneutrinoshavemassmayallowneutrinostoaccountfor up to 20percentof darkmatter, a finding that could somedaybe extended to acompletesolutionofthedarkmatterproblem.

(D)Aftermuchspeculation,researchershavediscoveredthatneutrinososcillatefromone

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type into another as they travel through space, a phenomenon that proves thatneutrinoshavemass.

(E)Althoughithasbeenestablishedthatneutrinoshavemass,suchmassdoesnotsupportthe speculation of cosmologists that neutrinos constitute a portion of the universe's“missing”mass.

14.Whichoneofthefollowingtitlesmostcompletelyandaccuratelyexpressesthecontentsofthepassage?

(A)“TheExistenceofDarkMatter:ArgumentsForandAgainst”(B)“NeutrinosandtheDarkMatterProblem:APartialSolution?”(C)“TooLittle,TooLate:WhyNeutrinosDoNotConstituteDarkMatter”(D)“TheRoleofGravity:HowDarkMatterShapesStars”(E)“TheImplicationsofOscillation:DoNeutrinosReallyHaveMass?”

15.Basedonthepassage,theauthormostlikelyholdswhichoneofthefollowingviews?

(A)Observablematterconstitutesatleast90percentofthemassoftheuniverse.(B) Current theories are incapableof identifying the force that causesallparticles in the

universetoattractoneanother.(C)Thekeytotheproblemofdarkmatterisdeterminingtheexactmassofaneutrino.(D) It isunlikely thatany forceother thangravitationwillbe requiredtoaccount for the

organizationoftheuniverseintogalaxies.(E)Neutrinosprobablyaccountformostoftheuniverse's“missing”mass.

16.Asdescribedinthelastparagraphofthepassage,thecosmologists’approachtosolvingthedarkmatterproblemismostanalogoustowhichoneofthefollowing?

(A)Achildseekinginformationabouthowtoplaychessconsultsafamilymemberandsolearnsofabookthatwillinstructherinthegame.

(B)Achildseekingtoearnmoneybydeliveringpapersisunabletoearnenoughmoneyforabicycleandsodecidestobuyaskateboardinstead.

(C) Achildhopingtogetadogforhisbirthdayis initiallydisappointedwhenhisparentsbringhomeacatbuteventuallylearnstolovetheanimal.

(D) Achildseekingmoneytoattendamovie isgivensomeof themoneybyoneofhissiblingsandsodecidestogotoeachofhisothersiblingstoaskforadditionalmoney.

(E)Achildenjoysplayingsportswiththeneighborhoodchildrenbutherparentsinsistthatshecannotparticipateuntilshehascompletedherhouseholdchores.

17.Theauthor'sattitudetowardsoscillationcanmostaccuratelybecharacterizedasbeing

(A)satisfiedthatitoccursandthatitsuggeststhatneutrinoshavemass(B)hopefulthatitwillbeusefulindiscoveringotherformsofdarkmatter(C)concernedthatitisoftenmisinterpretedtomeanthatneutrinosaccountforallofdark

matter(D)skepticalthatitoccursuntilfurtherresearchcanbedone(E)convincedthatitcannotoccuroutsideanexperimentalsetting

18.Whichoneofthefollowingphrasescouldreplacetheworld“cohere”atline31withoutsubstantivelyalteringtheauthor'smeaning?

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(A)exertgravitationalforce(B)formgalacticstructures(C)oscillateintoanothertypeofmatter(D)becomesignificantlymoremassive(E)fusetoproducenewparticles

19.ThepassagestateseachofthefollowingEXCEPT:

(A)Therearemoreneutrinosintheuniversethantherearenon-neutrinos.(B)Observablemattercannotexertenoughgravitationalforcetoaccountforthepresent

structureoftheuniverse.(C)Scientificexperimentssupportthetheoryofneutrinooscillation.(D)Neutrinoslikelycannotaccountforalloftheuniverse's“missing”mass.(E)Darkmattermayaccountforalargeportionoftheuniverse'sgravitationalforce.

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Leadingquestions—questionswordedinsuchawayastosuggestaparticularanswer—canyieldunreliabletestimonyeitherbydesign,aswhenalawyertriestotrickawitnessintoaffirminga(5) particular version of the evidence of a case, or by accident, when a questioner

unintentionallyprejudicesthewitness'sresponse.Forthisreason,ajudgecandisallowsuchquestionsinthecourtroominterrogationofwitnesses.Buttheirexclusionfrom

(10)thecourtroombynomeanseliminatestheremoteeffectsofearlierleadingquestionsoneyewitness testimony.Alarmingly, thebeliefsaboutanevent thatawitnessbrings tothecourtroommayoftenbeadulteratedbytheeffectsofleadingquestionsthat

(15) were introduced intentionally or unintentionally by lawyers, police investigators,reporters,orotherswithwhomthewitnesshasalreadyinteracted.Recentstudieshaveconfirmedtheabilityofleadingquestionstoalterthedetailsofour

(20) memories and have led to a better understanding of how this process occurs and,perhaps, of the conditions thatmake for greater risks that an eyewitness'smemorieshavebeentaintedbyleadingquestions.Thesestudiessuggestthatnot

(25)alldetailsofourexperiencesbecomeclearlyorstablystoredinmemory—onlythosetowhichwe give adequate attention.Moreover, experimental evidence indicates that ifsubtlyintroducednewdatainvolvingrememberedeventsdonotactively

(30) conflict with our stored memory data, we tend to process such new data similarlywhethertheycorrespondtodetailsaswerememberthem,ortogapsinthosedetails.Intheformercase,weoftenretainthenewdataasareinforcementofthe

(35)correspondingaspectofthememory,andinthelattercase,weoftenretainthemasaconstruction to fill the corresponding gap. An eyewitness who is asked, prior tocourtroomtestimony,“Howfastwasthecargoingwhenitpassedthestopsign?”

(40)mayrespondtothequeryaboutspeedwithoutaddressingthequestionofthestopsign.Butthe“stopsign”datumhasnowbeenintroduced,andwhenlaterrecalled,perhapsduringcourtroomtestimony,itmaybeprocessedasbelongingtothe

(45)originalmemoryevenifthewitnessactuallysawnostopsign.The farther removed fromtheevent, thegreater thechanceofavagueor incomplete

recollectionandthegreaterthelikelihoodofnewlysuggested(50)informationblendingwithoriginalmemories.Sincewecanbemoreeasilymisledwith

respect to fainter and more uncertain memories, tangential details are more apt tobecomeconstructedoutofsubsequentlyintroducedinformationthanaremore

(55)centraldetails.Butwhatistangentialtoawitness'soriginalexperienceofaneventmaynevertheless be crucial to the courtroom issues that the witness's memories aresupposedtoresolve.Forexample,aperpetrator'sshirtcolororhairstylemightbe

(60) tangential to one's shocked observance of an armed robbery, but later those factorsmightbecrucialtoestablishingtheidentityoftheperpetrator.


(A) The unreliability of memories about incidental aspects of observed events makeseyewitness testimony especially questionable in cases in which the witness was notdirectlyinvolved.

(B) Because of the nature of human memory storage and retrieval, the courtroomtestimonyofeyewitnessesmaycontain crucial inaccuraciesdue to leadingquestionsaskedpriortothecourtroomappearance.

(C) Researchers are surprised to find that courtroom testimony is often dependent onsuggestiontofillgapsleftbyinsufficientattentiontodetailatthetimethattheincidentinquestionoccurred.

(D) Although judges can disallow leading questions from the courtroom, it is virtuallyimpossibletopreventthemfrombeingusedelsewhere,tothedetrimentofmanycases.

(E) Stricter regulation shouldbeplacedon lawyerswhose leadingquestionscancorrupt

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witnesses’testimonybyintroducinginaccuratedatapriortothewitnesses’appearanceinthecourtroom.

21. It can be reasonably inferred from the passage thatwhich of the following, if itwereeffectively implemented, would most increase the justice system's ability to preventleadingquestionsfromcausingmistakencourtdecisions?

(A)apolicyensuringthatwitnesseshaveextratimetoanswerquestionsconcerningdetailsthataretangentialtotheiroriginalexperiencesofevents

(B) thoroughrevisionofthecriteriafordeterminingwhichkindsof interrogationmaybedisallowedincourtroomtestimonyunderthecategoryof“leadingquestions”

(C)increasedattentiontothenuancesofallwitnesses’responsestocourtroomquestions,eventhosethatarenotleadingquestions

(D)extensiveinterviewingofwitnessesbyalllawyersforbothsidesofacasepriortothosewitnesses’courtroomappearance

(E)availabilityofaccuratetranscriptsofallinterrogationsofwitnessesthatoccurredpriortothosewitnesses’appearanceincourt

22.Whichoneof the following ismentioned in thepassage as away inwhichnewdatasuggestedtoawitnessbyaleadingquestionaresometimesprocessed?

(A)Theyareintegratedwithcurrentmemoriesassupportforthosememories.(B)Theyarestoredtentativelyasconjecturaldatathatfadewithtime.(C)Theystaymorevividinmemorythandopreviouslystoredmemorydata.(D)Theyarereinterpretedsoastobecompatiblewiththedetailsalreadystoredinmemory.(E) Theyareretainedinmemoryevenwhentheyconflictwithpreviouslystoredmemory

data.

23. In discussing the tangential details of events, the passage contrasts their originalsignificancetowitnesseswiththeirpossiblesignificanceinthecourtroom(lines55–62).Thatcontrastismostcloselyanalogoustowhichoneofthefollowing?

(A) For purposes of flavor andpreservation, salt and vinegar are important additions tocucumbers during the process of pickling, but these purposes could be attained byaddingotheringredientsinstead.

(B)Forthepurposeofaddingamildstimulanteffect,caffeineisincludedinsometypesofcarbonateddrinks,but for thepurposesofappealing tohealth-consciousconsumers,sometypesofcarbonateddrinksareadvertisedasbeingcaffeine-free.

(C) Forpurposesof flavor and tenderness, the skinsof apples and someother fruits areremovedduringpreparationfordrying,butgrapeskinsareanessentialpartofraisins,andthusgrapeskinsarenotremoved.

(D)Forpurposesofflavorandappearance,wheatgermisnotneededinflourandisusuallyremovedduringmilling,butforpurposesofnutrition,thegermisanimportantpartofthegrain.

(E)Forpurposesoftextureandappearance,somefatmayberemovedfrommeatwhenitisgroundintosausage,buttheremovaloffatisalsoimportantforpurposesofhealth.

24.Whichoneof the followingquestions ismostdirectlyansweredby information in thepassage?

(A)Inwitnessingwhattypesofcrimesarepeopleespeciallylikelytopaycloseattentionto

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circumstantialdetails?(B)Whichaspectsofcourtroominterrogationcausewitnessestobeespeciallyreluctantto

testifyinextensivedetail?(C) Can the stress of having to testify in a courtroom situation affect the accuracy of

memorystorageandretrieval?(D) Do different people tend to possess different capacities for remembering details

correctly?(E)Whenisitmorelikelythatadetailofanobservedeventwillbeaccuratelyremembered?

163















164

25.Thesecondparagraphconsistsprimarilyofmaterialthat

(A)corroboratesandaddsdetailtoaclaimmadeinthefirstparagraph(B) provides examples illustrating the applications of a theory discussed in the first

paragraph(C)formsanargumentinsupportofaproposalthatismadeinthefinalparagraph(D)anticipatesandprovidesgroundsfortherejectionofatheoryalludedtobytheauthor

inthefinalparagraph(E) explains how newly obtained data favor one of two traditional theories mentioned

elsewhereinthesecondparagraph

26.Itcanbemostreasonablyinferredfromthepassagethattheauthorholdsthattherecentstudiesdiscussedinthepassage

(A)haveproducedsomeunexpectedfindingsregardingtheextentofhumanrelianceonexternalverificationofmemorydetails

(B)shednewlightonalongstandingproceduralcontroversyinthelaw(C)maybeoftheoreticalinterestdespitetheirtentativenatureandinconclusivefindings(D) provide insights into the origins of several disparate types of logically fallacious

reasoning(E)shouldbeofmorethanabstractacademicinteresttothelegalprofession

27.Whichoneofthefollowingcanbemostreasonablyinferredfromtheinformationinthepassage?

(A) The tendency of leadingquestions to cause unreliable courtroom testimony has nocorrelationwith theextent towhichwitnessesareemotionallyaffectedby theeventsthattheyhaveobserved.

(B) Leadingquestionsasked in theprocessofacourtroomexaminationofawitnessaremorelikelytocauseinaccuratetestimonythanareleadingquestionsaskedoutsidethecourtroom.

(C) Thememoryprocessesbywhichnewly introduceddata tend to reinforceaccuratelyremembered details of events are not relevant to explaining the effects of leadingquestions.

(D)Theriskoftestimonybeinginaccurateduetocertainotherfactorstendstoincreaseasan eyewitness's susceptibility to giving inaccurate testimony due to the effects ofleadingquestionsincreases.

(E) Thetraditionalgroundsonwhichleadingquestionscanbeexcludedfromcourtroominterrogation of witnesses have been called into question by the findings of recentstudies.

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SOLUTIONS:The180Experience

Thefollowingisareal-timesolutiongivenfromtheperspectiveofa180leveltest-taker.Lateron,we'llpresentamoredetailedandthoroughanalysis.Fornow,noticehowthelessonspresentedearlier inthisbookcometogetherunder“actualconditions.”Thistest-takerhas internalizedtheapproaches,andhas reached thepointwherehecanmakequickdecisionsbasedonhoursofpractice,review,andanalysis.

Socialscientistshavetraditionallydefinedmultipolarinternationalsystemsasconsistingof three or more nations, each of roughly equal military and economic strength.Theoretically,the

Backgroundinformationonmultipolarinternationalsystems

(5)membersofsuchsystemscreateshifting,temporaryalliancesinresponsetochangingcircumstances in the international environment. Such systems are, thus, fluid andflexible.Frequent,smallconfrontationsareoneattributeofmultipolar


Multipolarsystemsstable.

(15) The best-known example of a multipolar system is the Concert of Europe, whichcoincidedwith general peace on that continent lasting roughly 100 years beginningaround1815.

Backgroundinformationonbipolarsystems.Comparisonbetweenmulti-andbi-polar.

Bipolarsystems,ontheotherhand,involvetwo(20)majormembersofroughlyequalmilitaryandeconomicstrengthvyingforpowerand

advantage.Othermembersoflesserstrengthtendtocoalescearoundoneortheotherpole.Suchsystemstendtoberigidandfixed,inpartduetotheexistenceofonlyoneaxisof

(25) power. Zero-sum political and military maneuverings, in which a gain for one sideresultsinanequivalentlossfortheother,areasalientfeatureofbipolarsystems.Overallsuperiority is sought by both major members which can lead to frequentconfrontations,debilitating

Bipolarsystemsunstable.Thecomparisoniscomplete,butwedon'thaveanargumentyet.

(30)armedconflict,andeventually,tothecapitulationofoneortheotherside.AthensandSparta of ancientGreecehad abipolar relationship, as did theUnited States and theUSSRduringtheColdWar.

Herecomestheargument.

However,theshiftinthegeopoliticallandscape(35) following the end of the Cold War calls for a reassessment of the assumptions

166

underlying these two theoretical concepts. The emerging but still vague multipolarsystem in Europe today brings with it the unsettling prospect of new conflicts andshifting

Nowmultipolarsystemsareunstable.

(40)alliancesthatmay leadtoadiminution, ratherthananenhancement,ofsecurity.Thefrequent,smallconfrontationsthatarethoughttohavekepttheConcertofEuropeinastateofequilibriumwouldtoday,asnationsarmthemselveswithmodern

(45)weapons, create instability that could destroy the system. And the larger number ofmembersandshiftingalliancepatternspeculiar tomultipolarsystemswouldcreateabewilderingtangleofconflicts.Thisreassessmentmayalsoleadustolookatthe

(50)ColdWar inanewlight. In1914smallermembersof themultipolarsysteminEuropebroughtthelargermembersintoawarthatengulfedthecontinent.Theaftermath—acrippledsysteminwhichcertainmembersweredismantled,punished,orvoluntarily

(55)withdrew—created the conditions that led toWorldWar II. In contrast, the principalattributes of bipolar systems—two major members with only one possible axis ofconflict lockedinarigidyetusuallystablestruggleforpower—mayhavecreatedthenecessary

Andthisbipolarsystemthatbroughtcoldwaralsobroughtgeneralpeace/stability.

(60)parametersforgeneralpeaceinthesecondhalfofthetwentiethcentury.


PeacecanbemaintainedinEuropeonlyifanewbipolarsystememergestoreplaceColdWaralliances.

Allkindsofinternationalsystemsdiscussedbysocialscientistscarrywithinthemselvestheseedsoftheirowncollapseandultimatelyendangerinternationalorder.

The current European geopolitical landscape is a multipolar system that stronglyresemblestheConcertofEuropewhichexistedthroughmostofthenineteenthcentury.


Canquicklyeliminate(A),(B),and(C).

(E) The characterization ofmultipolar systems as stable andbipolar systems as open todebilitatingconflictneedstobereconsideredin lightoftherealitiesofpost-ColdWarEurope.

(D)seemstoostrong.Passageisnotthatabsolute.

(E)matchesreadingprocess.

(E)iscorrect.

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Beforelookingatanswers,lookedbackatfinalparagraph.Rememberedthatitspurposewastosupportargument that inmodernworld,multi-mightbeunstableandbi-mightbestable.

Canquicklyeliminate(A),(B),and(E).

Theweaknessesofboth typesofsystemsarediscussed in thecontextof twentieth-centuryEuropeanhistory.

ApredictionismaderegardingEuropeansecuritybasedontheattributesofbothtypesofsystems.


(D)Twentieth-centuryEuropeanhistoryisusedtoexpandontheargumentinthepreviousparagraph.

Thetypicalcharacteristicsofthemajormembersofabipolarsystemarereviewed.

(C)seemstoostrong.TheauthormakesnodirectmentionofEuropeembracinganewsystem.

(D) makes sense. In the previous paragraph, author introduced his/her side of anargument,andfinalparagraphsupportsthatside.

(D)iscorrect.


Beforelookingatanswers,

reread those lines and the ones immediately before and after. Remembered that thepurposeofthatparagraphwastoshowthatbipolarsystemsarehistoricallyunstable.

Canquicklyeliminate(B),(D),(E).

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(A)indicatethatbipolarsystemscanhavecertainunstablecharacteristics

illustratehowmultipolarsystemscantransformthemselvesintobipolarsystems(C)contrasttheaggressivenatureofbipolarmemberswiththemorerationalbehaviorof

theirmultipolarcounterparts

indicatetheanarchicnatureofinternationalrelations

suggest that military and economic strength shifts in bipolar as frequently as inmultipolarsystems

Thisisahardquestion.

(A)seemslikeexactlytheanswerIamlookingfor,but…

(C)seemslikeit'scorrecttoo.Seemstosaysomethingverysimilarto(A).Iread(C)morecarefully.Didthepassagesaybipolarareaggressiveandmultipolar rational?No.It'sasimilarideato(A),butit'snotsupported.

(A)isthecorrectanswer.


Beforelookingatanswers,IrememberthattheColdWarismostlymentionedinthefinalparagraph,whichIalreadyunderstandtheroleof.

Canquicklyeliminate(A),(B),(D),and(E).

fearfulthatEuropeangeopoliticsmaybringaboutasimilarbipolarsystem

surprisedthatitdidnotendwithamajorwar(C)convincedthatitprovidesanimportantexampleofbipolaritymaintainingpeace

regretfulthatthemajorEuropeancountriesweresoambivalentaboutit

confident it will mark only a brief hiatus between long periods of Europeanmultipolarity

(C)istheonlyviableanswer,anditmatchesmyunderstandingoftheargument.

(C)isthecorrectanswer.

5.WhichoneofthefollowingstatementsconcerningtheconcertofEurope(lines15–18)can169

5.WhichoneofthefollowingstatementsconcerningtheconcertofEurope(lines15–18)canmostreasonablybeinferredfromthepassage?

Beforelookingatanswers,rereadthoselines.Purposeoftheminargumentisevidenceforideathatmultipolarsystemstendtobringpeace.

Canquicklyeliminate(A),(C),and(E).

Each of themany small confrontations that occurred under the Concert of Europethreatenedtheintegrityofthesystem.

(B) It provided the highest level of security possible for Europe in the late nineteenthcentury.

AllthefactorscontributingtostabilityduringthelatenineteenthcenturycontinuetocontributetoEuropeansecurity.

(D) Equilibrium in the system was maintained as members grouped together tocounterbalancemutualthreats.

Itwasmorestablethanmostmultipolarsystemsbecauseitssmallermembersreactedpromptlytoaggressionbyitslargermembers.

(B)seemstooextreme.We'veonlybeentoldabouttwosystems,sowecan'treallysayitprovidesthehighestlevelofsecuritypossible.

(D)doesn'tseemrightatfirst,but Igobacktothetextandseethatthisvery ideawasdiscussedjustafewlinesbefore,andtheconcertofEuropeisinsupportofthatidea.

(D)isthecorrectanswer.

Totaltime:4:50Reading:2:15Questions:2:35

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Startswith(main)opinion.L.A.poetrydiffersfromSpanishpoetry.

In spite of a shared language, Latin American poetry written in Spanish differs fromSpanishpoetry inmany respects.TheSpanishofLatinAmericanpoets ismoreopen thanthatofSpanish

Oneexampleofhowtheyaredifferent.

(5) poets, more exposed to outside influences—indigenous, English, French, and otherlanguages.WhilesomeliterarycriticsmaintainthatthereisasmuchlinguisticunityinLatinAmericanpoetryasthereisinSpanishpoetry,theybasethisclaimnthe

(15)factthatCastilianSpanish,theofficialandliteraryversionoftheSpanishlanguagebasedlargelyonthedialectoriginallyspokenintheCastileregionofSpain,wastransplantedtotheAmericaswhenitwasalreadyarelativelystandardizedidiom.

(20)Although suchunitymayhave characterized theearliest LatinAmericanpoetry, aftercenturiesintheAmericasthelanguageofLainAmericanpoetrycannothelpbutrevealtheinfluencesofitsuniqueculturalhistory.

Hintofpossibleothersideofargument-unitybetweenL.A.andSpanishpoetry.

Authorquicklyrefutes.

(25)LatinAmericanpoetryiscriticalorirreverentinitsattitudetowardlanguage,wherethat of Spanish poets is more accepting. For example, the Spanish-languageincarnationsofmodernismandtheavant-garde,twoliterarymovementsthat

Anotherexampleofhowtheyaredifferent.

(30) used language in innovative and challenging ways, originated with Latin Americanpoets.Bycontrast,whenthesemovementslaterreachedSpain,Spanishpoetsgreetedthemwithreluctance.Spanishpoets,eventhoseofthemodernera,seemtotaketheir

(35)languageforgranted,rarelyusingitinradicalorexperimentalways.Themost distinctive note in Latin American poetry is its enthusiastic response to the

modernworld,whileSpanishpoetrydisplaysakindof

Anotherexampleofhowtheyaredifferent.

(40) cultural conservatism—the desire to return to an ideal culture of the distant past.Because no Spanish-language culture lies in the equally distant (i.e., pre-Columbian)pastof theAmericas,buthas insteadbeen inventedbyLatinAmericansdaybyday,Latin

(45)Americanpoetryhasnosuchlong-standingpasttoromanticize.Instead,LatinAmericanpoetry often displays a curiosity about the literature of other cultures, an interest inexploringpoeticstructuresbeyondthosetypicalofSpanishtry.Forexample,

(50)thefirstSpanish-languagehaiku—aJapanesepoeticform—werewrittenbyJoseJuanTablada,aMexican.AnotheroftheLatinAmericanpoets’responsestothisabsenceisthesearchforaworldbeforerecordedhistory—notonlythatofSpainor

Twist:modernpoetry,butalsopullinginspirationfromimaginingawaydistantpast.

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(55)theAmericas,butinsomecasesoftheplanet;theChileanpoetPabloNeruda'swork,forexample,isnoteworthyforitsdevelopmentofanahistoricalmythologyforthecreationoftheearth.ForLatinAmericanpoetsthereisnosuchthingasthepristine

(60) cultural past affirmed in the poetry of Spain: there is only the fluid interaction of allworldcultures,orelsetheextensivetimebeforeculturesbegan.


Before lookingat answers, recall secondparagraphmeant to showdifferences inhowLatinAmericanandSpanishpoetsviewlanguage.

Canquicklyeliminate(A),(C),(D),and(E).

arguethatLatinAmericanpoetsoriginatedmodernismandtheavant-garde(B)explainhowSpanishpoetryandLatinAmericanpoetrydifferintheirattitudestoward

theSpanishlanguage

demonstratewhyLatinAmericanpoetryisnotwellreceivedinSpain

showthat theCastilianSpanishemployed inSpanishpoetryhas remained relativelyunchangedbytheadventofmodernismandtheavant-garde

illustratetheextenttowhichSpanishpoetryromanticizesSpanish-languageculture.

(B)isonlyremainingchoiceanditmatchesmythoughtprocess.

(B)isthecorrectanswer,


Verygeneralprompt.Nothingtolookatbeforehand.

Canquicklyeliminate(B),(C),(D),and(E).

(A)Afamilymovesitsrestauranttoanewtownandincorporateslocalingredientsintoitstraditionalrecipes.

A family moves its business to a new town after the business fails in its originallocation.

Afamilywithatwo-hundred-year-oldhouselaborsindustriouslyinordertorestorethe

172

housetoitsoriginalappearance.

Afamilydoesresearchintoitsancestryinordertoconstructitsfamilytree.

A family eagerly anticipates its annual vacation but never takes photographs orpurchasessouvenirstopreserveitsmemories.

(A)seemedtomatch,andnoneoftheotherchoicesmakesense.

(A)isthecorrectanswer,


Verygeneralprompt.Nothingtolookatbeforehand.

Canquicklyeliminate(D)and(E).



(C)Spanishpoetsoriginatedaninfluentialliterarymovementthatusedlanguageinradicalways.

CastilianSpanishwasinfluencedduringitsevolutionbyotherSpanishdialects.

SpanishpoetsrejectedtheEnglishandFrenchincarnationsofmodernism.

(A) and (B) seemed like potential answers until I got to (C). (C) represents exactly theoppositeoftheauthor'smainpointaboutSpanishpoetry:that itdidNOTuse languageinradicalways.



Canquicklyeliminate(A),(B),(C),and(E)becauseIrememberseeingeachoftheseinthepassage.

ThefirsthaikuintheSpanishlanguagewerewrittenbyaLatinAmericanpoet.

173

Spanishpoetryisrarelyinnovativeorexperimentalinitsuseoflanguage.

Spanishpoetryrarelyincorporatespoetictraditionsfromothercultures.(D)LatinAmericanpoetrytendstotaketheSpanishlanguageforgranted.

LatinAmericanpoetryincorporatesaspectsofvariousotherlanguages.

(D)istheobviouschoicehere.TheauthorneversaysanythingnegativeabouttheLatinAmericanwriters, certainlynot that they take theSpanish language forgranted. In fact, itsaysSpanishpoetstooklanguageforgranted.



Canquicklyeliminate(A),(C),(D),and(E).

TheuseofpoeticstructuresfromotherworldculturesisanattemptbyLatinAmericanpoetstocreateaculturalpast.

(B) Theuseof poetic structures fromotherworld culturesby LatinAmericanpoets is aresponse to their lack of a long-standing Spanish-language cultural past in theAmericas.

TheuseofpoeticstructuresfromotherworldcultureshasledLatinAmericanpoetstoreconsidertheirlackofalong-standingSpanish-languageculturalpastintheAmericas.

LatinAmericanpoetswhowrite about aworld before recordedhistory do not usepoeticstructuresfromotherworldcultures.

LatinAmericanpoetrydoesnotborrowpoetic structures fromotherworldcultureswhoseliteratureexhibitsculturalconservatism.

(B) seems like the only viable answer. Checked against text. Found proof in finalparagraph.

(B)isthecorrectanswer.


Beforelookingatanswers,rereadbeginningoffinalparagraph,whichdescribesSpanishpoets’relationshiptoSpanishhistory.

174

Canquicklyeliminate(B)and(E).


ThisrelationshipforcesSpanishpoetstowriteaboutsubjectswithwhichtheyfeellittlenaturalaffinity.

(C)ThisrelationshipisitselfthecentralthemeofmuchSpanishpoetry.(D)ThisrelationshipinfusesSpanishpoetrywitharomanticismthatisreluctanttoembrace

themodernera.

This relationship results inpoemsthatareof little interest tocontemporarySpanishreaders.

“Critical”in(A)isthewrongword.

(C)seemsattractive,butwasn'tspecificallymentionedintext.

(D) matches up with the text. We know the Spanish were reluctant to embracemodernity.



Thisishard.Noobviouswrongshere.Havetoconcentrateonspecificdetails.



(C)TheculturalconservatismofSpanishpoetryisexemplifiedbytheuncriticalattitudeofSpanishpoetstowardtheSpanishlanguage.

(D) Latin American poets’ interest in other world cultures is illustrated by their use ofJapanesewordsandphrases.


(A)seemsattractive,butthereisnoevidencethatbacksupconnectionbetweenculturalconservatismandastableSpanishlanguage.

(B)dependsonyourdefinitionof“recent”butdoesn'tmatchupwithtext,whichseemstoindicatethatLApoetrystartedincorporatingearly.

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(C)canpossiblybeinferredbecausetheysayLApoetslookedatlanguagecritically,andSpanishweremoreaccepting.Butprettyweak.

(D) is incorrect in the details. They were inspired by Japanese form, but not actualJapanesewordsandphrases.

(E) seems likea“trick” rightanswer,because“some” isa relativelyeasy thingtoprove.However,thereisnothinginthetextthatallowsustomakethislogicleap.

(C)isthebestavailableanswer.


Note:Thepassagewasveryhardtogetthroughandunderstand,butthequestionsendedupbeingprettystraightforwardoverall.

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Accordingto thetheoryofgravitation,everyparticleofmatter in theuniverseattractseveryotherparticlewithaforcethatincreasesaseitherthemassoftheparticleincrease,ortheirproximitytoone

Backgroundinformation.Thegeneralsubjectareaisgravity.

(5) another increases, or both. Gravitation is believed to shape the structures of stars,galaxies,andtheentireuniverse.Butfordecadescosmologists(scientistswhostudytheuniverse) have attempted to account for the finding that at least 90 percent of theuniverseseems

Thisisthemysterythatthepassagewilltrytosolve.

(10) to be missing: that the total amount of observable matter—stars,dust, andmiscellaneousdebris—doesnotcontainenoughmasstoexplainwhytheuniverse isorganized in the shape of galaxies and clusters of galaxies. To account for thisdiscrepancy,

Thisisonesideoftheargument(callitsideA):darkmattersolvesgravitationalmystery.

(15)cosmologistshypothesizethatsomethingelse,whichtheycall“darkmatter,”providesthegravitationalforcenecessarytomakethehugestructurescohere.What is darkmatter? Numerous exotic entities have been postulated, but among the

moreattractive(20) candidates—because they are known actually to exist—are neutrinos, elementary

particlescreatedasaby-productofnuclear fusion, radioactivedecay,orcatastrophiccollisionsbetweenotherparticles.Neutrinos,whichcomeinthreetypes,arebyfarthe

(25)mostnumerouskindofparticleintheuniverse;however,theyhavelongbeenassumedtohavenomass.Ifso,thatwoulddisqualifythemasdarkmatter.Withoutmass,mattercannotexertgravitational force;withoutsuch force, itcannot induceothermatter tocohere.

Evidencefortheotherside:darkmatterdoesn'tsolvemystery(callitsideB).

(30)Butnewevidencesuggeststhataneutrinodoeshavemass.Thisevidencecamebyway of research findings supporting the existence of a long-theorized but neverobservedphenomenoncalledoscillation,wherebyeachofthethree

RefutessideB,supportforsideAofargument.

(35)neutrinotypescanchangeintooneoftheothersasittravelsthroughspace.Researchersheldthatthetransformationispossibleonlyifneutrinosalsohavemass.Theyobtainedexperimentalconfirmationofthetheorybygeneratingone

(40) neutrino type and then finding evidence that it had oscillated into the predictedneutrinotype.Intheprocess,theywereabletoestimatethemassofaneutrinoatfrom0.5to5electronvolts.Whileslight,eventhelowestestimatewould

(45) yield a lot ofmassgiven thatneutrinos are sonumerous, especially considering thatneutrinoswerepreviouslyassumedtohavenomass.Still,evenatthehighestestimate,neutrinoscouldonlyaccountforabout20percentoftheuniverse's

Evidencefortheotherside,sideB.

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(50)“missing”mass.Nevertheless,thatisenoughtoalterourpictureoftheuniverseevenifitdoesnotaccountforallofdarkmatter.Infact,somecosmologistsclaimthatthisnewevidenceoffersthebesttheoreticalsolutionyettothedarkmatterproblem.Ifthe

(55)evidenceholdsup,thesecosmologistsbelieve,itmayaddtoourunderstandingoftheroleelementaryparticlesplayinholdingtheuniversetogether.

SupportforsideA,butsofteningofargument.Darkmatterisn'tacompleteexplanation,butitofferspromise.


Beforelookingatanswers,remindmyselfofgeneralargument(darkmatterissolutiontogravitymystery),andstructurerelativetoargument.

Canquicklyeliminate(A),(B),(D),and(E).

(A),(B)and(E)misrepresenttheauthor'sopinion,and(D)istoonarrowinscope.

Although cosmologists believe that the universe is shapedby gravitation, the totalamountofobservablematter in theuniverse isgreatly insufficient toaccount for thegravitationthatwouldberequiredtocausetheuniversetobeorganizedintogalaxies.

Giventheir inability toaccount formorethan20percentof theuniverse's“missing”mass,scientistsarebeginningtospeculatethatourcurrentunderstandingofgravityissignificantlymistaken.

(C)Indirectevidencesuggestingthatneutrinoshavemassmayallowneutrinostoaccountfor up to 20percentof darkmatter, a finding that could somedaybe extended to acompletesolutionofthedarkmatterproblem.

Aftermuchspeculation,researchershavediscoveredthatneutrinososcillatefromonetype into another as they travel through space, a phenomenon that proves thatneutrinoshavemass.

Although it has been established that neutrinos have mass, such mass does notsupport the speculation of cosmologists that neutrinos constitute a portion of theuniverse's“missing”mass

(C)isnotagreatsummary,butitisthebestavailable.


14.Whichoneofthefollowingtitlesmostcompletelyandaccuratelyexpressesthecontents

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ofthepassage?

Canquicklyeliminate(C)and(E).

(C)misrepresentstheauthor'sopinion,and(E)istoonarrowinscope.

(A)“TheExistenceofDarkMatter:ArgumentsForandAgainst”(B)“NeutrinosandtheDarkMatterProblem:APartialSolution?”

“TooLittle,TooLate:WhyNeutrinosDoNotConstituteDarkMatter”(D)“TheRoleofGravity:HowDarkMatterShapesStars”

“TheImplicationsofOscillation:DoNeutrinosReallyHaveMass?”

After I eliminate (C) and (E), I eliminate (A). There isn't a lot evidencegiven thatgoesagainst the idea that darkmatter exists. (B) and (D) are both attractive, but the passagedoesn'tactuallydiscusshowdarkmattershapesstars.(B)isthecorrectanswer.


Open-endedprompt.

Canquicklyeliminate(A),(C),and(E).

Observablematterconstitutesatleast90percentofthemassoftheuniverse.(B) Current theories are incapableof identifying the force that causesallparticles in the

universetoattractoneanother.

Thekeytotheproblemofdarkmatterisdeterminingtheexactmassofaneutrino.(D) is unlikely that any force other than gravitationwill be required to account for the

organizationoftheuniverseintogalaxies.

probablyaccountformostoftheuniverse's“missing”mass.

Idon'tthink(B)iscorrect.Isn'tthatforcegravity?

(D)makessense.Theauthorseemstobelieve that, thoughthecurrentexplanation fordarkmatterandgravityisincomplete,itisontherighttrack.


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Beforereadinganswers,rereadlastparagraph.

Cosmologistsbelievethat,eventhoughexplanationisincomplete,itisontherighttrack.

Canquicklyeliminate(B),(C),and(E).


Achildseekingtoearnmoneybydeliveringpapersisunabletoearnenoughmoneyforabicycleandsodecidestobuyaskateboardinstead.

Achildhopingtogetadogforhisbirthdayisinitiallydisappointedwhenhisparentsbringhomeacatbuteventuallylearnstolovetheanimal.

(D) child seekingmoney to attend amovie is given some of themoney by one of hissiblingsandsodecidestogotoeachofhisothersiblingstoaskforadditionalmoney.

Achildenjoysplayingsportswith theneighborhoodchildrenbutherparents insistthatshecannotparticipateuntilshehascompletedherhouseholdchores.

(A)seemsclose,butI'mnotsurewhatthefamilymemberandbookareanalogoustoinour passage. Furthermore, the instruction book is a step removed from the chess, butneutrinosarenotastepremovedfromdarkmatter—theyaredarkmatter.

(D)seemstomatchbetter.Neutrinosmayaccountforsomeofthemissingmass;nowthecosmologistswillseektherest.

Toughquestion,but(D)isbetterthan(A).



Beforereadinganswers,rereadthepartonoscillation.Theauthordoesn'tseemtohaveanattitudeaboutit.Seemslikeheisgivingobjectiveinformation.

Canquicklyeliminate(B),(C),(D),and(E).

(A)satisfiedthatitoccursandthatitsuggeststhatneutrinoshavemass

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hopefulthatitwillbeusefulindiscoveringotherformsofdarkmatter

concernedthatitisoftenmisinterpretedtomeanthatneutrinosaccountforallofdarkmatter

skepticalthatitoccursuntilfurtherresearchcanbedone

convincedthatitcannotoccuroutsideanexperimentalsetting

(A)seemstrue,andtheotheranswershaveobviousflaws.



Before lookingat answers, reread fromacoupleof linesbefore. Tome, cohere in thiscasemeans“bringthingstogether”(that'swhatgravitationalforcedoes).

Canquicklyeliminate(C),(D),and(E).

(A)exertgravitationalforce(B)formgalacticstructures

oscillateintoanothertypeofmatter

becomesignificantlymoremassive

fusetoproducenewparticles

Exert gravitational force isn't right—the sentence wouldn't make sense. I didn't thinkinitially of“formgalactic structures,” but I guess that iswhat gravity doeswhen it bringsthingstogether.



Idon'trememberseeing(A),butIrememberandcanquicklyeliminate(B),(D),and(E).

(A)Therearemoreneutrinosintheuniversethantherearenon-neutrinos.

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Observablemattercannotexertenoughgravitationalforcetoaccountforthepresentstructureoftheuniverse.

(C)Scientificexperimentssupportthetheoryofneutrinooscillation.

Neutrinoslikelycannotaccountforalloftheuniverse's“missing”mass.

Darkmattermayaccountforalargeportionoftheuniverse'sgravitationalforce.

Double-checked(C)againsttext.It'sinthere.



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Background information about danger of leading questions, and why judges candisallowthem.


This is likely one side of a mostly one-sided argument: A witness's beliefs about anincidentcanbeadulteratedinmanyways.


Supportfortheargument.






(45)originalmemoryevenifthewitnessactuallysawnostopsign.The farther removed from the event, the greater the chance of a vague or incompleterecollectionandthegreaterthelikelihoodofnewlysuggestedinformation

Moresupportfortheargument.

(50)blendingwithoriginalmemories.Sincewecanbemoreeasilymisledwith respect tofainter and more uncertain memories, tangential details are more apt to becomeconstructedoutofsubsequentlyintroducedinformationthanaremorecentraldetails.Butwhatis

(55)tangentialtoawitness'soriginalexperienceofaneventmayneverthelessbecrucialtothecourtroomissuesthatthewitness'smemoriesaresupposedtoresolve.Forexample,aperpetrator'sshirtcolororhairstylemightbetangentialtoone'sshockedobservanceofan

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(60)armedrobbery,butlaterthosefactorsmightbecrucialtoestablishingtheidentityoftheperpetrator.


Seemed like a pretty straightforward, objective passage about different ways ourmemoriesofeventscanbealtered,andhowthisrelatesinparticulartowitnesses.

Canquicklyeliminate(C).


(B) Because of the nature of human memory storage and retrieval, the courtroomtestimonyofeyewitnessesmaycontain crucial inaccuraciesdue to leadingquestionsaskedpriortothecourtroomappearance.

Researchers are surprised to find that courtroom testimony is often dependent onsuggestiontofillgapsleftbyinsufficientattentiontodetailatthetimethattheincidentinquestionoccurred.


(E) Stricter regulation shouldbeplacedon lawyerswhose leadingquestionscancorruptwitnesses’testimonybyintroducinginaccuratedatapriortothewitnesses’appearanceinthecourtroom.

Therestofthechoicesseemprettyattractive.Ireexaminethemoneatatime,suspiciousofalldetails.

(A)iswrong—wedidn'tdiscusswhetherornotthewitnessisdirectlyinvolved.

(B)doesn'tseemlikeagreatanswer,butitdoesn'thaveobviousflaws.

(D)iswrong.That'snotthemainpointofthepassage.

(E)presumestoomuch.Theauthordidn'tsayanythingaboutregulations,etc.



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Canquicklyeliminate(A),(C),and(D).

a policy ensuring that witnesses have extra time to answer questions concerningdetailsthataretangentialtotheiroriginalexperiencesofevents


increasedattentiontothenuancesofallwitnesses’responsestocourtroomquestions,eventhosethatarenotleadingquestions

extensiveinterviewingofwitnessesbyalllawyersforbothsidesofacasepriortothosewitnesses’courtroomappearance

(E)availabilityofaccuratetranscriptsofallinterrogationsofwitnessesthatoccurredpriortothosewitnesses’appearanceincourt

(B) is attractive, but the passage is in large part about stuff that happens before thecourtroomtestimony.

Ifwehavetranscripts,wemightbeabletoseehowleadingquestionsmighthaveshapedawitness'smemory.

(E)isthecorrectanswer.


Canquicklyeliminate(B),(C),and(E).

(A)Theyareintegratedwithcurrentmemoriesassupportforthosememories.

Theyarestoredtentativelyasconjecturaldatathatfadewithtime.

Theystaymorevividinmemorythandopreviouslystoredmemorydata.(D)Theyarereinterpretedsoastobecompatiblewiththedetailsalreadystoredinmemory.

Theyareretainedinmemoryevenwhentheyconflictwithpreviouslystoredmemorydata.

(A)and(D)bothsoundattractive.Igobackandrereadtherelevanttext(30-35).

Seemstosupport(A).

(D)can'tberightbecausetherehasbeennothingaboutreinterpretingnewdata.

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Before reading the answers, reread final paragraph. Quick self-summary:we aremorelikely to switcharoundelements thatwepay lesscriticalattention to,and theseelementsmayplayacriticalroleinacase.

Canquicklyeliminate(A),(B),and(C).

Forpurposesof flavorandpreservation, saltandvinegarare importantadditions tocucumbers during the process of pickling, but these purposes could be attained byaddingotheringredientsinstead.

Forthepurposeofaddingamildstimulanteffect,caffeineisincludedinsometypesofcarbonateddrinks,but for thepurposesofappealing tohealth-consciousconsumers,sometypesofcarbonateddrinksareadvertisedasbeingcaffeine-free.

Forpurposesof flavorandtenderness, theskinsofapplesandsomeotherfruitsareremovedduringpreparationfordrying,butgrapeskinsareanessentialpartofraisins,andthusgrapeskinsarenotremoved.

(D)Forpurposesofflavorandappearance,wheatgermisnotneededinflourandisusuallyremovedduringmilling,butforpurposesofnutrition,thegermisanimportantpartofthegrain.


Both (D) and (E) contain elements that are unimportant for one consideration andimportant foranother. In (D), twocontrastingelements,but in (E), twopositiveelements.Ouroriginalsituationisacontrastingone.



Canquicklyeliminate(B),(C),and(D).

(A)Inwitnessingwhattypesofcrimesarepeopleespeciallylikelytopaycloseattentiontocircumstantialdetails?

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Whichaspectsofcourtroominterrogationcausewitnessestobeespeciallyreluctanttotestifyinextensivedetail?

Can the stress of having to testify in a courtroom situation affect the accuracy ofmemorystorageandretrieval?

Do different people tend to possess different capacities for remembering detailscorrectly?

(E)Whenisitmorelikelythatadetailofanobservedeventwillbeaccuratelyremembered?

(A)soundedattractiveatfirst,but“typesofcrimes”isn'tmentioned.

(E)makessense.Severalpartsofthepassagementionscenarios(notbeingfarremovedfromevent,notbeingaskedabouttangentialdetails)thatmakeitmorelikelyapersonwillaccuratelyrememberadetail.



Before reading theanswers, I return to the2ndparagraph. Iknowthegeneralpurposewastosupportthemainopinionthatcameattheendofparagraph1.

Canquicklyeliminate(C),(D),and(E).

(A)corroboratesandaddsdetailtoaclaimmadeinthefirstparagraph(B) provides examples illustrating the applications of a theory discussed in the first

paragraph

formsanargumentinsupportofaproposalthatismadeinthefinalparagraph

anticipatesandprovidesgroundsfortherejectionofatheoryalludedtobytheauthorinthefinalparagraph

explains hownewly obtaineddata favor one of two traditional theoriesmentionedelsewhereinthesecondparagraph

The argument is more of a claim than a theory. And they are not technically“applications.”


26.Itcanbemostreasonablyinferredfromthepassagethattheauthorholdsthattherecent

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studiesdiscussedinthepassage

Canquicklyeliminate(B),(C),and(D).


shednewlightonalongstandingproceduralcontroversyinthelaw

maybeoftheoreticalinterestdespitetheirtentativenatureandinconclusivefindings

provide insights into the origins of several disparate types of logically fallaciousreasoning

(E)shouldbeofmorethanabstractacademicinteresttothelegalprofession

(A)istemptingbecausetheauthorusestheword“alarmingly”inparagraph1,butIdon'tthinktheauthorfoundtheresultsunexpected.

(E)isn'tdirectlymentioned,butyougetthesensetheauthorthinksthisisaseriousissue,andthereforeonethatdeservesreallife(asopposedtopurelyacademic)consideration.



Canquicklyeliminate(A),(B),(C),and(E).

The tendency of leadingquestions to cause unreliable courtroom testimony has nocorrelationwith theextent towhichwitnessesareemotionallyaffectedby theeventsthattheyhaveobserved.

Leadingquestionsasked intheprocessofacourtroomexaminationofawitnessaremorelikelytocauseinaccuratetestimonythanareleadingquestionsaskedoutsidethecourtroom.

Thememoryprocessesbywhichnewly introduceddata tend to reinforceaccuratelyremembered details of events are not relevant to explaining the effects of leadingquestions.

(D)Theriskoftestimonybeinginaccurateduetocertainotherfactorstendstoincreaseasan eyewitness's susceptibility to giving inaccurate testimony due to the effects ofleadingquestionsincreases.

Thetraditionalgroundsonwhichleadingquestionscanbeexcludedfromcourtroominterrogation of witnesses have been called into question by the findings of recent

188

studies.

(D)soundsreallycomplicated,butitessentiallymeansthatriskofinaccuracyisgreaterwhenwitness'ssusceptibilitytogivinginaccuratetestimonybecauseofleadingquestionsisgreater.That'sexactlywhatalotofthetextisabout.



189

SOLUTIONS:DetailedExplanationsSocialscientistshavetraditionallydefinedmultipolarinternationalsystemsasconsisting

of three or more nations, each of roughly equal military and economic strength.Theoretically,the(5)membersofsuchsystemscreateshifting,temporaryalliancesinresponsetochanging

circumstances in the international environment. Such systems are, thus, fluid andflexible.Frequent,smallconfrontationsareoneattributeofmultipolar


(15) The best-known example of a multipolar system is the Concert of Europe, whichcoincidedwith general peace on that continent lasting roughly 100 years beginningaround1815.Bipolarsystems,ontheotherhand,involve

(20)twomajormembersofroughlyequalmilitaryandeconomicstrengthvyingforpowerandadvantage.Othermembersof lesserstrengthtendtocoalescearoundoneortheotherpole.Suchsystemstendtoberigidandfixed,inpartduetotheexistence

(25)ofonlyoneaxisofpower.Zero-sumpoliticalandmilitarymaneuverings,inwhichagainforonesideresults inanequivalent loss for theother,areasalient featureofbipolarsystems.Overallsuperiorityissoughtbybothmajormemberswhichcanleadto

(30)frequentconfrontations,debilitatingarmedconflict,andeventually,tothecapitulationofoneortheotherside.AthensandSpartaofancientGreecehadabipolarrelationship,asdidtheUnitedStatesandtheUSSRduringtheColdWar.

(35)However,theshiftinthegeopoliticallandscapefollowingtheendoftheColdWarcallsforareassessmentoftheassumptionsunderlyingthesetwotheoreticalconcepts.TheemergingbutstillvaguemultipolarsysteminEuropetodaybrings

(40)withittheunsettlingprospectofnewconflictsandshiftingalliancesthatmayleadtoadiminution, rather than an enhancement, of security. The frequent, smallconfrontationsthatarethoughttohavekeptthe

(45)ConcertofEuropeinastateofequilibriumwouldtoday,asnationsarmthemselveswithmodernweapons,createinstabilitythatcoulddestroythesystem.Andthelargernumberofmembersandshiftingalliancepatternspeculiar

(50)tomultipolarsystemswouldcreateabewilderingtangleofconflicts.ThisreassessmentmayalsoleadustolookattheColdWarinanewlight.In1914smaller

membersofthemultipolarsysteminEuropebroughtthe(55) larger members into a war that engulfed the continent. The aftermath—a crippled

systeminwhichcertainmembersweredismantled,punished,orvoluntarilywithdrew—createdtheconditionsthatledtoWorldWarII.Incontrast,theprincipal

(60) attributes of bipolar systems—two major members with only one possible axis ofconflict lockedinarigidyetusuallystablestruggleforpower—mayhavecreatedthenecessaryparametersforgeneralpeaceinthesecondhalfofthetwentiethcentury.

190

Thepassagediscussesdifferencesbetweenmultipolarsystemsandbipolarsystems.Itmightseemthatmultipolarvs.bipolarwillbe thecentralargument,but this ismerelyacomparison,notanargument.The last two paragraphs discuss a reassessment of the traditional understanding ofmultipolarandbipolarsystems.Thisreassessmentisthecentralargument.

Notethattheargumentinthispassagedoesn'thingeonopinion(onegroupfeelsonewaywhileanothergroupfeelsanother),butratheronsituation;theauthorpresentstwodifferentsituations(historical vs. 20th century) that provide contrasting evidence relative to the characteristics ofmultipolarandbipolarsystems.


(A) Peacecanbemaintained inEuropeonly ifanewbipolar systememerges to replaceColdWaralliances.

(B)Allkindsofinternationalsystemsdiscussedbysocialscientistscarrywithinthemselvestheseedsoftheirowncollapseandultimatelyendangerinternationalorder.

(C) The current European geopolitical landscape is a multipolar system that stronglyresemblestheConcertofEuropewhichexistedthroughmostofthenineteenthcentury.


Thecharacterizationofmultipolar systemsas stableandbipolar systemsasopen todebilitatingconflictneedstobereconsideredinlightoftherealitiesofpost—ColdWarEurope.

(A)DEGREE(modifier):Bewareofwordssuchas“only;”theauthorisnotthatabsolute.

SCOPE(outofscope):Furthermore,thispassageisnotabouthowtomaintainpeaceinthefuture.

(B)DEGREE(modifier):“All”istoostrong.SCOPE(outofscope):Theauthordiscussesonlytwokindsofinternationalsystems,notinternationalsystemsingeneral.Thescopeofthisansweristoobroad.

( C )INTERPRETATION (contradiction): The passage states that the current Europeanlandscape is actually unstable whereas the Concert of Europe was stable.SCOPE(narrow):Furthermore,thiscomparisonisjustonesmallpartofthepassage.

191

( D)SCOPE(narrow):Thisanswerdoesnotaddressthepassageasawhole,butratherjustonesmallpartofit.DEGREE(opinion):Furthermore,thoughtheauthorisnervousaboutthemultipolarity,“incompatible”istoostrongarepresentationofhis/heropinion.

( E )CORRECT (synthesis): This answer is a synthesis of various passage elements, and itmatchesourunderstandingofthescale.


(A) Theweaknessesof both typesof systems arediscussed in the context of twentieth-centuryEuropeanhistory.

(B)ApredictionismaderegardingEuropeansecuritybasedontheattributesofbothtypesofsystems.


Twentieth-centuryEuropeanhistoryisusedtoexpandontheargumentinthepreviousparagraph.

(E)Thetypicalcharacteristicsofthemajormembersofabipolarsystemarereviewed.

( A )INTERPRETATION (unsupported): Multipolar systems are described in terms of

weaknesses,butbipolarsystemsarenot.(B)SCOPE(outofscope):A“prediction”isnotmadeordiscussedinanyway.( C )DEGREE (opinion): The author discusses the danger of multipolar systems and the

stabilitybroughtonbybipolar systems,buthe/shedoesnotgoas far as to say thatEuropeancountriesshouldembraceanewsystem.

(D)CORRECT(synthesis):Thisanswercorrectlysynthesizesinformationfromthethirdandfourthparagraphs.Inthethirdparagraph,theauthorsaysthat,inthetwentiethcentury,multipolar systems have been less stable and bipolar systems more stable. Theexamplesinthefinalparagraphservetosupportthisargument.

( E )INTERPRETATION (unsupported): This is very subtle. The typical characteristics ofbipolar systemsarementioned,but typical characteristicsof themajormembers of abipolarsystemarenotdiscussed.Becarefulhowyouinterpretthedetails!


indicatethatbipolarsystemscanhavecertainunstablecharacteristics(B)illustratehowmultipolarsystemscantransformthemselvesintobipolarsystems(C)contrasttheaggressivenatureofbipolarmemberswiththemorerationalbehaviorof

theirmultipolarcounterparts(D)indicatetheanarchicnatureofinternationalrelations(E) suggest that military and economic strength shifts in bipolar as frequently as in

multipolarsystems

(A)CORRECT(inference):Theselinesareusedtosupporttheideathatbipolarsystemshave

traditionallybeenunstable.( B )INTERPRETATION (unsupported): The author is comparing multipolar and bipolar

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systems,notdiscussinghowonecanbecometheother.(C)INTERPRETATION(unsupported):Thisisaveryattractiveanswer,butwatchoutforthe

details.Thoughbipolarsystemsseeksuperiority,itmaynotbebecausetheyaremoreaggressive by nature (perhaps they seek superiority because they think it will bringpeace). Multipolar systems are described as being more stable historically, but notnecessarilymorerational.

(D)SCOPE(outofscope):Thisansweristoogeneral.Thepassageisnotabouttheanarchicnatureofinternationalrelations.

(E)INTERPRETATION(unsupported):Whilethestrengthofnationswithinbipolarsystemsisdiscussed,nothinginthepassagewouldsupportmakingaclaimaboutthefrequencyofshiftsinstrength.


(A)fearfulthatEuropeangeopoliticsmaybringaboutasimilarbipolarsystem(B)surprisedthatitdidnotendwithamajorwar

convincedthatitprovidesanimportantexampleofbipolaritymaintainingpeace(D)regretfulthatthemajorEuropeancountriesweresoambivalentaboutit(E)confidentitwillmarkonlyabriefhiatusbetweenlongperiodsofEuropeanmultipolarity

( A )INTERPRETATION(unsupported): There is no evidence to suggest that the author is

fearfulofbipolarsystems.( B )INTERPRETATION(unsupported): There is no evidence to suggest that the author is

surprised.(C)CORRECT(inference):Thisisalessthanidealanswer,butcorrectnonetheless.Lines56-

61state:“…theprincipalattributesofbipolarsystems…mayhavecreatedthenecessaryparameters forpeace…”Weareasked to infer fromthis statement that theauthor is“convinced that it provides an important example of bipolarity maintaining peace.”“Convinced”isaverystrongwordgiventhecontext.Whilethisisn'tanidealanswer,itiscertainlythebestavailable.

(D)SCOPE(outofscope):EuropeanopinionabouttheColdWarisnotatopicrelevanttothisdiscussioninanyway.

(E)INTERPRETATION(unsupported):Thisanswerstraystoofarfromthetext,andmakesaleapintermsofhowtheauthorfeelsabouttheparticularsubject—howrecenthistoryrelatestootherhistory(e.g.thisisahiatus,orthisrepresentsapermanentchange).

5.WhichoneofthefollowingstatementsconcerningtheConcertofEurope(lines15–18)canmostreasonablybeinferredfromthepassage?

(A) Each of themany small confrontations that occurred under the Concert of Europethreatenedtheintegrityofthesystem.

(B) It provided the highest level of security possible for Europe in the late nineteenthcentury.

(C) AllthefactorscontributingtostabilityduringthelatenineteenthcenturycontinuetocontributetoEuropeansecurity.

Equilibrium in the system was maintained as members grouped together tocounterbalancemutualthreats.

(E)Itwasmorestablethanmostmultipolarsystemsbecauseitssmallermembersreactedpromptlytoaggressionbyitslargermembers.

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( A )INTERPRETATION (contradiction): In fact, the small confrontations, the author

maintains,madethesystemmorestable.DEGREE(modifier):“Each”means“every”inthiscase;weshouldbesuspiciousofsuchanabsolute.Evenifthesmallconflictsdidthreatentheintegrityofthesystem,couldweclaimthateachandeveryone,withoutexception,threatenedthesystem?

(B)DEGREE(modifier):“Highestlevelofsecuritypossible”isveryabsoluteandverydifficulttojustifyorsupport.

(C)INTERPRETATION(contradiction):TheConcertofEuropeandcurrentEuropeansystemsarepresentedincontrasttoeachother.ThecurrentEuropeansystemisunstable.DEGREE(modifier):Puttingtheinterpretationissueaside,theword“all”isverydifficulttosupport.

(D)CORRECT(inference):Theimmediatelyprecedinglinesdescribethisasacharacteristicofmultipolarsystems,andthentheConcertofEuropeiscitedasanexample.WecanthusinferthattheConcertofEuropepossessesthischaracteristic.

( E )SCOPE (outof scope):“Mostmultipolar systems” is out of scope.We knownothingaboutthemajorityofmultipolarsystems,sowecan'tpossiblymakeacomparisonwiththeConcertofEurope.

194

In spite of a shared language, Latin American poetry written in Spanish differs fromSpanishpoetry inmany respects.TheSpanishofLatinAmericanpoets ismoreopen thanthatofSpanish(5) poets, more exposed to outside influences—indigenous, English, French, and other

languages.WhilesomeliterarycriticsmaintainthatthereisasmuchlinguisticunityinLatinAmericanpoetryasthereisinSpanishpoetry,theybasethisclaimnthe

(10)factthatCastilianSpanish,theofficialandliteraryversionoftheSpanishlanguagebasedlargelyonthedialectoriginallyspokenintheCastileregionofSpain,wastransplantedtotheAmericaswhenitwasalreadyarelativelystandardizedidiom.Although

(15)suchunitymayhavecharacterizedtheearliestLatinAmericanpoetry,aftercenturiesinthe Americas the language of Lain American poetry cannot help but reveal theinfluencesofitsuniqueculturalhistory.LatinAmericanpoetryiscriticalorirreverentin

(20) its attitude toward language, where that of Spanish poets is more accepting. Forexample, the Spanish-language incarnations ofmodernism and the avant-garde, twoliterarymovementsthatusedlanguageininnovativeandchallengingways,originated

(25)with Latin American poets. By contrast, when thesemovements later reached Spain,Spanishpoetsgreetedthemwithreluctance.Spanishpoets,eventhoseofthemodernera,seemtotaketheir languageforgranted, rarelyusing it inradicalorexperimentalways.

(30)ThemostdistinctivenoteinLatinAmericanpoetryisitsenthusiasticresponsetothemodern world, while Spanish poetry displays a kind of cultural conservatism—thedesiretoreturntoanidealcultureofthedistantpast.BecausenoSpanish-

(35) languageculture lies in theequallydistant (i.e.,pre-Columbian)pastof theAmericas,buthas insteadbeen inventedbyLatinAmericansdaybyday,LatinAmericanpoetryhasnosuchlong-standingpasttoromanticize.Instead,LatinAmericanpoetryoften

(40)displaysacuriosityabouttheliteratureofothercultures,aninterestinexploringpoeticstructuresbeyondthosetypicalofSpanishtry.Forexample,thefirstSpanish-languagehaiku—aJapanesepoeticform—werewrittenbyJoseJuanTablada,

(45)aMexican.AnotheroftheLatinAmericanpoets’responsestothisabsenceisthesearchfor aworld before recorded history—not only that of Spain or the Americas, but insomecasesoftheplanet;theChileanpoetPabloNeruda'swork,forexample,is

(50)noteworthyforitsdevelopmentofanahistoricalmythologyforthecreationoftheearth.ForLatinAmericanpoetsthereisnosuchthingasthepristineculturalpastaffirmedinthepoetryofSpain:thereisonlythefluidinteractionofallworldcultures,or

(55)elsetheextensivetimebeforeculturesbegan.

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Remember, don't confuse a comparison with an argument. In this case, the author certainlycompares LatinAmerican poetrywith Spanish poetry, but this comparison in and of itself doesnot constitute an argument.The argument is that the two types of poetry are different, eventhoughsomeliterarycriticsmightclaimotherwise.

196


(A)arguethatLatinAmericanpoetsoriginatedmodernismandtheavant-garde

explainhowSpanishpoetryandLatinAmericanpoetrydifferintheirattitudestowardtheSpanishlanguage

(C)demonstratewhyLatinAmericanpoetryisnotwellreceivedinSpain(D) show that theCastilian Spanish employed in Spanish poetry has remained relatively

unchangedbytheadventofmodernismandtheavant-garde(E)illustratetheextenttowhichSpanishpoetryromanticizesSpanish-languageculture.

( A )INTERPRETATION (unsupported): While modernism and the avant-garde are

mentioned, the author does not claim that L.A. poets invented modernism and theavant-garde.

( B )CORRECT(inference): Eachparagraph isaboutdifferencesbetween the two,and thesecondparagraphinparticularisaboutthedifferencesinattitudesaboutlanguage.Thisisacorrectinterpretationforhowthisparagraphfitsintothepassageasawhole.

( C )SCOPE(outofscope):ThewaythatLatinAmericanpoetry is received inSpain isnotrelevantorwithinthescopeofthispassage.

( D )SCOPE (narrow): This is in the paragraph, but this answer doesn't mention LatinAmericanpoetry.

(E)SCOPE(outofscope):WhiletheSpanishpoets’romanticizationofpastSpanishcultureiswithinthescopeofthepassage,itisdiscussedinthethirdparagraph,notthesecond.Thisdiscussionisoutofthescopeofthesecondparagraph.


Afamilymovesitsrestauranttoanewtownandincorporateslocalingredientsintoitstraditionalrecipes.

(B)Afamilymovesitsbusinesstoanewtownafterthebusinessfailsinitsoriginallocation.(C)Afamilywithatwo-hundred-year-oldhouselaborsindustriouslyinordertorestorethe

housetoitsoriginalappearance.(D)Afamilydoesresearchintoitsancestryinordertoconstructitsfamilytree.(E) A family eagerly anticipates its annual vacation but never takes photographs or

purchasessouvenirstopreserveitsmemories.

( A )CORRECT (synthesis): Spanish language poets moved to Latin America and

incorporated the indigenous culture into their writing. This analogy shows anunderstandingofthepassageasawhole.

( B )INTERPRETATION(unsupported): ThepoetsofLatinAmericadidnotoriginally fail inSpain.

(C)INTERPRETATION(unsupported):LatinAmericanpoetryisnotattemptingtorestoretheoriginalcharacteristicsofSpanishpoetry.

(D)INTERPRETATION(unsupported):LatinAmericanpoetsdonotattempttoresearchthehistoryofSpanishpoetry.

(E)INTERPRETATION(unsupported):SpainisintheLatinAmericanpoets’past,notfuture.Thereisnothingtoparallel“annual.”Furthermore,“never”doesn'tmatchtheinfluenceofSpanishpoetryonL.A.poetry.

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Spanishpoetsoriginatedaninfluentialliterarymovementthatusedlanguageinradicalways.

(D)CastilianSpanishwasinfluencedduringitsevolutionbyotherSpanishdialects.(E)SpanishpoetsrejectedtheEnglishandFrenchincarnationsofmodernism.

( A )DEGREE(opinion): Thedegreeof this influence is not important. The authordoesn't

claimthatoriginallinguisticconstructsdidn'thaveaninfluence,justthattherearealsootherinfluencesinvolved.

(B)INTERPRETATION(unsupported):Evenifthelanguagewasstillevolving,thiswouldn'taffectthemainargument,whichisthatLatinAmericanpoetrydivergedfromSpanishpoetry.

(C)CORRECT(inference):SincetheauthorarguesthatSpanishpoetshavebeenreluctanttoadopt change, we can infer that such a radical movement would hurt the author'sargument.

(D)SCOPE(outofscope):ThispassageisabouttheevolutionofSpanish-languagepoetry,nottheevolutionoftheSpanishlanguageitself.

( E )INTERPRETATION (contradiction): The author argues that Spanish poets have beenclosedtooutsideinfluences.Thisanswerdoesn'tweakentheargument.Rather,itwouldstrengthenit!


(A)ThefirsthaikuintheSpanishlanguagewerewrittenbyaLatinAmericanpoet.(B)Spanishpoetryisrarelyinnovativeorexperimentalinitsuseoflanguage.(C)Spanishpoetryrarelyincorporatespoetictraditionsfromothercultures.

LatinAmericanpoetrytendstotaketheSpanishlanguageforgranted.(E)LatinAmericanpoetryincorporatesaspectsofvariousotherlanguages.

(A)Identification:Thisismentionedinthepassageinlines43–45.(B)Identification:Thisismentionedinthepassageinlines27–29.(C)Identification:Thisismentionedinthepassageinlines32–34.( D )CORRECT: INTERPRETATION (contradiction) This is the exact opposite of what is

mentionedinthepassage,andisthereforenotaffirmed.(E)Identification:Thisismentionedinthepassage,inlines39–45.


(A)TheuseofpoeticstructuresfromotherworldculturesisanattemptbyLatinAmericanpoetstocreateaculturalpast.

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Theuseofpoetic structures fromotherworldculturesbyLatinAmericanpoets isaresponse to their lack of a long-standing Spanish-language cultural past in theAmericas.

(C)TheuseofpoeticstructuresfromotherworldcultureshasledLatinAmericanpoetstoreconsidertheirlackofalong-standingSpanish-languageculturalpastintheAmericas.

(D)LatinAmericanpoetswhowriteaboutaworldbeforerecordedhistorydonotusepoeticstructuresfromotherworldcultures.

(E) Latin American poetry does not borrow poetic structures from otherworld cultureswhoseliteratureexhibitsculturalconservatism.

(A)INTERPRETATION(unsupported):Whilearelativelackofculturalhistoryismentioned,

theauthordoesnotclaimthatLatinAmericanpoetsaretryingtocreateaculturalpast.Rather,theyare“inventing”acurrentculture“daybyday.”

(B)CORRECT(inference):Thisinferenceisdirectlysupportedbylines34–42.( C )INTERPRETATION (unsupported): This answer reverses the logic. It is the lack of a

culturalpastthatcausesLatinAmericanpoetstoembraceotherworldcultures,nottheotherwayaround.

(D)INTERPRETATION(unsupported):Whileaworldbeforerecordedhistoryismentioned,andotherworldculturesarementioned,thepassagedoesnotmentionwhetherpoetswhowriteaboutprehistoryusepoeticstructuresfromothercultures.

(E)INTERPRETATION(unsupported):ItmightbetemptingtotakeLatinAmericanpoetry'sdivergencefromamoreconservativeSpanishpoetryasanindicationofabroadertrendaway from the influenceof conservative cultures.However, thecriteria forhowLatinAmerican poets choose their influences are not discussed. Thus, we can'tmake thisinferencewithouttakingabigleapinreasoning.



(B)ThisrelationshipforcesSpanishpoetstowriteaboutsubjectswithwhichtheyfeellittlenaturalaffinity.

(C)ThisrelationshipisitselfthecentralthemeofmuchSpanishpoetry.

This relationship infuses Spanish poetry with a romanticism that is reluctant toembracethemodernera.

(E) This relationship results in poems that are of little interest to contemporary Spanishreaders.

(A)INTERPRETATION(contradiction):TheauthorstatesthatSpanishpoetsdotheopposite

—theyaremore“accepting”oruncritical.( B )SCOPE (out of scope): The affinity of Spanish poets towards their subjects is not

discussed.(C)INTERPRETATION(unsupported):Thisissubtle.ThoughSpanishpoetryoftendealswith

thepast,itdoesn'tnecessarilydealwiththerelationshipbetweenpoetryandthepast.( D )CORRECT(inference): Paragraph 3 is, in largepart, about this romanticism, and the

reluctanceofSpanishpoetrytoembracemodernism.(E)SCOPE(outofscope):TheinterestsofcontemporarySpanishreadersarenotwithinthe

scopeofthispassage.

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TheculturalconservatismofSpanishpoetryisexemplifiedbytheuncriticalattitudeofSpanishpoetstowardtheSpanishlanguage.

(D) Latin American poets’ interest in other world cultures is illustrated by their use ofJapanesewordsandphrases.


( A )INTERPRETATION (unsupported): The author does notmake a connection between

culturalconservatismandlinguisticstability.( B )INTERPRETATION (unsupported): The author does not claim that this influence is a

recentphenomenon.(C)CORRECT(inference):TheuncriticalattitudeofSpanishpoetstowardsthelanguageis

mentionedasoneexampleoftheculturalconservatismofSpanishpoetry(paragraph2).

(D)SCOPE(outofscope):Thereismentionofstyle,butthereisnomentionofL.A.poetsincorporatingJapanesewordsandphrases.

(E)INTERPRETATION(unsupported):Thisstatementmightbetrue,butthereisnothinginthepassagethatwouldsupportthisinterpretation.

200

Accordingto thetheoryofgravitation,everyparticleofmatter in theuniverseattractseveryotherparticlewithaforcethatincreasesaseitherthemassoftheparticleincrease,ortheirproximitytoone(5) another increases, or both. Gravitation is believed to shape the structures of stars,

galaxies,andtheentireuniverse.Butfordecadescosmologists(scientistswhostudytheuniverse)haveattemptedtoaccountforthefindingthatatleast90percent

(10) of the universe seems to bemissing: that the total amount of observable matter—stars,dust, andmiscellaneousdebris—doesnot contain enoughmass to explainwhytheuniverseisorganizedintheshapeofgalaxiesandclustersofgalaxies.Toaccount

(15) for this discrepancy, cosmologists hypothesize that something else, which they call“darkmatter,”provides thegravitational forcenecessary tomake thehuge structurescohere.Whatisdarkmatter?Numerousexoticentities

(20) have been postulated, but among themore attractive candidates—because they areknownactuallytoexist—areneutrinos,elementaryparticlescreatedasaby-productofnuclearfusion,radioactivedecay,orcatastrophiccollisionsbetween

(25)otherparticles.Neutrinos,whichcomeinthreetypes,arebyfarthemostnumerouskindofparticleintheuniverse;however,theyhavelongbeenassumedtohavenomass.Ifso,thatwoulddisqualifythemasdarkmatter.Withoutmass,

(30) matter cannot exert gravitational force; without such force, it cannot induce othermattertocohere.Butnewevidencesuggeststhataneutrinodoeshavemass.Thisevidencecamebyway

ofresearchfindingssupportingtheexistenceofalong-theorized(35)butneverobservedphenomenoncalledoscillation,wherebyeachofthethreeneutrino

typescanchange intooneof theothersas it travels throughspace.Researchersheldthatthetransformationispossibleonlyifneutrinosalsohavemass.They

(40)obtainedexperimentalconfirmationofthetheorybygeneratingoneneutrinotypeandthen finding evidence that it had oscillated into the predicted neutrino type. In theprocess,theywereabletoestimatethemassofaneutrinoatfrom0.5to5

(45)electronvolts.Whileslight,eventhelowestestimatewouldyieldalotofmassgiventhatneutrinosare

so numerous, especially considering that neutrinos were previously assumed to have nomass.Still,(50)evenatthehighestestimate,neutrinoscouldonlyaccountforabout20percentofthe

universe's “missing” mass. Nevertheless, that is enough to alter our picture of theuniverseevenifitdoesnotaccountforallofdarkmatter.Infact,

(55)somecosmologistsclaimthatthisnewevidenceoffersthebesttheoreticalsolutionyettothedarkmatterproblem.Iftheevidenceholdsup,thesecosmologistsbelieve,itmayaddtoourunderstandingoftheroleelementaryparticlesplay

(60)inholdingtheuniversetogether.

201

This is a challenging passage that ultimately describes the potential role neutrinos play inexplaining what dark matter is, and therefore how it might affect gravitational force. Forpassagescontainingchallengingsubjectmatterandterminology,suchasthisone,itisespeciallyusefultoorganizetheinformationrelativetohowitimpactsanargument.

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(A) Although cosmologists believe that the universe is shaped by gravitation, the totalamountofobservablematter in theuniverse isgreatly insufficient toaccount for thegravitationthatwouldberequiredtocausetheuniversetobeorganizedintogalaxies.

(B) Given their inability to account formore than20percentof theuniverse's“missing”mass,scientistsarebeginningtospeculatethatourcurrentunderstandingofgravityissignificantlymistaken.

Indirectevidencesuggestingthatneutrinoshavemassmayallowneutrinostoaccountfor up to 20percentof darkmatter, a finding that could somedaybe extended to acompletesolutionofthedarkmatterproblem.

(D)Aftermuchspeculation,researchershavediscoveredthatneutrinososcillatefromonetype into another as they travel through space, a phenomenon that proves thatneutrinoshavemass.

(E)Althoughithasbeenestablishedthatneutrinoshavemass,suchmassdoesnotsupportthe speculation of cosmologists that neutrinos constitute a portion of the universe's“missing”mass.

(A)SCOPE(narrow):Thoughthepassagedoessupportthisidea,thisideaisonlyonepartof

thelargerpointofthepassage.( B )INTERPRETATION(unsupported): Theauthorbelieves this researchprovidespromise,

despiteitslimitations,anddoesnothintthatitshowsourunderstandingismistaken.(C)CORRECT(synthesis):Thoughthisisalessthanidealsummaryofthetext,itdoestouch

uponthecentralargument,anduponvariousotherelementsinthetext.(D)SCOPE(narrow):Thisiscertainlymentionedinthepassage,butthisismerelyonepart

inalargerpicture.(E)INTERPRETATION(contradicted):Thefactthatneutrinoshavemassisusedas support

fortheclaimthatneutrinosmayconstitutepartoftheuniverse'smissingmass.

14.Whichoneofthefollowingtitlesmostcompletelyandaccuratelyexpressesthecontentsofthepassage?

(A)“TheExistenceofDarkMatter:ArgumentsForandAgainst”

“NeutrinosandtheDarkMatterProblem:APartialSolution?”(C)“TooLittle,TooLate:WhyNeutrinosDoNotConstituteDarkMatter”(D)“TheRoleofGravity:HowDarkMatterShapesStars”(E)“TheImplicationsofOscillation:DoNeutrinosReallyHaveMass?”

( A )INTERPRETATION(unsupported): While isclose, thecentralargument isnotwhether

dark matter exists; the central argument has to do more with whether neutrinosaccount for some of the universe'smissingmass. Furthermore, this answer suggeststhatthepassageisbalanced,wheninfactitisheavilyweightedtowardsonesideoftheargument.

(B)CORRECT(synthesis):Noticethatthisanswerprettymuchsumsupourscaleimage.(C)INTERPRETATION(contradiction):Thisistheoppositeoftheauthor'sargument.(D)SCOPE(outofscope):Thisisinthesamegeneralsubjectareaasourpassage,butour

passagedoesnotspecificallydiscusshowdarkmattershapesstars.( E )SCOPE (narrow): This is discussed in the passage, but it is just one part of a larger

discussion.

203


(A)Observablematterconstitutesatleast90percentofthemassoftheuniverse.(B) Current theories are incapableof identifying the force that causesallparticles in the

universetoattractoneanother.(C)Thekeytotheproblemofdarkmatterisdeterminingtheexactmassofaneutrino.

It isunlikelythatanyforceotherthangravitationwillberequiredtoaccountfortheorganizationoftheuniverseintogalaxies.

(E)Neutrinosprobablyaccountformostoftheuniverse's“missing”mass.

( A )INTERPRETATION(contradicted): In fact, thepassage states the exact opposite: that

90%oftheuniverse'smassseemstobemissing.(B)INTERPRETATION(contradicted):Theauthordirectlystatesthatgravitationistheforce

thatcausesparticlestoattractoneanother.Whiletheremaybemissingmass,theforceisnotinquestion.

(C)DEGREE(modifier):Thoughfindingouttheexactmassofaneutrinowillcertainlybeakey,thepassagedoesnotgoasfarastosayitisthekey.

( D )CORRECT(inference):Thepassageworksoff theassumptionthatgravity is the forcethatorganizestheuniverse,andworkstoexplainthemysteriesoftheuniverserelativetowhatweknowaboutgravity.

( E )DEGREE (modifier): Though neutrinos have some mass, and provide a partialexplanation, the author does not go as far as to say they account for“most” of themissingmass.“Some”wouldbeamoreappropriatemodifier.



(B)Achildseekingtoearnmoneybydeliveringpapersisunabletoearnenoughmoneyforabicycleandsodecidestobuyaskateboardinstead.

(C) Achildhopingtogetadogforhisbirthdayis initiallydisappointedwhenhisparentsbringhomeacatbuteventuallylearnstolovetheanimal.

Achildseekingmoneytoattendamovieisgivensomeofthemoneybyoneofhissiblingsandsodecidestogotoeachofhisothersiblingstoaskforadditionalmoney.

(E)Achildenjoysplayingsportswiththeneighborhoodchildrenbutherparentsinsistthatshecannotparticipateuntilshehascompletedherhouseholdchores.

( A )INTERPRETATION(unsupported): Thescientistsarenotgoingtoaseparatesourceto

findthetruth;theyarelookingforitbystudyingtheuniverse.( B )INTERPRETATION (unsupported): That neutrino's only provide 20%ofmass has not

forcedthecosmologiststoabandontheirtheoryinfavorofsomethingelse.( C )INTERPRETATION(unsupported): The cosmologists are not disappointed, and again,

thereisnoswitchtoanothertheory.( D )CORRECT (synthesis): This analogy correctly synthesizes the elements of the last

paragraph. Recent research on neutrinos gives some of the answer, and helps thescientistsfigureouthowtofindouttherest.

( E )INTERPRETATION(unsupported): Theideaofcompletingonethingbeforehavingtheabilitytostartonanotherisnotsupportedatall.

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satisfiedthatitoccursandthatitsuggeststhatneutrinoshavemass(B)hopefulthatitwillbeusefulindiscoveringotherformsofdarkmatter(C)concernedthatitisoftenmisinterpretedtomeanthatneutrinosaccountforallofdark

matter(D)skepticalthatitoccursuntilfurtherresearchcanbedone(E)convincedthatitcannotoccuroutsideanexperimentalsetting

(A)CORRECT(inference):Thereisnosuggestionthattheauthorquestionstheexistenceof

oscillation,andtheauthorusesthispropertyasproofthatneutrinoshavemass.(B)INTERPRETATION(unsupported):Theauthordoesnotconnectoscillationwithfinding

othertypesofdarkmatter.(C)DEGREE(modifier):Atnopointdoestheauthormentiontheideathatneutrinosmight

accountforalldarkmatter.DEGREE(opinion): To say that theauthor is“concerned”aboutanythingwouldbe tooverstateanyopinionthattheauthormighthavedisplayed.

( D )INTERPRETATION (contradicted): The author is notskeptical of oscillation. Rather,he/sheseemssatisfiedthatoscillationprovesthatneutrinoshavemass.

(E)SCOPE(outofscope):Acontrastbetweenrealandexperimentalsettingsisnotmadeinthispassage.


(A)exertgravitationalforce

formgalacticstructures(C)oscillateintoanothertypeofmatter(D)becomesignificantlymoremassive(E)fusetoproducenewparticles

( A )INTERPRETATION (unsupported): This is close, but wrong. The complete sentence

states that it (darkmatter) exertsgravitational force, and therefore causes coherence.Theauthordoesnotsayexertinggravitationforceandcausingtocohereareoneandthesame.

( B )CORRECT (inference): We can infer themeaning of“cohere” as follows: when darkmatter exerts force, it causesmatter to come together to form the structures of theuniverse.

(C)SCOPE(outofscope):Oscillationrelatestoadifferentpartofthepassage.(D)INTERPRETATION(unsupported):Thereisnoevidencetosuggestthat“cohere”means

tobecomemoremassive.( E )INTERPRETATION (unsupported): This is tempting, but “cohere” doesn't necessarily

mean“fuse.”


Therearemoreneutrinosintheuniversethantherearenon-neutrinos.

205

(B) Observablemattercannotexertenoughgravitationalforcetoaccountforthepresentstructureoftheuniverse.

(C)Scientificexperimentssupportthetheoryofneutrinooscillation.(D)Neutrinoslikelycannotaccountforalloftheuniverse's“missing”mass.(E)Darkmattermayaccountforalargeportionoftheuniverse'sgravitationalforce.

(A)CORRECT:INTERPRETATION(unsupported):Thisisnotmentionedinthepassage.(B)Identification:Thisismentionedinparagraphsoneandfour.(C)Identification:Thisismentionedinthethirdparagraph.(D)Identification:Thisismentionedinthefinalparagraph.(E)Identification:Thisismentionedinthefirstparagraph.

206















207

Thisisaone-sidedargument.Thebulkofthepassagediscussesexperimentalevidenceinsupportoftherightsideofthescale.

208



Because of the nature of human memory storage and retrieval, the courtroomtestimonyofeyewitnessesmaycontain crucial inaccuraciesdue to leadingquestionsaskedpriortothecourtroomappearance.

(C) Researchers are surprised to find that courtroom testimony is often dependent onsuggestiontofillgapsleftbyinsufficientattentiontodetailatthetimethattheincidentinquestionoccurred.


(E) Stricter regulation shouldbeplacedon lawyerswhose leadingquestions cancorruptwitnesses’testimonybyintroducinginaccuratedatapriortothewitnesses’appearanceinthecourtroom.

(A)SCOPE(outofscope):Thelevelofinvolvementofthewitnessisnotafactordiscussed

inthepassage.( B )CORRECT(synthesis): Thisanswerprovidesa succinct summaryof thepassage.Note

thatitmatchesourunderstandingofthecentralargument.(C)INTERPRETATION(unsupported):Whiletheauthorusestheword“alarming”todescribe

the effects of leading questions, we haven't been told that the researchers were“surprised.”INTERPRETATION (unsupported): The author does not state that witnesses pay“insufficientattention,”butratherthatcertaindetailsmayhavebeentangential.SCOPE(narrow):The“fillingofgaps”inmemoryiscertainlymentionedinthepassage,butit'sonlymentionedasoneresearchfinding,notasthemainpointofthepassage.

( D )SCOPE (out of scope): While the prevention of the use of leading questions in thecourtroomisdiscussed,preventionelsewhereisnotwithinthescopeofthispassage.

( E )SCOPE (outof scope): Though the authormay agreewith this opinion, it is not thecentralargumentthatispresentedinthepassage.


(A)apolicyensuringthatwitnesseshaveextratimetoanswerquestionsconcerningdetailsthataretangentialtotheiroriginalexperiencesofevents


(C)increasedattentiontothenuancesofallwitnesses’responsestocourtroomquestions,eventhosethatarenotleadingquestions

(D)extensiveinterviewingofwitnessesbyalllawyersforbothsidesofacasepriortothosewitnesses’courtroomappearance

availabilityofaccuratetranscriptsofallinterrogationsofwitnessesthatoccurredpriortothosewitnesses’appearanceincourt

( A )SCOPE(outofscope):Timegiventoanswerquestionsisnotdiscussedasanelement

thataffectsaccuracyofmemory.

209

( B )INTERPRETATION (unsupported): While leading questions in the courtroom arediscussed, the main thrust of the passage deals with leading questionsbefore thecourtroom.

( C )INTERPRETATION (unsupported): While leading questions in the courtroom arediscussed, the main thrust of the passage deals with leading questionsbefore thecourtroom.

( D )INTERPRETATION (contradiction): If anything, extensive interviewing by the lawyerswouldprobablymakethetestimonymoreinaccurate,becausethelawyerswouldhavemoreofachancetointroduceleadingquestions.

( E )CORRECT (inference): Though this is not a great answer, the availability of accuratetranscriptswouldallowlawyersandjudgestoevaluatebetterwhetherleadingquestionswereasked,andwhetherthesequestionsaffectedthememoryofawitness.


Theyareintegratedwithcurrentmemoriesassupportforthosememories.(B)Theyarestoredtentativelyasconjecturaldatathatfadewithtime.(C)Theystaymorevividinmemorythandopreviouslystoredmemorydata.(D)Theyarereinterpretedsoastobecompatiblewiththedetailsalreadystoredinmemory.(E) Theyareretainedinmemoryevenwhentheyconflictwithpreviouslystoredmemory

data.

(A)CORRECT(identification):Thisprocessisdiscussedinthesecondparagraph(lines26–

32).( B )INTERPRETATION (unsupported): There is no evidence to suggest that the data is

“tentative,”“conjectural,”orthatit“fadeswithtime.”(C)DEGREE(modifier):Thenewdataisstoredlikepreviousmemories;theauthordoesnot

goasfarastosaytheybecome“more”vivid.( D )INTERPRETATION(unsupported): While thenewdatadoesbecomecompatiblewith

details already stored in memory, the author does not say that the new data is“reinterpreted.”

( E )INTERPRETATION(contradiction): Infact,thepassagesaystheopposite,thatthenewdatawillbestoredifitdoesn'tconflictwithpreviouslystoredmemory.


(A) For purposes of flavor andpreservation, salt and vinegar are important additions tocucumbers during the process of pickling, but these purposes could be attained byaddingotheringredientsinstead.

(B)Forthepurposeofaddingamildstimulanteffect,caffeineisincludedinsometypesofcarbonateddrinks,but for thepurposesofappealing tohealth-consciousconsumers,sometypesofcarbonateddrinksareadvertisedasbeingcaffeine-free.

(C) Forpurposesof flavor and tenderness, the skinsof apples and someother fruits areremovedduringpreparationfordrying,butgrapeskinsareanessentialpartofraisins,andthusgrapeskinsarenotremoved.

For purposes of flavor and appearance, wheat germ is not needed in flour and is

210

usuallyremovedduringmilling,butforpurposesofnutrition,thegermisanimportantpartofthegrain.


( A )INTERPRETATION(unsupported): There isnomention in thepassageof substituting

oneelementforanothertoattainasimilarresult.( B )INTERPRETATION (unsupported): This answer describes two different, separate

situations—drinkswithcaffeineanddrinkswithout.Thereisnoanalogoussituationinourpassage.

( C )INTERPRETATION(unsupported): This answer is about removing something in somesituationsandnotinothers.Thisdoesnotmatchthepassage.

( D )CORRECT (inference):Wheat germ is not important for one part, but important foranother.Thatparallelsthelackofimportanceoftangentialdetailstothewitness,butanimportanceofthesedetailsduringthetrial(lines52–55).

( E )INTERPRETATION(unsupported): Thisanswergivestwodifferentsituations forwhichsomethingisimportant.Inourpassage,tangentialdetailsareimportantforthetrialbutNOTforthewitness.Thisdoesn'tmatch.


(A)Inwitnessingwhattypesofcrimesarepeopleespeciallylikelytopaycloseattentiontocircumstantialdetails?

(B)Whichaspectsofcourtroominterrogationcausewitnessestobeespeciallyreluctanttotestifyinextensivedetail?

(C) Can the stress of having to testify in a courtroom situation affect the accuracy ofmemorystorageandretrieval?

(D) Do different people tend to possess different capacities for remembering detailscorrectly?

When is it more likely that a detail of an observed event will be accuratelyremembered?

(A)SCOPE(outofscope):“Typesofcrimes”arenotdiscussed.(B)SCOPE(outofscope):Courtroomtestimonyandwitnessreluctancearenotdiscussed.(C)SCOPE(outofscope):Thestressoftestifyingincourtisnotdiscussedinthepassage.(D)SCOPE(outofscope):Thedifferingcapacitiesofdifferentpeoplearenotdiscussed.( E )CORRECT (identification): The passage states that details are more accurately

rememberediftheyarenottangential,andiftheeventiscloserintimetothepresent(lines45–52).


corroboratesandaddsdetailtoaclaimmadeinthefirstparagraph(B) provides examples illustrating the applications of a theory discussed in the first

paragraph(C)formsanargumentinsupportofaproposalthatismadeinthefinalparagraph(D)anticipatesandprovidesgroundsfortherejectionofatheoryalludedtobytheauthor

inthefinalparagraph

211

(E) explains how newly obtained data favor one of two traditional theories mentionedelsewhereinthesecondparagraph

( A )CORRECT (synthesis): The second paragraph provides evidence that supports the

argumentmadeattheendofthefirstparagraph.( B )INTERPRETATION (unsupported): The second paragraph is not aboutapplying the

argumentmadeinthefirst.(C)INTERPRETATION(unsupported):Thesecondparagraphissupportingevidence,notan

argument.Furthermore,thereisnoproposalmadeinthefinalparagraph.(D)INTERPRETATION(unsupported): Thereisnotheorymentionedinthefinalparagraph

thatthisevidencehelpstoreject.( E )INTERPRETATION(unsupported): “Two traditional theories” arenotmentioned in the

secondparagraph.

26.Itcanbemostreasonablyinferredfromthepassagethattheauthorholdsthattherecentstudiesdiscussedinthepassage


(B)shednewlightonalongstandingproceduralcontroversyinthelaw(C)maybeoftheoreticalinterestdespitetheirtentativenatureandinconclusivefindings(D) provide insights into the origins of several disparate types of logically fallacious

reasoning

shouldbeofmorethanabstractacademicinteresttothelegalprofession

( A )DEGREE(opinion):Whileweknowthat theauthor is“alarmed”with the findings,we

don'tknowthattheauthorfeelsthesefindingsareunexpected.INTERPRETATION (unsupported): The passage discusses external elements (leadingquestions) thataffect one's memory, but not external elements used to verify one'smemory.

( B )INTERPRETATION (unsupported): “Controversy” is an incorrect interpretation of thediscussion. The passage discusses findings that support a claim, but there is nocontroversyintroduced.DEGREE (modifier): Even if we could call this a controversy, there is no evidence tosuggestthat“longstanding”isanaccuratewaytodescribethesituation.

(C)INTERPRETATION(contradiction):Theauthordoesnotsaythefindingsaretentativeorinconclusive.Infact,theauthorstatesthatrecentstudieshave“confirmed…”(line18).

(D)SCOPE(outofscope):Inaccuratememoryisdiscussed,butincorrectreasoningisnot.(E)CORRECT(inference):Itisclearthattheauthorfeelsthatthisisanimportantissuefor

thelegalprofession.Wegetasensefortheauthor'sdismayregardingtheadulterationofwitnessrecollectionsinlines12–17.


(A) The tendency of leadingquestions to cause unreliable courtroom testimony has nocorrelationwith theextent towhichwitnessesareemotionallyaffectedby theeventsthattheyhaveobserved.

(B) Leadingquestionsasked in theprocessofacourtroomexaminationofawitnessaremorelikelytocauseinaccuratetestimonythanareleadingquestionsaskedoutsidethe

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courtroom.(C) Thememoryprocessesbywhichnewly introduceddata tend to reinforceaccurately

remembered details of events are not relevant to explaining the effects of leadingquestions.

Theriskoftestimonybeinginaccurateduetocertainotherfactorstendstoincreaseasan eyewitness's susceptibility to giving inaccurate testimony due to the effects ofleadingquestionsincreases.

(E) Thetraditionalgroundsonwhichleadingquestionscanbeexcludedfromcourtroominterrogation of witnesses have been called into question by the findings of recentstudies.

( A )SCOPE(outofscope):Theemotionalstatesofwitnessesareoutsidethescopeofthis

passage.Theyareneverdiscussed.( B )DEGREE(modifier):Wehavenoevidencethatoneisany“morelikely”thantheother.

Thiscomparisonisnotmadeinthepassage.(C)INTERPRETATION(contradiction):Infact,thepassagestatestheexactoppositeinlines

26–34.(D)CORRECT(inference):Thoughisphrasedinacomplicatedway,itessentiallystatesthat

the risk of inaccurate testimony is greater when witnesses are more susceptible togivinginaccuratetestimony.

( E )INTERPRETATION (unsupported): The passage does start off by discussing leadingquestions in the courtroom and judges’ power to disallow these questions.Furthermore,thepassagedoesdiscussnewevidence.However,thisevidenceismeanttosupporttheclaimthatleadingquestionsoutsidethecourtroomcanaffectawitness’memory.

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Documents

Manhattan LSAT Reading Comprehension Strategy Guide