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Managing Conflict Escalation in the Workplace Dieter Zapf 13th September 2006 South Australian College of Organisational Psychologists Adelaide, Australia Slide 2 J. W. Goethe-University Frankfurt Dieter Zapf 2 Work & Organizational Psychology Overview 1) Introduction: The concept of mobbing/bullying 2) Some empirical results 3) The causes of mobbing/bullying 4) Mobbing/bullying and health: Does the definition of mobbing/bullying make a difference? 5) Conflict escalation and coping with mobbing/bullying 6) Intervention Slide 3 J. W. Goethe-University Frankfurt Dieter Zapf 3 Work & Organizational Psychology 1) Introduction: The Concept of Mobbing/Bullying Slide 4 J. W. Goethe-University Frankfurt Dieter Zapf 4 Work & Organizational Psychology A Case Assistant Nurse Ms. S. Ms. S. worked in a small hospital for several years; strong hierarchy She was an assistant nurse with less education than her colleagues But had a lot of job experience and most of the time did the same work as did her colleagues However, if everybody was on board, she had to carry out lower level tasks She also had to do more night shifts and shifts at weekends She thought that this was unfair, and one day in a meeting she addressed this issue Now she had a problem with the other nurses and the medical doctors. She was accused of disturbing the good climate in the group, and, of course challenged informal privileges of others She was exposed to minor aggressive verbal acts; people went silent when she entered the room By and by the situation got worse She was recommended to sign off by her supervisor, because nobody wanted to work with her anymore Her work was manipulated and mistakes of others were assigned to her. She got more and more isolated because others were afraid to receive a similar treatment In the beginning she strongly tried to defend herself. However, this led to even more harassment After a while she got seriously sick. She became very anxious when thinking about going to work again This anxiety generalized and led to more and more isolation Panic attacks, suicide thoughts, psychopharmacological treatment After 2 years psychotherapy and Because of a major change in management she had a chance to go back to work She had good luck and everything went well Slide 5 J. W. Goethe-University Frankfurt Dieter Zapf 5 Work & Organizational Psychology Concepts related to Negative Social Behaviour Workplace Bullying Workplace Mobbing Workplace Aggression Workplace Incivility Workplace Harassment Workplace Deviance Social Undermining Emotional Abuse Abusive Supervision Antisocial Behavior Counterproductive Behavior Relationship between Negative Social Behaviour and Health c.f. Keashly & Jagatic (2003) Slide 6 J. W. Goethe-University Frankfurt Dieter Zapf 6 Work & Organizational Psychology Negative Social Behaviour at Work Rumours Assigning senseless tasks Assigning degrading tasks Refusal to be talked to Being treated like air Making fun of a persons private life Shouting at or cursing loud at a person Slide 7 J. W. Goethe-University Frankfurt Dieter Zapf 7 Work & Organizational Psychology Negative Social Behaviour at Work Rumours Assigning senseless tasks Assigning degrading tasks Refusal to be talked to Being treated like air Making fun of a persons private life Shouting at or cursing loud at a person However: Not every negative social behaviour at work is Bullying or Mobbing ! Slide 8 J. W. Goethe-University Frankfurt Dieter Zapf 8 Work & Organizational Psychology Bullying and related Concepts Bullying (Mobbing, emotional abuse) Relationship Conflicts Workplace Aggression Social Undermining Incivility at Work Organizational Injustice, Lack of Reciprocity Escalation - Escalation -Escalation - Escalation Negative social behaviour at work Slide 9 J. W. Goethe-University Frankfurt Dieter Zapf 9 Work & Organizational Psychology Negative Social Behaviour and Bullying Everybody is affected Unsystematic Occasional or prolonging Seldom or frequent (Un-) equal power structure Targeted at a particular person Systematic Prolonging (1/2 year) Frequent (once a week) Unequal power structure Negative Social Behaviour Bullying/Mobbing Slide 10 J. W. Goethe-University Frankfurt Dieter Zapf 10 Work & Organizational Psychology Definition of Mobbing/Bullying Mobbing/Bullying occurs, if somebody becomes a target and is systematically harassed, offended, socially excluded or has to carry out humiliating tasks and the person concerned gets into an inferior position with difficulties to defend him/herself. Mobbing/bullying behaviour must occur repeatedly (e.g., at least once a week) and for a long time (e.g., at least six months). It is not mobbing/bullying if it is a single event or occasional event. It is also not mobbing/bullying if two equally strong parties are in conflict (cf. Einarsen, 2000; Einarsen et al., 2003; Hoel, Rayner & Cooper, 1999; Leymann, 1993; Zapf, 1999a). Slide 11 J. W. Goethe-University Frankfurt Dieter Zapf 11 Work & Organizational Psychology Different Perspectives of Harassment and Bullying/Mobbing at Work Bullying/Mobbing: The victim oriented perspective V B B B B B B Slide 12 J. W. Goethe-University Frankfurt Dieter Zapf 12 Work & Organizational Psychology Bullying/Mobbing: The bully oriented perspective B V V V V V V Different Perspectives of Harassment and Bullying/Mobbing at Work Slide 13 J. W. Goethe-University Frankfurt Dieter Zapf 13 Work & Organizational Psychology Bullying/Mobbing: The bullys perspective B V V V V V V Different Perspectives of Harassment and Bullying/Mobbing at Work - less intensity for the victims - supportive social network possible Slide 14 J. W. Goethe-University Frankfurt Dieter Zapf 14 Work & Organizational Psychology Different Perspectives of Harassment and Bullying/Mobbing at Work Harassment/Negative Social Behaviour: Everybody might be affected Slide 15 J. W. Goethe-University Frankfurt Dieter Zapf 15 Work & Organizational Psychology 2) Some Empirical Results Slide 16 J. W. Goethe-University Frankfurt Dieter Zapf 16 Work & Organizational Psychology Prevalence of Intimidation at Work in the European Union Member States (Paoli & Merlli, 2001) Over the past 12 months, have you been subjected to intimidation? Yes no % yes Slide 17 J. W. Goethe-University Frankfurt Dieter Zapf 17 Work & Organizational Psychology Prevalence of Intimidation at Work in the European Union Member States (Paoli & Merlli, 2001) Over the past 12 months, have you been subjected to intimidation? Yes no % yes The prevalence of harassment: - a question of culture - a question of measurement Slide 18 J. W. Goethe-University Frankfurt Dieter Zapf 18 Work & Organizational Psychology The Frequency of Bullying/Mobbing Depending on how it is Measured 1) Direct question: Have you been bullied during the last 6 months? (10 25% mobbing) 2) Leymann criterion: Administering a questionnaire; response to at least one item should be: happens at least once a week, and for at least 6 months (3 7 % mobbing) (occasionally been bullied: 7 10 %) 3) Presentation of a precise definition and instruction (1- 4% mobbing) (occasionally been bullied: 7 10 %) Slide 19 J. W. Goethe-University Frankfurt Dieter Zapf 19 Work & Organizational Psychology Frequency of Bullying/ Mobbing in Europe Slide 20 J. W. Goethe-University Frankfurt Dieter Zapf 20 Work & Organizational Psychology Average Duration of Bullying in Months Slide 21 J. W. Goethe-University Frankfurt Dieter Zapf 21 Work & Organizational Psychology Bullying/Mobbing and Organisational Position of the Perpetrators Slide 22 J. W. Goethe-University Frankfurt Dieter Zapf 22 Work & Organizational Psychology Bullying/Mobbing Strategies 1. Organisational measures Ex.: - Forcing sb. to carry out tasks affecting his/her self-consciousness - Assigning senseless tasks to the person concerned 2. Social isolation Ex.: - Refusal to talk to the person concerned 3. Attacking the victims private life Ex.: - Imitating a persons gait, voice or gestures to make him/her look stupid - Making fun of a persons private life 4. Verbal aggression Ex.: - Shouting at or cursing loud at a person - Permanently criticising a persons work 5. Rumours Ex.: - Saying nasty things about a person behind his/her back 6. Physical aggression Ex.: - Sexual approaches and sexual offers - Minor use of violence From Zapf, Knorz & Kulla, (1996) European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology Not typical for bullying/mobbing Slide 23 J. W. Goethe-University Frankfurt Dieter Zapf 23 Work & Organizational Psychology Overview 3) The Causes of Mobbing/Bullying Slide 24 J. W. Goethe-University Frankfurt Dieter Zapf 24 Work & Organizational Psychology Zapf (1999). International Journal of Manpower Slide 25 J. W. Goethe-University Frankfurt Dieter Zapf 25 Work & Organizational Psychology Causes of Bullying/Mobbing from the Victims' Perspective Slide 26 J. W. Goethe-University Frankfurt Dieter Zapf 26 Work & Organizational Psychology Causes of Bullying/Mobbing in the Perpetrator Threat of self-esteem Low social competence Micro-political mobbing Sociopathic Personality Personal motives (e.g. love affair) Personal problems (e.g. alcohol) Slide 27 J. W. Goethe-University Frankfurt Dieter Zapf 27 Work & Organizational Psychology Causes of Bullying/Mobbing in the Perpetrator - Threat of self- esteem Positive self concept: High self-esteem (Threat of) Negative evaluations from others Direct and indirect aggression Unstable self-esteem Self-esteem: synonyms & related concepts: - self-worth - Respect- Reputation - dignity- honour Stucke (2002) Baumeister et al. Reassure yourself and demonstrate to others how great you are Slide 28 J. W. Goethe-University Frankfurt Dieter Zapf 28 Work & Organizational Psychology Causes of Bullying/Mobbing in the Perpetrator - Low social competence Individuals low in social competence Produce conflicts Are bad conflict managers Are not good in perspective taking Do not recognise that single actions of several perpetrators are perceived as frequent and systematic from the victims point of view Slide 29 J. W. Goethe-University Frankfurt Dieter Zapf 29 Work & Organizational Psychology Different Perspectives of Bullying/Mobbing Isolated independent eventsEvents related and intentional Slide 30 J. W. Goethe-University Frankfurt Dieter Zapf 30 Work & Organizational Psychology From Zapf (1999). Zeitschrift fr Arbeits- & Organisationspsychologie Mobbing in Different Branches in Germany Slide 31 J. W. Goethe-University Frankfurt Dieter Zapf 31 Work & Organizational Psychology From Zapf (1999). Zeitschrift fr Arbeits- & Organisationspsychologie Mobbing in Different Branches in Germany More mobbing/bullying in organizations where jobs are secure Less mobbing/bullying in organizations with a hire and fire mentality Slide 32 J. W. Goethe-University Frankfurt Dieter Zapf 32 Work & Organizational Psychology Organisational Causes of Bullying/Mobbing Slide 33 J. W. Goethe-University Frankfurt Dieter Zapf 33 Work & Organizational Psychology After Zapf (1999). Zeitschrift fr Arbeits- und Organisationspsychologie Causes of Mobbing in the Victim and in the Social Group Slide 34 J. W. Goethe-University Frankfurt Dieter Zapf 34 Work & Organizational Psychology Causes of Mobbing in the Victim and in the Social Group - Risk Factors Social Exclusion - Deviating characteristics; outsider position - Devaluation, scapegoat phenomenon Low in Emotional Stability - Neuroticism, anxious and depressive Low Social Competence and Self-esteem - Producing conflicts; anxious and depressive behaviour - Poor conflict handling skills, conflict avoidance - Poor in perspective taking Achievement Orientation clashing with Group Norms - Employees high in achievement orientation clash with group norms - opinionated individuals, rigid behaviour - seek outsider position Slide 35 J. W. Goethe-University Frankfurt Dieter Zapf 35 Work & Organizational Psychology 4) Mobbing/Bullying and Health: Does the definition of mobbing/bullying make a difference? Slide 36 J. W. Goethe-University Frankfurt Dieter Zapf 36 Work & Organizational Psychology Does the Definition of Mobbing/Bullying Matter? High Levels of Negative Social Acts NSA escalated relationship conflicts High workplace aggression High incivility or social undermining High organizational injustice and Wider definitions of bullying/mobbing and Bullying/mobbing according to a restrictive definition: at least 6 months, at least once a week self-labelling Systematically aimed at a particular person Powerlessness No-control situation Are any high levels of NSA the same as bullying? Do victimization and powerlessness matter? Slide 37 J. W. Goethe-University Frankfurt Dieter Zapf 37 Work & Organizational Psychology Psychosomatic Complaints depending on Nega- tive Social Acts (NSA) and Bullying/Mobbing Overall mean of psychosomatic complaints 2.10 2.20 NSA > 97%: 2,68 Slide 38 J. W. Goethe-University Frankfurt Dieter Zapf 38 Work & Organizational Psychology Bullying as an Extreme Stress Situation Zapf & Einarsen (2005) Slide 39 J. W. Goethe-University Frankfurt Dieter Zapf 39 Work & Organizational Psychology 5) Conflict Escalation and Coping with Mobbing/Bullying Slide 40 J. W. Goethe-University Frankfurt Dieter Zapf 40 Work & Organizational Psychology Bullying as a Conflict Definition of Conflict: Conflict is a process that begins when one party perceives that the other has negatively affected or is about to negatively affect, something that he or she cares about Thomas (1992) Slide 41 J. W. Goethe-University Frankfurt Dieter Zapf 41 Work & Organizational Psychology Conflict Behaviour of Bullying Victims Qualitative Study From Zapf & Gross (2001). European Journal of Work & Organizational Psychology refers to individuals' attempts to raise the alarm within the organization or air grievance Doing nothing with regard to the conflict but actively demon- strating one's commit- ment points to removal or withdrawal of commitment person decides to leave the organization Slide 42 J. W. Goethe-University Frankfurt Dieter Zapf 42 Work & Organizational Psychology Conflict Behaviour of Bullying Victims Qualitative Study From Zapf & Gross (2001). European Journal of Work & Organizational Psychology refers to individuals' attempts to raise the alarm within the organization or air grievance Doing nothing with regard to the conflict but actively demon- strating one's commit- ment points to removal or withdrawal of commitment person decides to leave the organization Bullying/Mobbing can be characterised as a series of failed conflict management trials There are no simple solutions! Slide 43 J. W. Goethe-University Frankfurt Dieter Zapf 43 Work & Organizational Psychology Conflict Behaviour of Bullying Victims Results of a Diary Study (N=1618 conflicts) (Gro, 2003) In average, 72 bullying victims answered the diary Victims reported 13,5 social conflicts occurring in a period of 2 months 2 conflicts per week conflicts in 36% of all working days In average, 87 non- victims answered the diary Non-Victims reported 7,6 social conflicts occurring in a period of 2 months 1 conflict per week conflicts in 20% of all working days Slide 44 J. W. Goethe-University Frankfurt Dieter Zapf 44 Work & Organizational Psychology Bullying - Conflict - Conflict Handling I Results of a Diary Study (N=512 conflicts of victims; 262 conflicts of control group) (Gro, 2003) Slide 45 J. W. Goethe-University Frankfurt Dieter Zapf 45 Work & Organizational Psychology Bullying - Conflict - Conflict Handling II Results of a Diary Study (Gro, 2003) Social conflicts at work of the bullying victim are characterised by a lower overall manageability (d=.55), in detail by a higher probability of reoccurrence (d=.28) less chance of spontaneous improvement of the situation (d=.36) less influence/controllability(d=.44) higher inferiority of the victim(d=.54) Supports the difficulties to defend themselves element of the bullying definition Slide 46 J. W. Goethe-University Frankfurt Dieter Zapf 46 Work & Organizational Psychology Glass (1982) Model of Conflict Escalation Only one party will survive Slide 47 J. W. Goethe-University Frankfurt Dieter Zapf 47 Work & Organizational Psychology Glass Model of Conflict Escalation Restrictive definition Wider definition Economically unreasonable Economically reasonable Slide 48 J. W. Goethe-University Frankfurt Dieter Zapf 48 Work & Organizational Psychology Why the Conflicts Occurred Diary Study Slide 49 J. W. Goethe-University Frankfurt Dieter Zapf 49 Work & Organizational Psychology Extreme Bullying is Destructive for both Parties Questionnaire study of Meschkutat et al. (2002): 11,1% of the victims reported that the bullies were transferred within the company 8,2% of the victims reported that the bullies were dismissed negative consequences for at least 20% of the bullies This does not include other disadvantages such worse career perspectives, loss of reputation, loss of influence, etc. Slide 50 J. W. Goethe-University Frankfurt Dieter Zapf 50 Work & Organizational Psychology From Zapf & Gross (2001). European Journal of Work & Organizational Psychology Level of Conflict Escalation and Intervention Strategies Process Assistance Sociotherapeutic Process Assistance Slide 51 J. W. Goethe-University Frankfurt Dieter Zapf 51 Work & Organizational Psychology Level of Conflict Escalation and Coping Strategies Glasl: Conflict management has to take the level of escalation into consideration! Talking to the bullies is a useless strategy for the victim, because it is a phase 1 strategy The strategy was more often used by the unsuccessful victims in the study of Zapf and Gro (2001) (82% vs. 53%) 83% of participants in the study of Meschkutat et al. (2002) report that trials to clarify and solve conflicts by talking to the bullies were unsuccessful, whereas only 7,7% were successful. Victims use less often problem solving (integrating) in the study of Gro (2003), but used more often avoidance strategies Slide 52 J. W. Goethe-University Frankfurt Dieter Zapf 52 Work & Organizational Psychology Level of Conflict Escalation and Coping Strategies Active strategies which are normally useful, do not work anymore or are even counterproductive in phase 3 The conflict management strategy integrating was positively correlated with victimization when the individual held a lower power position (Aquino, 2000) After putting forward a group complaint, the majority (93%) of those currently bullied reported having been threatened with dismissal (Rayner, 1997). Slide 53 J. W. Goethe-University Frankfurt Dieter Zapf 53 Work & Organizational Psychology Bullying at Various Levels of Conflict Escalation Phase 2: Relationship conflicts Mediation techniques or socio-therapeutic process intervention may help to overcome bullying Phase 3: Aggression and destruction 12,6%: Defence strategies brought bullying to an end (Meschkutat et al., (2002), but 81%: Separation of bullies and victims brought bullying to an end (Meschkutat et al., (2002) Separation most reasonable solution in Zapf & Gro (2001) and Knorz & Zapf (1996) Separation of bullies and victims the only reasonable solution Slide 54 J. W. Goethe-University Frankfurt Dieter Zapf 54 Work & Organizational Psychology Coping with Bullying the Successful Victims 6 out of 50 participants maintain that their situation has improved again. Qualitative interview data available of 4 persons. These cases agree in showing the following characteristics Define a Clear Boundary, decision to get out of the bad game Personal Stabilisation e.g., by longer time out (sick leave) and psychotherapy Objective Changes of the Work Situation by Intervention of a Third Party (usually higher management) From Knorz & Zapf (1996). Zeitschrift fr Arbeits- und Organisationspsychologie Slide 55 J. W. Goethe-University Frankfurt Dieter Zapf 55 Work & Organizational Psychology After Zapf & Gross (2001). European Journal of Work & Organizational Psychology Coping with Bullying/Mobbing Slide 56 J. W. Goethe-University Frankfurt Dieter Zapf 56 Work & Organizational Psychology Coping with Bullying Empirical studies of successful bullying/mobbing victims show: they do their best at work they try to avoid errors they are sensitive with regard to which behaviour further escalates or de-escalates the conflict They need support to get separated from the bullies Slide 57 J. W. Goethe-University Frankfurt Dieter Zapf 57 Work & Organizational Psychology 6) Intervention Slide 58 J. W. Goethe-University Frankfurt Dieter Zapf 58 Work & Organizational Psychology Intervention Find out level of escalation Lower levelHigher level Help to find new organization Help victim to make decision Change organization Try a variety of conflict solution techniques: e.g., Mediation, Team development Conflict management training Slide 59 J. W. Goethe-University Frankfurt Dieter Zapf 59 Work & Organizational Psychology Intervention Find out level of escalation Lower levelHigher level Point of no return Crucial question: Can the social situation at work be repaired? A no could mean to leave the organization Slide 60 J. W. Goethe-University Frankfurt Dieter Zapf 60 Work & Organizational Psychology Intervention Find out level of escalation Lower level Try a variety of conflict solution techniques: e.g., Mediation, Team development Conflict management training Higher level Help to find new organization Help victim to make decision Change organization Be aware of the power imbalance! Slide 61 J. W. Goethe-University Frankfurt Dieter Zapf 61 Work & Organizational Psychology Intervention Find out level of escalation Lower levelHigher level Help to find new organization Help victim to make decision Change organization Try a variety of conflict solution techniques: e.g., Mediation, Team development Conflict management training Problem: External attribution of the victim One-sided view of the conflict Learn to consider his/her own part in the conflict Slide 62 J. W. Goethe-University Frankfurt Dieter Zapf 62 Work & Organizational Psychology Intervention Find out level of escalation Lower levelHigher level Help to find new organization Help victim to make decision Change organization Try a variety of conflict solution techniques: e.g., Mediation, Team development Conflict management training Outplacement strategies The victim might need time for recovery Learn to cope with the injustice experienced Stabilization period Learn to trust others again Slide 63 J. W. Goethe-University Frankfurt Dieter Zapf 63 Work & Organizational Psychology Intervention Find out level of escalation Lower levelHigher level Help to find new organization Help victim to make decision Change organization Try a variety of conflict solution techniques: e.g., Mediation, Team development Conflict management training Separate bullies and victims Consider informal networks Anti-bullying policies Supportive management Slide 64 J. W. Goethe-University Frankfurt Dieter Zapf 64 Work & Organizational Psychology Thank You for Your Attention! d.zapf@psych.uni-frankfurt.de Currently at: University of South Australia School of Psychology Occupational Health Psychology Unit