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Philosophy of Scientific Research
Overview of Business Research Types
The Structural of Research and Research Process
Overview of various research methods and their
strengths and weaknesses
Ethics in business research
Research
Research can be defined as the scientific search
for knowledge, or as any systematic investigation, to
establish novel facts, solve new or existing problems,
prove new ideas, or develop new theories, usually
using a scientific method.
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research)
2013/4/28
Scientific Research “Scientific research is systematic, controlled, empirical,
and critical investigation of natural phenomena guided by
theory and hypotheses about the presumed relations among
such phenomena.” (Kerlinger, 1986, pp.10)
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Theories
Theories are nets cast to catch
what we call ―the world‖: to
rationalize, to explain, and to
master it. We endeavor to
make the mesh ever finer and
finer.
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---Karl R. Popper
Theory
“A theory is a set of interrelated constructs (concepts),
definitions, and propositions that present a systematic
view of phenomena by specific relations among
variables, with the purpose of explaining and
predicting the phenomena.”
Kerlinger, F.N. (1986). Foundations of behavioral research, 3rd edition, pp.9. New
York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
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Components of a theory (Bacharach S.B. 1989)
BOUNDARY= ASSUMPTIONS ABOUT VALUES, TIME, AND SPACE
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Constructs Propositions Constructs
Variables Hypotheses Variables
GEN
ER
ALIZ
AB
ILITY
Types of theory in IS
Types of theory in IS (Gregor Shirley, 2006, MISQ)
Analyzing: Says what is.
Explaining: Says what is, how, why, when, and where.
Predicting: Says what is and what will be.
Explaining and Predicting: Says what is, how, why, when,
where, and what will be.
Design and Action: Says how to do something.
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Standards of Theories
① Logical and clear
② Internal consistent
③ Testable Hypotheses can be deduced
④ Can be Disconfirmed or Falsified
⑤ Generalizability
⑥ Parsimonious
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The Essence of the Scientific Method
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Characteristics of the Scientific Method
Objectivity
Systematic Analysis
Logical Interpretation of Results
Elements of the
Scientific Method
Empirical Approach
Observations
Questions
Hypotheses
Experiments
Analysis
Conclusion
Replication
Basic
Research
Applied
Research
Scie
ntific
Me
tho
d
Information or
Ideas for alternative
Courses of action
General Laws
What is Business Research
Business research is defined as the ―systematic
and objective process of generating knowledge for
aid in making business decisions. ‖ (Zikmund, Business
Research Methods, 2002, p. 6)
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Business Research Type
Classification of main types of research
Type of research Basis of classification
Applied or Basic research Outcome of the research
Quantitative or Qualitative research Process of the research
Primary or Secondary research Data source of the research
Descriptive, Exploratory, Analytical or
Predictive research Purpose of the research
Business Research Type --outcome
Basic Research Attempts to expand the limits of
knowledge.
Not directly involved in the solution to pragmatic problem.
Business Research Type --outcome
Applied Research
Conducted when a decision must be made about specific
real-life problem
Business Research Type --process
Quantitative research
Use of statistical, formulaic or numerical analysis
Main approach: analysis; causal determination, prediction,
generalization of findings
Qualitative research
Not quantitative; use of non-numeric techniques
Main approach: discovery; illumination, understanding,
extrapolation to similar circumstances
Business Research Type –data source
Primary Research (field research)
Data does not already exist, research collect original data.
Secondary Research (desk research)
Information has already been put together by someone else
Business Research Type – purpose
Descriptive research
Characterizing a phenomenon / variable
E.g. demographics of online shoppers
Exploratory (relational) research
Relationship between variables
E.g. gender <-> online shopping motivation
Analytical (Explanatory) research
Relationship and cause
E.g. smoking —> harmful for health
Predictive (Casual) research
Cause and effect (treatment and outcome)
E.g. incentive—>(+) higher productivity
The Structure of Research
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Begin with broad questions
narrow down, focus in.
Operationalize.
OBSERVE
Analyze data.
Reach conclusions.
Generalize back to questions.
The "hourglass" notion of research
The Structure of Research
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What factors affect their opinions?
Descriptive:
Relational:
Causal:
What is the opinion of a group of people?
How is their opinion related to other characteristics?
What kinds of questions does science address?
The Structure of Research
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Major Components in the Process
The problem
The problem as conceptualized
The problem as experienced
The Structure of Research
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Major Components in the Process
The problem
The research question
The theory or idea
The hypothesis -- stated in operational terms
The Structure of Research
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Major Components in the Process
The problem
The research question
The program (cause)
The program construct -- stated theoretically
The operationalized program
The Structure of Research
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Major Components in the Process
The problem
The research question
The program (cause)
The units
The population
The sample
The Structure of Research
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Major Components in the Process
The problem
The research question
The program (cause)
The units
The outcomes (effects)
The outcome construct(s)
The operationalized measures
The Structure of Research
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Major Components in the Process
The problem
The research question
The program (cause)
The units
The outcomes (effects)
The design
Who gets the program
Abstract Levels
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Theories
Propositions
Concepts
Observation of objects
and events (reality )
Inc
rea
sin
gly
mo
re a
bs
tra
ct
Some Examples of Research Questions (1) Is Emotional Intelligence really useful in predicting work outcomes?
(2) Is the concept of guanxi different from western concept about interpersonal relationship? If so, what are its antecedents and consequences?
(3) Would a firm using a strategic human resource management approach be more competitive?
(4) What are the factors affecting the localization of expatriate position in the PRC?
(5) Can supervisors distinguish task performance from contextual performance in the PRC?
(6) Will Joint Venture employees react differently to job insecurity when compared to State-Owned Enterprise employees? If so, why?
(7) Will the antecedents and consequences of trust towards one’s supervisor differ from one’s trust towards to organization?
Research Reasoning -- Deduction
Deduction is a form of inference that purports to be
conclusive (i.e., the conclusion must necessarily
follow from the reasons given).
Example:
P1: All regular employees can be trusted not to steal.
P2: John is a regular employee.
==> John can be trusted not to steal
Research Reasoning -- Induction
To induce is to draw a conclusion from one or more
particular facts or pieces of evidence.
Example:
F1: You push the light switch and find no light.
F2: The light should go on when you push the switch.
F3: If the bulb is burned out, the light will not function.
==> The bulb is burned out.
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Methodology Taxonomy
(circa 1984) Theorem Proof
Engineering
Empirical
Case study
Survey
Field test
Experiment
Subjective / Argumentative
From Vogel and Wetherbe, 1984
38
Methodology Taxonomy
(circa 1987) Theorem Proof
Laboratory Experiment
Field Experiment
Case Study
Survey
Forecasting
Simulation
Game / role playing
Subjective /
Argumentative
Descriptive / Interpretive
Action research
From Galliers and Land, 1987
Choosing a Research Method
Always trying to maximize three things: The generalizability of the evidence over populations of actor
(A)
The precision of measurement of the behaviors and the precision of control over extraneous factors (B)
The realism of the situation or context (C)
While you always want to maximize A, B, and C simultaneously, you cannot!
This is one fundamental dilemma of research methods
Experimental Simulations
Field Experiments
Field Studies
Computer Simulations
Formal Theory
Surveys
Judgment tasks
Laboratory Experiments
Obtrusive research operations
Unobtrusive research operations
Universal behavioral systems
Particular behavioral
systems
McGrath’s Circumplex
A
B C
Laboratory Experiments
The researcher creates a setting for the study of some phenomenon
The experimenter has control over the assignment of experimental subjects to treatment and control conditions
The experimenter has control over virtually all independent variables that may have an impact on the dependent variable
The experimenter manipulates one or more independent variables of interest and measure the change in the dependent variable.
Experimental Simulations The simulation settings are created so as to replicate, to varying
degree, the attributes of naturally occurring systems
Participants are exposed to number of ―real-world-like‖ events
Participants are free to behave within the constraints of the established rules of the simulation
Participation in the simulation is generally for protracted time periods
Depending upon the type of simulation the research exerts varying degrees of control over (1) the assignment of the subjects, and (2) the stimuli to which the participants are exposed
The dependent variables of the simulation are the behaviors exhibited by the participants
Field Studies
The research is ex post facto in nature, no
independent variables are manipulated by the
researchers
Intact, naturally occurring systems are the
object of study
Variables are systematically measured
The focus of the such research may be
exploratory, descriptive, or hypothesis testing
Surveys
Data are collected from members of a sample that represents a known population
A systematic technique is used to collect data
The researcher manipulates no independent variables
Data are sought directly from the respondents
Subjects provide data in natural settings
Responses of subjects are assumed to be largely unaffected by the context in which they are elicited
Influences of confounding variables are ―controlled‖ statistically
The purpose of the research may range from exploration of phenomena to hypothesis testing
Case Study
The researcher intensely examines a single unit
(e.g., person, group, or organization)
Data are often collected by multiple means
No attempt is made to exercise experimental or
statistical controls
Phenomena are studied in natural settings
It is more suited to the generation of hypotheses
than their testing
46
Research Methods (Quantitative ---------- Qualitative)
Instrument-based questions
Performance, attitude,
observational, and census
data
Statistical analysis
Open-ended questions
Interview, observation,
document, and
audiovisual data
Text and image analysis
Research Strategy Choice
Even when you are purely quantitative, there are
likely qualitative issues you want to raise
Even when you are purely qualitative, there are
likely quantitative aspects you want to convey
In complex situations, no single methodological
approach will suffice
You will likely pursue some degree of multi-
methodological research
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Multi-method (Mixed) Strategies
Sequential (Qualitative first)
Begin with a qualitative method for exploratory
purposes
Followup with a quantitative method with a large
sample
Sequential (Quantitative first)
Begin with a quantitative method to test theory
Followup with a qualitative method involving detailed
exploration / explanation
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Multi-method (Mixed) Strategies
Concurrent
Collect both forms of data at the same time (e.g., open-
ended questions on a survey)
Nest one form of data within another to analyze
different questions / levels of units
Transformative
Use theoretical lens as an overarching perspective /
framework to lead design
Data collection could be either sequential or concurrent
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Role of Theory
Multi-methodologically robust i.e., useful
Identification of concepts, constructs and associated
variables / measures
Clarification of unit of analysis / subjects
Helps identify appropriate literature
Provides a starting point for research design with
confidence
Enables comparison of results and construction of a body
of knowledge
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Theory Considerations
Nothing is so useful as a good theory
Nothing is so harmful as an inappropriate theory
Make sure the theory fits the situation
Understand the fundamental assumptions
associated with the theory
Be sensitive to the history of use of the theory
Be especially wary of combining theories
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Historical Context
Ethical system designed to prevent people from
being used as scientific guinea pigs
Contemporary emphasis on the ‗rights‘ of people
to take risks to save themselves
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Institutional Review Boards
Mechanism for reviewing proposed research
Mechanism for protecting the institution and
researcher
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Plagiarism
Using others‘ research results or writing and claiming them to be your own
Using others‘ words or data without properly acknowledging the sources
Submitting assignments that you have obtained from others, copied from others, or had written for you by someone else
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Assignment
As a team, identify research streams within your
discipline, methodological approaches and seminal
publications with special attention to knowledge
and innovation management. Consider
opportunities for cross-disciplinary collaboration.
Prepare a 15 minute presentation.
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As an individual, reflect on how your research and
career aspirations fit within your discipline and
relate to other disciplines. Prepare a 3 page paper.
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Assessment
40% presentation (group activity) and 60% write-up
(individual activity)
Due Dates: Presentations – Week 2 & 3
Individual paper – Week 5
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The grading criteria
Excellent (A) -- Strong evidence of original thinking, good
organization, capacity to analyze and synthesize; superior grasp of
subject matter; evidence of extensive knowledge base.
Good (B) -- Evidence of grasp of subject, some evidence of critical
capacity and analytic ability; reasonable understanding of issues;
evidence of familiarity with literature.
Adequate (C) -- Student who is profiting from the university
experience; understanding of the subject; ability to develop solutions
to simple problems in the material.
Marginal (D) -- Sufficient familiarity with the subject matter to
enable the student to progress without repeating the course.
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